No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Recreational visits to marine and coastal environments in England: Where, what, who, why, and when?
Abstract
Health and economic benefits may accrue from marine and coastal recreation. In England, few national-level descriptive analyses exist which examine predictors of recreation in these environments. Data from seven waves (2009–2016) of a representative survey of the English population (n = 326,756) were analysed to investigate how many recreational visits were made annually to coastal environments in England, which activities were undertaken on these visits, and which demographic, motivational, temporal, and regional factors predict them. Inland environments are presented for comparison. Approximately 271 million recreational visits were made to coastal environments in England annually, the majority involving land-based activities such as walking. Separately, there were around 59 million instances of water-based recreation undertaken on recreational visits (e.g. swimming, water sports). Visits to the coast involving walking were undertaken by a wide spectrum of the population: compared to woodland walks, for instance, coastal walks were more likely to be made by females, older adults, and individuals from lower socioeconomic classifications, suggesting the coast may support reducing activity inequalities. Motivational and temporal variables showed distinct patterns between visits to coastal and inland comparator environments. Regional variations existed too with more visits to coastal environments made by people living in the south-west and north-east compared to London, where more visits were made to urban open spaces. The results provide a reference for current patterns of coastal recreation in England, and could be considered when making policy-level decisions with regard to coastal accessibility and marine plans. Implications for future public health and marine plans are discussed.
... As a result, the data evidence that any public health warnings would need to target multiple genders. 13 It is hard to definitively validate how representative the ALS2122 respondents were of all British persons who partook of these OWBRA in 2021-2022, not least because every comparator UK sample also has likely bias. Arguably, compared to other UK surveys of similar or same target groups, the ALS2122 balanced sampling strategy is likely to be less biased while the ALS questionnaire collected more complete information about specific OWBRA participation rates. ...
... Analysis of several large UK surveys have reported broadly about demographic profiles of OWBRA participants while not disaggregating by type of activity. Socio-economic status, age and sex were directly linked to participation rates in coastal and inland waterway proximity recreation in an analysis of 326,755 responses to the Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment survey (Natural England 2015) from 2009-2016 (Elliott et al. 2018). Elliott et al. (2018) found that females, persons in the middle socio-economic groups and persons age 35-64 were more likely to go to beaches; males, age 65+ and higher socio-economic groups were more likely to visit coastal non-beach environments and inland water locations were more likely to be visited by males, persons age 35-64 and higher socio-economic groups. ...
... Socio-economic status, age and sex were directly linked to participation rates in coastal and inland waterway proximity recreation in an analysis of 326,755 responses to the Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment survey (Natural England 2015) from 2009-2016 (Elliott et al. 2018). Elliott et al. (2018) found that females, persons in the middle socio-economic groups and persons age 35-64 were more likely to go to beaches; males, age 65+ and higher socio-economic groups were more likely to visit coastal non-beach environments and inland water locations were more likely to be visited by males, persons age 35-64 and higher socio-economic groups. Elliott et al. (2018) also observed seasonal differences in visit 14 frequency (higher visit rates in summer) and some differences in visit rates depending on residence region. ...
Visits to coastal and inland-waterways have strong associations with many health and economic benefits but are also opportunities for exposure to environmental pollution. In England, few balanced survey samples exist which can facilitate accurate identification of correlates with recreation in blue spaces. This information could support risk assessment for likelihood of exposure and message targeting in case of environmental threats. We process data from a recent (2022-2023) and large (n = 177,551) survey of English residents to describe demographic, seasonal and regional correlates with any participation in water-based recreational activities in previous year (logistic regression model), and in the previous 28 days (zero-inflated negative binomial regression). Activities studied were: surfing and paddleboarding; open water swimming; scuba-diving and snorkelling; canoeing and kayaking; angling. Summer was associated with most frequent participation, winter with fewest sessions except for rowing. Anglers were group most likely to be socially vulnerable: less likely to be university educated, more likely to be disabled and especially likely to be male. People resident in rural locations were more likely to participate at least once in prior year, but did not have higher participation rates in the previous 28 days. Regional variations in specific activities may suggest where demand for water recreation is unmet. The results provide a reference description of outdoor water-recreationalists doing specific types of activity in England and may be useful when designing emergency messages and otherwise setting policy with regard to management of microbiological, radiological or chemical hazards in coastal and inland waters.
... Refs. [13][14][15]), they do little to explain the causal pathways via which marine habitat features may work to establish those relationships. Of the large body of research on blue spaces and human health, the vast majority focus on the size of the blue spaces near populated areas, the time people spend in such areas ( [16,17]), or the sporting activities they take part in ( [15,18]), with little or no attention to the ecological characteristics of these areas. ...
