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Brainwave biomarkers of brain activity, physiology and biomechanics in cycling performance
Abstract and Figures
Generally, in sports performance, the relationship between movement science and physiological function has been conducted integrating neuronal mechanism over the past decades. However, understanding those interaction between neural network and motor performance comprehensively in achieving optimal performance is still lacking, mainly in cycling. The purpose of this study was to discuss the issues in neuroscience related to brain activity, physiology and biomechanics in achieving optimal performance in cycling. As sports technology improves, more objective measurement can be demonstrated in solving specific issue in cycling, with optimization of performance as the main focus. In this review, the focus on brain activity will be based on the evaluation of the alpha and beta brainwaves as well as the alpha/beta ratio since they are biomarkers of EEG specifically related to cycling performance. Further in-depth understanding of the mechanism and interaction between brain activity, physiology and biomechanics in competitive cycling were acquired and discussed. Moreover, the biomarkers of brain activity related to cycling performance from previous studies were clearly identified and discussed and recommendations to be incorporated in future research were proposed.
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... To the best of our knowledge, scientific pieces of evidence suggest that cerebral organization and the corticospinal pathway could play an important role in such performance optimization [12,126,127]. Indeed, afferent signals sent by organs during cycling vary significantly according to the intensity of pedaling. ...
... Researchers monitor cerebral activity during cycling using electroencephalography (EEG). Such analyses are performed by recording cortical electrical activity with electrodes placed on the scalp, to determine the neural state during cycling exercise [17,24,92,127]. The signal of the electrical field recorded is then analyzed in terms of amplitude and frequency. Alpha ( ) brainwave frequencies, characterized by frequencies between 8 and 12 Hz [17], traduce attentional focus on action and fatigue sensation. ...
Performance in cycling is frequently related to metabolic or biomechanical factors. Overall, the contribution of the neurophysiological
system during cycling is often poorly considered in performance optimization. Yet, cycling is a complex
whole-body physical exercise that necessitates specific coordination and fine control of motor output to manage the different
intensities. The ability to produce different levels of intensity of exercise would require optimizing many functions
of the central nervous system from the brain’s treatment of sensory signals to complex motor command execution via the
corticospinal pathway. This review proposes an integrative approach to the factors that could influence cycling performance,
based on neurophysiological and cognitive markers. First, we report data relying on brain activity signals, to account for
the different brain areas and cognitive functions involved. Then, because the motor command is highly dependent upon its
regulation along the corticospinal pathway, we expose the modulation of corticospinal and spinal excitabilities during cycling.
We present these later by reviewing the literature of studies using transcranial magnetic or percutaneous nerve stimulations.
Finally, we describe a model of neural and cognitive adjustments that occur with acute and chronic cycling practices, with
several areas of improvement focusing on these factors, including mental and cognitive training.
... Hence, we aim to investigate the synchronous beta effects of listening to the acoustic stimulation from the Quranic Fatihah Chapter on human cognition and its neuroscientific explanation. EEG was used as a biomarker in various activities (Zainuddin et al., 2017), and this study was performed by conducting neuroimaging techniques using electroencephalogram (EEG) combined with multivariate analysis to see the potential of EEG as a biomarker for Quranic sound perception and its synchronous effects towards cognitive processes in the brain. ...
Sound has rhythms that can interact with human brain rhythms. The interaction may improve human cognition through neuronal synchronization. However, research on the synchronization effects of listening to the Holy Quran remains elusive. This study aimed to learn the potential synchronous effects of Quranic listening in beta frequency through electroencephalographic oscillatory dataset. Subjects were listening to Fatihah Chapter, Arabic News and Rest in random sequence. Data were pre-processed followed by neuroimaging analysis using BESA Research 6.1. Repeated Measures ANOVA and Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) algorithm were applied to elucidate the significantly different EEG electrode channels compared to Rest and their clusters. Results showed that Beta rhythms synchronization with the Fatihah Chapter is associated with verbal fluency, academic performance, social interaction, inhibitory function, movement planning, self-motivation, self-management and reactivation of sensory features of memory trace as highly activated cluster, followed by working memory, language processing and decision making as medially activated cluster; and tune recognition and visual mental imagery as low activated neural circuits cluster during listening to the Fatihah Chapter.
... The significant increase of the α/β ratio with IZ ( Fig. 4) could be due to the growing demand for sensorimotor, cognitive, and motor activity in the cycling task (Maceri et al., 2019). Indeed, the β and the α cortical activities are both associated with psychological activities during aerobic exercise (Cheron et al., 2016;di Fronso et al., 2018;Enders et al., 2016;Ludyga et al., 2016;Zainuddin et al., 2017). Our results are in line with Enders et al., (2016), who reported an increase in both α and β bandwidth during a time trial to exhaustion (TTE) at 85% MAP . ...