... Interviews with water sports instructors working in the Cap de Creus Natural Park (northwestern Mediterranean) provide evidence that sea swimming, kayaking, sailing, surfing, windsurfing and stand-up paddle boarding (SUP), carried out in the pelagic habitat, and scuba diving and freediving, carried out in rocky and coralligenous habitats, are highly beneficial for people with mental health problems ( [15,18]). Doing water sports regularly, as well as visiting the coast, can improve the quality of life not only of healthy people, but also patients with various medical conditions that affect their physical and/or mental/emotional/psychological well-being ( [13,15,15,[57][58][59]). Such sports offer benefits that go much further than simply enhancing people's fitness. ...
... Such sports offer benefits that go much further than simply enhancing people's fitness. These activities are associated with more self-control, concentration and self-reflection and reduced perceived stress, among other outcomes, evidence for which is found in studies carried out in different seas and oceans ( [13,57]; [58 [15,15,59]). Therefore, sea-based water sports in well-preserved marine environments could be considered as tools for promoting health and well-being, providing they are accompanied by measures to limit their environmental impact on fragile sites [15]. ...
Human health and well-being, and how they are affected by terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems have been the subject of numerous studies. In contrast, there are very few such studies relating to marine ecosystems. Here, in the context of the Mediterranean Sea, we assess evidence of the broad interplay of relationships between marine habitats and human health. Our review shows that the major Mediterranean marine habitats provide various provisioning, cultural and regulating services that improve physical and mental health in a number of different ways. These include: (i) the provision of seafood rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which help to reduce the risk of developing certain types of illnesses; and also, species that produce bioactive compounds that are potential sources of new drugs; (ii) the provision of blue spaces – areas of water suitable for leisure and recreational activities able to inspire, educate, and appeal to the aesthetic senses – that not only increase physical and psychological health, but also foster an individual and collective sense of place and identity and contribute to improving social relations; and (iii) the regulation of climate change, and of water quality and pollution, for example, via sequestration of carbon and heavy metals, thus reducing the associated health risks. Our results show that Mediterranean marine habitats are valuable for health and well-being, thus highlighting the need to conserve as much of this habitat as possible (particularly through marine protected areas) and to carry out new studies to determine the specific causal pathways by which certain characteristics of marine habitats – including biotic (e.g., marine biodiversity) and abiotic (e.g., water quality) factors – affect human health and well-being.
... For example, paths can be used more by runners or during colder seasons, while lawns and sandy beaches are more attractive for passive activities such as sunbathing [58]. Gender differences can also be found; for example, women often prefer to focus more on activities such as paddling or sunbathing, while men tend to prefer fishing or water sports [59] while socializing or swimming is important for a majority of people [59,60]. Age also plays a role-small-scale blue-space intervention experiments revealed the importance of sitting places for all ages, access to water being more important for younger respondents, or shelter for older people in Estonia [61] and the UK [62]. ...
... For example, paths can be used more by runners or during colder seasons, while lawns and sandy beaches are more attractive for passive activities such as sunbathing [58]. Gender differences can also be found; for example, women often prefer to focus more on activities such as paddling or sunbathing, while men tend to prefer fishing or water sports [59] while socializing or swimming is important for a majority of people [59,60]. Age also plays a role-small-scale blue-space intervention experiments revealed the importance of sitting places for all ages, access to water being more important for younger respondents, or shelter for older people in Estonia [61] and the UK [62]. ...
... The final and fourth research question asked: What is the relation between gender and age groups and the chosen blue space distance from home? Studies on socio-demographic aspects such as age, gender, and blue spaces have focused mainly on activities [59,60]. In our study, we tried to determine what impact distance from home might have on different ages and gendes. ...
Urban blue infrastructure is an important component of the urban landscape for ecological, economic, social, and cultural reasons. However, there is a clear research gap in relation to preferences and patterns of use in the context of different blue spaces, considering the citywide context and different cultural and geographical settings. Additionally, when compared to green spaces, the location and morphology of urban blue elements are usually geographically predefined, and it is much less possible to ensure their equitable distribution with respect to population. To fill this gap, we decided to explore the effect of distance from residential areas, the role of water, the level of facilities, and the character of blue spaces in attracting visitors of different demographic characteristics in a sample of different European cities. We used a public participatory geographic information system approach (PPGIS) to collect data about residents’ favourite blue spaces in each city and categorize the most popular of these according to whether they were close to or distant from respondents’ homes. We also categorized the types of blue spaces and the level of facilities present. The results show that certain key blue spaces, such as the seaside or beaches, attract more distant visitors and that the pattern of the blue spaces within the city also affects visitation. There are many differences among the studied cities due to the morphology determined by geography. The usage of blue spaces is very site-specific and should be studied in more detail at the city and place levels, focusing on the different roles of everyday and destination places.
... One survey of British residents reported that socially disadvantaged groups were the least frequent blue space users (de Bell et al., 2017). However, another analysis showed that beach visits and fishing were more popular for British residents in the lower socioeconomic classifications (Elliott et al., 2018). Elliot and colleagues suggest that access to certain blue spaces may be spread more uniformly across socioeconomic classifications than other types of nature (Elliott et al., 2018). ...
... However, another analysis showed that beach visits and fishing were more popular for British residents in the lower socioeconomic classifications (Elliott et al., 2018). Elliot and colleagues suggest that access to certain blue spaces may be spread more uniformly across socioeconomic classifications than other types of nature (Elliott et al., 2018). It would be interesting for future research to explore how relationships between recreation and stewardship vary across socio-economic gradients. ...
Strengthening community engagement in stewardship can help to improve management of coastal and freshwater environments (blue spaces). Research suggests that recreational users of natural areas may be more willing to engage in stewardship. However, little research at a population scale has examine how recreation experiences shape psychological ingredients for stewardship.
We surveyed 3271 residents of South East Queensland, Australia and quantified willingness to engage in blue space stewardship. We then quantified frequency of different types of blue space recreation, perceptions about threats to blue spaces (threat appraisal) and protective actions (coping appraisal), and satisfaction with blue spaces. We then examined pathways from recreation to stewardship intentions using mediation analysis.
Results show that many types of recreation were associated with stewardship intentions. Specifically, higher frequency of social activities and nature‐appreciation activities were associated with greater intentions for individual stewardship (e.g. picking up litter, reducing use of household chemicals). Higher frequency of social activities, nature appreciation, exercise and fishing/boating was associated with stronger intentions for collective stewardship (e.g. attending a public meeting or riparian management event)
Mediation analysis showed that most forms of recreation did not influence perceptions about severity of threats to blue spaces. Rather, the relationships between recreation and stewardship were mediated by greater place satisfaction, perceived vulnerability to blue space degradation, and feeling more able to contribute to waterway protection (efficacy).
These findings indicate that many types of recreation (not just nature appreciation activities) can be a foundation for engaging in nature stewardship, and reinforce the importance of building efficacy when promoting stewardship. The finding that both place satisfaction and perceived vulnerability to environmental degradation suggests that there may be an optimal motivational window for stewardship: people need to connect a place with positive experiences, and have some recognition of a potential threat, but where the potential threat has not yet eroded the natural values of a place.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... Such social interactions have been previously linked to engagement in urban natural spaces (Weinstein et al., 2015) and associated with benefits for individuals' overall and mental health . Also, these benefits have been reported for the case of inland blue spaces (de Bell et al., 2017), coastal areas (Elliott et al., 2018), and beach spaces . Regarding our results, again, the scores for inland blue spaces were the highest (this time, together with parks), while beaches registered the lowest value. ...
... Once again, beaches registered the lowest proportion. This result for beaches (together with the previous one, related to social interactions) may appear somewhat unexpected, considering that some authors have reported that beaches are primarily visited for relaxation and social gatherings (Elliott et al., 2018). However, it is also true that, despite having a lower relative number of mentions, it was not so low this time (compared to the rest), and, within beaches, the "relaxation" class was the second most mentioned (trailing only behind aesthetic values). ...
One of the objectives outlined in the 2030 Agenda is to make cities and human settlements more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable (Goal 11). This study analyzed the ratings (quantitative data), and opinions (qualitative data) of over half a million Google Maps reviews to discern how urban blue spaces (beaches and inland blue spaces) and green spaces (parks and ornamental gardens) were valued by users and the reasons behind their ratings, with a specific emphasis on the role played by the presence of water in these environments. The main findings indicated a more positive rating for blue spaces than green spaces. In addition, the qualitative analysis showed that aesthetic values were the most commented upon and appreciated feature of these spaces, followed by aspects related to physical activity, social interactions, relaxation, air quality, biodiversity, and those associated with the conservation and cleanliness of these spaces. These findings align with those from previous studies, suggesting a higher preference for blue spaces and a greater willingness to pay for houses and hotel rooms offering views of water.