Mountain bikers often report impaired finger sensitivity caused by mechanical vibrations and misalignment between the wrist and the forearm when using traditional (cylindrical) handles. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute effects of ergonomic clip-on handles that allowed the hand to rest on the medial carpal bone, on muscular activity, vibration transmissibility between the cycle ergometer and body segments, and handgrip strength. Sixteen cyclists performed two pedalling exercises at ~200 W lasting 20 minutes on a cycle ergometer that delivered vibrations under the fork (vertical amplitude: 4-25 mm; frequency: 4-17 Hz) whilst using cylindrical handles and ergonomic clip-on handles with a randomized order. Compared to cylindrical handles, ergonomic clip-on handles decreased significantly vibration transmissibility to the extensor digitorum, triceps brachii and flexor carpi radialis muscles by 10, 10 and 7%, respectively. The surface electromyography activity of the flexor carpi radialis decreased by 45%, while that of the triceps brachii increased by 12% (both significantly). Unlike the cylindrical handles, the ergonomic clip-on handles did not involve a significant decrease in the maximal handgrip force after the pedalling exercise. The ergonomic clip-o handles may prevent symptoms of hand-arm vibration syndrome in mountain bikers and could preserve their ability to effectively manoeuvre and brake the bike.
... The significant increase of the α/β ratio with IZ ( Fig. 4) could be due to the growing demand for sensorimotor, cognitive, and motor activity in the cycling task (Maceri et al., 2019). Indeed, the β and the α cortical activities are both associated with psychological activities during aerobic exercise (Cheron et al., 2016;di Fronso et al., 2018;Enders et al., 2016;Ludyga et al., 2016;Zainuddin et al., 2017). Our results are in line with Enders et al., (2016), who reported an increase in both α and β bandwidth during a time trial to exhaustion (TTE) at 85% MAP . ...
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between neural efficiency and the ability of an athlete to produce accurate efforts in different perceived intensity zones during a racing scenario. The α/β ratio was used to quantify the neural efficiency during cycling, as it traduced the degree of participants information processing activity with lower cortical activity possible. Twelve trained competitive male cyclists delimited their perceived intensity zones 2 to 6 on a scale to assess the rating of exercise intensity. Then, they performed a 30 min racing scenario during which they had to produce different perceived intensities. The ability of athletes to produce perceived effort with accuracy and their neural efficiency was quantified during the racing scenario. The increase in the neural efficiency with the increase in the effort intensity could partly explain the improvement in athletes’ ability to produce accurately perceived efforts from intensity zones 3 to 6. Moreover, the neural efficiency during the racing scenario was significantly correlated to the ability to produce perceived effort with accuracy at submaximal intensities.
The article reveals in detail more than 50 years of scientific and practical experience of Russian sports psychologists in the training of elite athletes-members of national sports teams. The works of well-known scientists who were employees of the Saint-Petersburg Scientific-Research Institute for Physical Culture describe the sequence of development of the psychophysiological approach. A description of the psychophysiological methods developed at the Institute, their capabilities and results of practical use in the scientific and methodological support of sports training of elite athletes is given. Authors provide a scientific justification for the fact that the use of a psychophysiological approach, bases on I. Pavlov's ideas, to determine current psychophysiological conditions and innate individual characteristics, including talents and giftedness, is an indispensable tool for a sports psychologist in the practice of training and developing the potential of athletes to achieve excellence in sport performance.
In any athletic event, the ability to appropriately distribute energy is essential to prevent premature fatigue prior to the completion of the event. In sport science literature this is termed “pacing.” Within the past decade, research aiming to better understand the underlying mechanisms influencing the selection of an athlete's pacing during exercise has dramatically increased. It is suggested that pacing is a combination of anticipation, knowledge of the end-point, prior experience and sensory feedback. In order to better understand the role each of these factors have in the regulation of pace, studies have often manipulated various conditions known to influence performance such as the feedback provided to participants, the starting strategy or environmental conditions. As with all research there are several factors that should be considered in the interpretation of results from these studies. Thus, this review aims at discussing the pacing literature examining the manipulation of: (i) energy expenditure and pacing strategies, (ii) kinematics or biomechanics, (iii) exercise environment, and (iv) fatigue development.