... Results from the MENE found no consistent bias in specific social groups reporting the quantity of visits to nature. Rather, distinct patterns in frequency were found for visit location, e.g. with wealthier groups reporting visiting woodlands more often, and poorer groups reporting visiting urban parks and beaches more often 85 . Thus, although social desirability bias may play some role, we consider it unlikely to be systematically affecting respondents' overall visits frequency reports as a function of household deprivation. ...
... Covariates. Variables to be included in statistical models were selected on the basis of data availability and theoretical understanding of their potential importance and associations with either/both exposure and outcome variables ( Table 2) 13,54,75,85,105,106 . The material deprivation measure is a derived binary indicator included in the NSW dataset; and the same as that used in the UK Family Resources Survey 43 . ...
Natural environments can promote well-being through multiple mechanisms. Many studies have investigated relationships between residential green/blue space (GBS) and well-being, fewer explore relationships with actual use of GBS. We used a nationally representative survey, the National Survey for Wales, anonymously linked with spatial GBS data to investigate associations of well-being with both residential GBS and time in nature (N = 7631). Both residential GBS and time spent in nature were associated with subjective well-being. Higher green-ness was associated with lower well-being, counter to hypotheses (predicting the Warwick and Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS): Enhanced vegetation index β = − 1.84, 95% confidence interval (CI) − 3.63, − 0.05) but time spent in nature was associated with higher well-being (four hours a week in nature vs. none β = 3.57, 95% CI 3.02, 4.13). There was no clear association between nearest GBS proximity and well-being. In support of the equigenesis theory, time spent in nature was associated with smaller socioeconomic inequalities in well-being. The difference in WEMWBS (possible range 14–70) between those who did and did not live in material deprivation was 7.7 points for those spending no time in nature, and less at 4.5 points for those spending time in nature up to 1 h per week. Facilitating access and making it easier for people to spend time in nature may be one way to reduce socioeconomic inequalities in well-being.
... We also include 'Visitor characteristics' at this stage, as certain individual-or population-level characteristics may be correlated with visiting certain types of bluespace. For example, in England, females were found to be more likely to visit coastal environments compared to males and those living in the north east of the country were most likely to visit compared to other regions 13 . The 'Bluespace qualities' examined included water quality, presence of wildlife, personal safety, presence of litter/vandalism and facilities, which have been found to be important for visit-related well-being outcomes in previous literature 14,15 . ...
... walking, swimming); and visit companions in terms of other adults and children. Activity type and companions have both been found to be associated with well-being outcomes of visits to nature 14,17 , with the opportunity to spend time with friends and family being an important motive for visiting blue spaces in particular 13,18 . ...
The effects of ‘nature’ on mental health and subjective well-being have yet to be consistently integrated into ecosystem service models and frameworks. To address this gap, we used data on subjective mental well-being from an 18-country survey to test a conceptual model integrating mental health with ecosystem services, initially proposed by Bratman et al. We analysed a range of individual and contextual factors in the context of 14,998 recreational visits to blue spaces, outdoor environments which prominently feature water. Consistent with the conceptual model, subjective mental well-being outcomes were dependent upon on a complex interplay of environmental type and quality, visit characteristics, and individual factors. These results have implications for public health and environmental management, as they may help identify the bluespace locations, environmental features, and key activities, that are most likely to impact well-being, but also potentially affect recreational demand on fragile aquatic ecosystems.
... When we investigated the relationship between distance to natural spaces and body composition, particularly total and central adiposity levels, we identified numerous gaps in the literature. Firstly, there are limited studies on blue spaces [102,103]. Secondly, many studies do not differentiate between green and blue spaces, often including both in their definition of green spaces. Thirdly, most studies on this topic define obesity by using total adiposity levels. ...
... The limited availability of blue spaces in the study area, and the lack of opportunities for physical activity, could explain the lack of association recorded between living close to them and body fat levels. Elliot et al. [102] suggest that individuals living near the coast are healthier than those living inland, showing that the coastal environment may not only offer better opportunities for its inhabitants to be active, but also provide significant benefits in terms of stress reduction. ...
A growing body of evidence indicates that living close to nature is associated with better health and well-being. However, the literature still lacks studies analyzing the benefits of this proximity for sleep and obesity, particularly in women. The purpose of this study was to explore how distance to natural spaces is reflected in women's physical activity, sleep, and adiposity levels. The sample consisted of 111 adult women (37.78 ± 14.70). Accessibility to green and blue spaces was assessed using a geographic-information-system-based method. Physical activity and sleep parameters were measured using ActiGraph accelerometers (wGT3X-BT), and body composition was assessed using octopolar bioimpedance (InBody 720). Nonlinear canonical correlation analysis was used to analyze the data. Our findings reveal that women living in green spaces close to their homes had lower levels of obesity and intra-abdominal adiposity. We also demonstrated that a shorter distance to green spaces seemed to correlate with better sleep onset latency. However, no relationship was found between physical activity and sleep duration. In relation to blue spaces, the distance to these environments was not related to any health indicator analyzed in this study.
... A systematic review concluded that there is a positive association between outdoor blue spaces and physical activity (Gascon et al. 2017). In England, coastal proximity is associated with more physical activity and more walking in particular (White et al. 2014, Elliott et al. 2018, Pasanen et al. 2019). ...
... Blue spaces, including rivers, lakes, and canals are rated 'high' with the sea (harbour areas, coasts and associated beach areas) rated as 'very high'. Spending time with family and friends was the second most commonly reported perceived benefit from visiting freshwater blue spaces in a survey sample of Great Britain (De Bell et al. 2017), and use of beaches may be particularly important for intergenerational play , Elliott et al. 2018. Wetlands have comparatively limited social uses and are scored 'low'. ...
Urban Green Infrastructure (GI) provides multiple benefits to city inhabitants and can be an important component in nature-based solutions (NBS), but the ecosystem services that underpin those benefits are inconsistently quantified in the literature. There remain substantial knowledge gaps about the level of service supported by less studied GI types, e.g. cemeteries, or less-studied ecosystem services, e.g. noise mitigation. Decision-makers and planners in cities often face conflicting or incomplete information on the effectiveness of GI, particularly on their ability to provide a suite of co-benefits. Here, we describe a feature-based typology of GI which combines elements of land cover, land use and both ecological and social function. It is consistent with user requirements on mapping, and with the needs of models which can conduct more detailed ecosystem service assessments which can guide NBS design. We provide an evidence synthesis based on published literature, which scores the ability of each GI type to deliver a suite of ecosystem services. In the multivariate analysis of the typology scores, the main axis of variation differentiates between constructed (or hybrid) GI types designed primarily for water flow management (delivering relatively few services) and more natural green GI with trees, or blue GI such as lakes and the sea, which deliver a more multi-functional set of regulating services. The most multi-functional GI on this axis also score highest for biodiversity. The second element of variation separates those GI which support very few cultural services and those which score highly in enabling physical wellbeing and social interaction and, to a lesser extent, restoring capacities. Together the typology and multi-functionality matrix provide a much needed assessment for less studied GI types, and allow planners and decision-makers to make a-priori assessments of the relative ability of different GI as part of NBS to address urban challenges.
... The results of this study stem from a female-dominated student population (83 % female, 18-24-year-old) that was largely residing in inland regions. Previous studies have shown that people with a different age, gender, and residential proximity, among other personal characteristics, may perceive the restorativeness of various environments in different ways (White et al., 2010;Neilson et al., 2016Neilson et al., , 2017Nguyen et al., 2018), potentially due to the differences in perceived levels of safety (Jiang et al., 2017), prerequisites for restoration such as being away (Hartig et al., 1997), and previous experiences and desired activities, including mobility (Elliott et al., 2018). Such sociological drivers may explain why this study finds that students rate urban coastal environments as neutral and not as positive, while these urban coastal environments still seem to be very popular and highly valued by elderly coastal residents and tourists. ...
... Interestingly, sand as a particular type of underground can also make the coastal experience more unique by being integral to many coastal activities (e.g. walking, play and sports; Ashbullby et al., 2013;Elliott et al., 2018). ...
Outdoor environments benefit health by providing psychological restoration, but the degree of psychological restoration may vary considerably within heterogenous areas. This study focused on the Belgian coast to quantify the inter- and intra-environment variation in psychological restoration and the influence of natural and urban components and people.
Students (N = 102, 18-30y, 83 % female) rated 52 pictures of ten coastal environments and of five beach-specific locations on a five-item perceived restorativeness scale (PRS) in random order. General linear mixed modelling standardized for individual and study design-related covariates and random effects.
Generally, the average PRS-scores varied according to the scenes’ ‘naturalness’. The PRS was up to 30% higher for beaches, dunes, and salt marshes (PRS ≈ 8/10) than for dikes, docks, recreational harbors, and towns (PRS ≈ 5/10). Green parks, piers, and historical sites scored intermediate. At the beach specifically, pictures taken ‘on a breakwater’ (PRS ≈ 8.5/10) scored up to 20% higher than those taken ‘in a beach bar’ and ‘between beach cabins’ (PRS ≈ 6.5/10). The PRS was also associated with the relative surface area of the picture components. Associations were positive for natural components (i.e. vegetation, sky, and natural underground, not water), negative for urban components (i.e. buildings, vehicles and hardened underground), and unclear for people.