In search of their optimal performance athletes will alter their pacing strategy according to intrinsic and extrinsic physiological, psychological and environmental factors. However, the effect of some of these variables on pacing and exercise performance remains somewhat unclear. Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to provide an overview as to how manipulation of different extrinsic factors affects pacing strategy and exercise performance. Only self-paced exercise studies that provided control and intervention group(s), reported trial variance for power output, disclosed the type of feedback received or withheld, and where time-trial power output data could be segmented into start, middle and end sections; were included in the meta-analysis. Studies with similar themes were grouped together to determine the mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) between control and intervention trials for: hypoxia, hyperoxia, heat-stress, pre-cooling, and various forms of feedback. A total of 26 studies with cycling as the exercise modality were included in the meta-analysis. Of these, four studies manipulated oxygen availability, eleven manipulated heat-stress, four implemented pre-cooling interventions and seven studies manipulated various forms of feedback. Mean power output (MPO) was significantly reduced in the middle and end sections (p < 0.05), but not the start section of hypoxia and heat-stress trials compared to the control trials. In contrast, there was no significant change in trial or section MPO for hyperoxic or pre-cooling conditions compared to the control condition (p > 0.05). Negative feedback improved overall trial MPO and MPO in the middle section of trials (p < 0.05), while informed feedback improved overall trial MPO (p < 0.05). However, positive, neutral and no feedback had no significant effect on overall trial or section MPO (p > 0.05). The available data suggests exercise regulation in hypoxia and heat-stress is delayed in the start section of trials, before significant reductions in MPO occur in the middle and end of the trial. Additionally, negative feedback involving performance deception may afford an upward shift in MPO in the middle section of the trial improving overall performance. Finally, performance improvements can be retained when participants are informed of the deception.
Stress assessment has been under study in the last years. Both biochemical and physiological markers have been used to measure stress level. In neuroscience, several studies have related modification of stress level to brain activity changes in limbic system and frontal regions, by using non-invasive techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG). In particular, previous studies suggested that the exhibition or inhibition of certain brain rhythms in frontal cortical areas indicates stress. However, there is no established marker to measure stress level by EEG. In this work, we aimed to prove the usefulness of the prefrontal relative gamma power (RG) for stress assessment. We conducted a study based on stress and relaxation periods. Six healthy subjects performed the Montreal Imaging Stress Task (MIST) followed by a stay within a relaxation room while EEG and electrocardiographic signals were recorded. Our results showed that the prefrontal RG correlated with the expected stress level and with the heart rate (HR; 0.8). In addition, the difference in prefrontal RG between time periods of different stress level was statistically significant (p < 0.01). Moreover, the RG was more discriminative between stress levels than alpha asymmetry, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma power in prefrontal cortex. We propose the prefrontal RG as a marker for stress assessment. Compared with other established markers such as the HR or the cortisol, it has higher temporal resolution. Additionally, it needs few electrodes located at non-hairy head positions, thus facilitating the use of non-invasive dry wearable real-time devices for ubiquitous assessment of stress.
The study investigated whether typical psychological, physiological, and neurophysiological changes from a single exercise are affected by one’s beliefs and expectations. Seventy-six participants were randomly assigned to four groups and saw different multimedia presentations suggesting that the subsequent exercise (moderate 30 min cycling) would result in more or less health benefits (induced expectations). Additionally, we assessed habitual expectations reflecting previous experience and beliefs regarding exercise benefits. Participants with more positive habitual expectations consistently demonstrated both greater psychological benefits (more enjoyment, mood increase, and anxiety reduction) and greater increase of alpha-2 power, assessed with electroencephalography. Manipulating participants’ expectations also resulted in largely greater increases of alpha-2 power, but not in more psychological exercise benefits. On the physiological level, participants decreased their blood pressure after exercising, but this was independent of their expectations. These results indicate that habitual expectations in particular affect exercise-induced psychological and neurophysiological changes in a self-fulfilling manner.
Results:
The light deprivation resulted in elongated perceived distance at each actual 2km, rather than in illuminated-control trial (P<0.05). Although there was no difference in RPE when it was plotted as a function of the perceived distance, RPE was lowered in light-deprived environment when it was plotted as a function of the actual distance (P<0.05). Additionally, ATE was lowered during TT20km in light deprivation (P<0.01); however, pacing and performance were unaffected in light-deprived environment.
Conclusion:
Results suggest that pacing and performance were regulated through a system which was unaffected in light-deprived environment, despite the altered conscious distance monitoring and perceptive responses.