This study confirmed the hypothesized inter- and intra-environment variation in the psychological restoration along the Belgian coast, and highlighted the importance of coastal nature for mental health. The generated insights can lead to better informed policy decisions to maximize the health benefits offered by coastal environments.
... Se ha demostrado la relación entre la cercanía de residencia al mar con una mejor salud física y mental, en comparación con la de personas no residentes en la costa (Garrett et al., 2019). Además, la proximidad con la costa se ha asociado a una mayor actividad física (White et al., 2014), mayor interacción social y mejoría de relaciones familiares (Elliott et al., 2018). Centrándonos en la dimensión emocional, el contacto con la costa ha demostrado tener un efecto restaurativo para reducir el estrés y para reactivar habilidades cognitivas inhibidas (Gidlow et al., 2016). ...
La costa y playas urbanas de la ciudad de Barcelona tienen una historia relativamente reciente, habiendo sido parte de la industria portuaria hasta la celebración de los Juegos Olímpicos de 1992, cuando se abrieron al uso público. Su desarrollo y estudio en las últimas décadas ha estado íntimamente ligado a su potencial económico y turístico, olvidándose la forma en que experimentan la costa las personas residentes de Barcelona. Este estudio parte de la consideración de los blue spaces, defendidos por la Psicología Ambiental como espacios caracterizados por la presencia de agua que sirven para la restauración emocional de quienes los frecuentan. Plantea estudiar el impacto del litoral de Barcelona en el bienestar de sus habitantes, y su potencialidad como blue space, mediante una metodología etnográfica con entrevistas. Los resultados demuestran la variedad del uso que la población barcelonesa hace de su costa y su influencia restaurativa.
... Literature on coastal engagement and interactions often depict a deep and unique relationship between humans and coastal environments (Bell et al., 2015;Severin et al., 2022). Coastal visits are often passive and motivated by relaxation, whereas evidence from the UK suggests freshwater blue space visits are more likely to be purposeful, i.e. to attain health benefits (Elliott et al., 2018). This may partly explain why only associations between costal visits and evaluative wellbeing (and not eudaimonic wellbeing) were observed in our data. ...
... The study on beach visitors' attitudes delved into subjects such as visitors' opinions on landscape quality (Lukoseviciute and Panagopoulos, 2021;Rodella and Corbau, 2020;Roca et al., 2009;Roca and Villares, 2008), destination preferences (Matthews et al., 2018;Botero et al., 2013;Tudor and Williams, 2006), satisfaction levels (Hasan et al., 2020;Dodds and Holmes, 2019;Jie Li and Carr, 2004), and their views on beach management approaches (Cervantes et al., 2008). The study on beach visitors' behaviours investigated aspects like recreational activities (Pascoe, 2019;Elliott et al., 2018;Paudel et al., 2011), amenities demand (Dadon, 2018;Oh et al., 2010;Shivlani et al., 2003), and the spatial distribution of beach visitors (Murillo et al., 2023;Silva et al., 2008;Coombes et al., 2009;Kammler and Schernewski, 2004).While these studies offer valuable insights into visitors' perspectives regarding the recreational aspects of sandy beaches worldwide, their primary focus lies on beaches where tourism serves as the main function. However, in the Netherlands flood safety take precedence as a crucial function. ...
In the Netherlands, where coastal lowlands are prevalent, sand nourishment and dune utilization play a central role in coastal management. While policies strive for multifunctionality, most coastal studies emphasize flood safety, often overlooking the importance of recreational functions and their interactions with flood protection measures.
Our recent study investigates visitor profiles, attitudes, and recreational behaviours at two reinforced sandy shores in the Netherlands: the Sand Motor and Hondsbossche Dunes. Given the scale of sand reinforcements that have transformed these beaches, we refer to them as sandy anthropogenic shores (SAS). Our research explores the potential differences in the profiles, behaviours, and attitudes of visitors at SAS versus traditional (non-SAS) beaches. Additionally, we examine how SAS visitors' expectations compare with those of the management sector regarding preferred activities, needs, and satisfaction levels.
These insights can guide coastal managers in making informed, sustainable decisions about SAS recreational functions, balancing flood safety and recreational needs.
If you're interested in exploring beyond the biophysical aspects of sandy anthropogenic shores, check out our new publication, Balancing Recreation and Flood Safety for Integrated Coastal Management: Understanding Beach Visitors' Attitudes and Behaviors in Sandy Anthropogenic Shores, available here:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2024.107407
... Among the aforementioned three pathways, the promotion of physical activity within the instoration pathway is one of the most effective approaches for realising the health benefits of natural environments. There are differences between blue and green spaces in promoting participation in physical activity, including: (1) blue spaces provide unique opportunities for water-based activities; (2) the duration of physical activity in blue spaces is often longer than that in green spaces (Elliott et al., 2015); (3) blue spaces confer additional mental health benefits that synergise with physical activity (Völker & Kistemann, 2013); and (4) land-based waterfront activities, such as recreational running and cycling, are also prevalent around blue spaces, while the spatial requirements for these recreational exercises may vary between green and blue spaces (Elliott et al., 2018;Pasanen et al., 2019). For these considerations, research evidence on the relationship between green spaces or general natural environments and physical activity should not be directly extrapolated to the blue-health research. ...
Urban blue space offers substantial health benefits by encouraging population physical activity. Despite much evidence on the nature-health nexus, the relationship between blue space and recreational exercises remains under-studied, limiting the realisation of health benefits in blue space design. Using crowdsourced data, including volunteered geographic information and street view image data, this study investigates the associations of blue space quality with recreational running and cycling in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Results show that recreational exercise levels on street segments vary based on the blue space type and design. Compared to inland canals and rivers, small-scale recreational waterbodies are more conducive to running but not cycling, while both activities tend to cluster around the Nieuwe Maas River. Interestingly, the Water View Index shows a general negative association with both activities after adjusting for the blue space type. Besides the waterbody charac teristics, eye-level environmental factors, including higher Green View Index, lower building density, more diverse land use, greater connected street network and fewer traffic elements, are associated with more running and cycling exercises. Results for visual complexity and neighbourhood population composition are mixed depending on the exercise type. These findings are further translated into spatial design patterns for developing exercise-supportive and health-promoting blue spaces.
... Bathing waters also provide amenity value beyond recreational pursuits linked to bathing, including social, aesthetic, cultural and wider wellbeing benefits that individuals associate with sand dune, beach and nearshore zones (Garrett et al., 2023). Improvements in bathing and recreational water quality have provided safer environments for bathers; however, the 'hidden majority' of beach users do not engage in sea swimming and therefore do not benefit directly from water quality monitoring (Elliott et al., 2018;Coombes and Jones, 2010). ...
... concurrently serving as the backdrop for a multitude of recreational activities on beaches, including 31 swimming, sunbathing, beach sports, and cultural events (Elliott et al., 2018). In recent years, the growing 32 recognition of the need to quantify and value ecosystem services arises from an enhanced comprehension 33 of the intricate interconnections between healthy ecosystems and human well-being (Bennett et al., 34 2015). ...
Coastal areas provide cultural ecosystem services that contribute to the well-being of society, but these areas are often undervalued due to methodological challenges. Assessment of the economic value of beach recreation is crucial for effective coastal management and conservation. This paper presents a comprehensive evaluation of recreational ecosystem services along the Greek coasts, using various methodologies such as contingent valuation and crowdsourced ecosystem service mapping via Flickr. Our findings indicate that the total value of recreation along Greek beaches during the summer period amounts to 21.4 billion € annually. The maximum value per beach is estimated at 232 million € per year on Santorini island, Caldera beach with a surface of 1 hectare, one of Greece's most renowned destinations. Through detailed mapping, our study unveils substantial variations in the monetary value of recreational ecosystem services. The average value stands at 6.7 million €/ha/year, with a range from 0 € to 232 million €/ha/year, highlighting the diverse economic contributions of coastal recreation. Profiling Greek coastal visitors uncovers differences in preferences across age groups, with environmental awareness and action being prominent. Factors deterring coastal visits, such as port and hotel presence, outweigh attractions, with beach accessibility being the primary desirable factor. These findings highlight the economic significance of coastal recreation and provide valuable insights for coastal management, and policy-making.
... Whilst the evidence is mixed as to the causal drivers of recreational PA conducted in natural environments ('naturebased PA') (Garrett et al., 2020), specific types of natural setting are especially supportive of PA. For example, further analysis of additional waves (2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016) of the MENE data (n = 326,756) showed that coastal natural environments, for instance, supported higher volumes and different modes of activity than non-coastal ones (Elliott et al., 2018). The same research found that natural settings are supportive of activity across demographic groups, with some indication that socioeconomic inequities in participation may be lower in certain environments. ...