Exercise at different cadences might serve as potential stimulus for functional adaptations of the brain,
because cortical activation is sensitive to frequency of movement. Therefore, we investigated the effects
of high (HCT) and low cadence training (LCT) on brain cortical activity during exercise as well as
endurance performance.
Cyclists were randomly assigned to low and high cadence training. Over the 4-week training period,
participants performed 4 h of basic endurance training as well as four additional cadence-specific
exercise sessions, 60 min weekly. At baseline and after 4 weeks, participants completed an incremental
exercise test with spirometry and exercise at constant load with registration of electroencephalogram
(EEG).
Compared with LCT, a greater increase of frontal alpha/beta ratio was confirmed in HCT. This was
based on a lower level of beta activity during exercise. Both groups showed similar improvements in
maximal oxygen consumption and power at the individual anaerobic threshold.
Whereas HCT and LCT elicit similar benefits on aerobic performance, cycling at high pedalling
frequencies enables participants to perform an exercise bout with less cortical activation.
Brain dynamics is at the basis of top performance accomplishment in sports. The search for neural biomarkers of performance remains a challenge in movement science and sport psychology. The non-invasive nature of high-density electroencephalography (EEG) recording has made it a most promising avenue for providing quantitative feedback to practitioners and coaches. Here, we review the current relevance of the main types of EEG oscillations in order to trace a perspective for future practical applications of EEG and event-related potentials (ERP) in sport. In this context, the hypotheses of unified brain rhythms and continuity between wake and sleep states should provide a functional template for EEG biomarkers in sport. The oscillations in the thalamo-cortical and hippocampal circuitry including the physiology of the place cells and the grid cells provide a frame of reference for the analysis of delta, theta, beta, alpha (incl.mu), and gamma oscillations recorded in the space field of human performance. Based on recent neuronal models facilitating the distinction between the different dynamic regimes (selective gating and binding) in these different oscillations we suggest an integrated approach articulating together the classical biomechanical factors (3D movements and EMG) and the high-density EEG and ERP signals to allow finer mathematical analysis to optimize sport performance, such as microstates, coherency/directionality analysis and neural generators.
It has previously been shown that cyclists are unable to maintain a constant power output during cycle time-trials on hilly courses. The purpose of the present study is therefore to quantify these effects of power variation using a mathematical model of cycling performance. A hypothetical cyclist (body mass: 70 kg, bicycle mass: 10 kg) was studied using a mathematical model of cycling, which included the effects of acceleration. Performance was modelled over three hypothetical 40-km courses, comprising repeated 2.5-km sections of uphill and downhill with gradients of 1%, 3%, and 6%, respectively. Amplitude (5-15%) and distance (0.31-20.00 km) of variation were modelled over a range of mean power outputs (200-600 W) and compared to sustaining a constant power. Power variation was typically detrimental to performance; these effects were augmented as the amplitude of variation and severity of gradient increased. Varying power every 1.25 km was most detrimental to performance; at a mean power of 200 W, performance was impaired by 43.90 s (±15% variation, 6% gradient). However at the steepest gradients, the effect of power variation was relatively independent of the distance of variation. In contrast, varying power in parallel with changes in gradient improved performance by 188.89 s (±15% variation, 6% gradient) at 200 W. The present data demonstrate that during hilly time-trials, power variation that does not occur in parallel with changes in gradient is detrimental to performance, especially at steeper gradients. These adverse effects are substantially larger than those previously observed during flat, windless time-trials.
Motivational audiovisual stimuli such as music and video have been widely used in the realm of exercise and sport as a means by which to increase situational motivation and enhance performance. The present study addressed the mechanisms that underlie the effects of motivational stimuli on psychophysiological responses and exercise performance. Twenty-two participants completed fatiguing isometric handgrip-squeezing tasks under two experimental conditions (motivational audiovisual condition and neutral audiovisual condition) and a control condition. Electrical activity in the brain and working muscles was analyzed by use of electroencephalography and electromyography, respectively. Participants were asked to squeeze the dynamometer maximally for 30 s. A single-item motivation scale was administered after each squeeze. Results indicated that task performance and situational motivational were superior under the influence of motivational stimuli when compared to the other two conditions (~ 20% and ~ 25%, respectively). The motivational stimulus downregulated the predominance of low-frequency waves (theta) in the right frontal regions of the cortex (F8), and upregulated high-frequency waves (beta) in the central areas (C3 and C4). It is suggested that motivational sensory cues serve to readjust electrical activity in the brain; a mechanism by which the detrimental effects of fatigue on the efferent control of working muscles is ameliorated.