... Although there is no innate weekly cycle to nature, for many people in western societies opportunities for direct species interactions will tend to vary between weekdays and weekends, depending on what kinds of activities they undertake when (e.g., Di Cecco et al., 2021;Elliott et al., 2018;Veitch et al., 2015). Indeed, there is evidence for such an effect in studies that have explored how the numbers of species observation records received by citizen science schemes change across days of the week (e.g., Di Cecco et al., 2021). ...
People have unique sets of direct sensory interactions with wild species, which change through their days, weeks, seasons, and lifetimes. Despite having important influences on their health and well‐being and their attitudes towards nature, these personalized ecologies remain surprisingly little studied and are poorly understood. However, much can be inferred about personalized ecologies by considering them from first principles (largely macroecological), alongside insights from research into the design and effectiveness of biodiversity monitoring programmes, knowledge of how animals respond to people, and studies of human biology and demography. Here I first review how three major sets of drivers, opportunity, capability and motivation, shape people's personalized ecologies. Second, I then explore the implications of these mechanisms for how more passively and more actively practical improvements can be made in people's personalized ecologies. Particularly in light of the declines in the richness of these ecologies that are being experienced in much of the world (the so‐called ‘extinction of experience’), and the significant consequences, marked improvement in many people's interactions and experiences with nature may be key to the future of biodiversity.
... Of course, it is not always possible to view blue and green natural spaces as entirely separate from each other, because especially inland water bodies, such as lakes and rivers, are often surrounded by greenery. However, blue spaces can be distinguished from green spaces regarding their unique sensory qualities (e.g., light reflections, wave motion, sounds, etc., Völker & Kistemann, 2015), and the opportunities they offer for other kinds of leisure activities for children and adults that are not possible around green spaces (e.g., swimming, fishing, watersports, Elliott et al., 2018). Much of the world's population, including children, live near waterbodies such as the coast (Cohen, Small, Mellinger, Gallup, & Sachs, 1997), lakes (Kummu, De Moel, Ward, & Varis, 2011), and rivers (Wüstemann et al., 2017), suggesting regular exposure is at least possible. ...
... Initial research has identified differences in the wellbeing outcomes associated with recreational activities at different blue space types, with coastal recreation often leading to higher wellbeing outcomes for visitors than activities at inland blue spaces [19][20][21]. Differences have also been identified in user groups between blue space types, with inland blue spaces shown to attract visits from individuals with higher socio-economic statuses compared to coastal areas [22]. To encourage equitable access to inland blue space and help promote positive health and wellbeing outcomes for all user groups, greater insight is required to gather definitive conclusions and effectively translate blue space research into policy. ...
With healthcare systems facing growing pressure from ageing populations and associated complex care needs, attention is increasingly being focused on sustainable strategies to improve health outcomes across populations. Encouraging access to natural environments is one form of preventative public health strategy that has been shown to lead to improved physical and mental health outcomes at the population level. A significant body of research has documented the health benefits of accessing a wide range of natural environments, including green space and coastal areas. However, freshwater resources, or inland blue spaces, have received less attention in the field of human–environment interactions. This critical review highlights current research opportunities for developing rich and nuanced insight into inland blue space experiences. Future research must take steps to account for the dynamic and unique nature of inland blue spaces through the application of a wide range of flexible and sensitive research methodologies alongside the application of broader mixed methods research approaches. To effectively utilise inland blue spaces as public health resources, it is vital that research captures the influence of temporal changes on blue space interactions and considers the overarching impact of context-specific factors. Addressing current research gaps in combination with advancing research methodologies offers the potential to consolidate inland blue space findings and create a robust evidence base for the implementation of effective public health policies.
... The final set of risk factors was obtained from the feedback of the expert panel by using a modified Delphi panel method in which factors with an importance rating of ≥4 on a 5-point Likert scale were selected. The risk factor architecture is presented in Fig. 2. The influencing factors were divided into the following main categories: natural environmental factors, including beach type, wave height, rip current, and weather conditions [40][41][42][43][44][45]; participant factors, including the sex, age, alcohol consumption, self-rescue ability, physiological state, safety awareness, and level of panic of activity participants [43,[46][47][48][49][50][51]; activity safety management factors, including activity equipment, safety commitment, safety procedure rehearsals, and real-time marine weather information [46,47,[52][53][54]; and lifesaving resource factors, including patrols and lifeguards, emergency rescue facilities, and warning signs [43,52,[55][56][57]. ...
Taiwan is an island and therefore has a considerable amount of coastal land. Drowning or near-drowning incidents often occur in coastal recreational areas. To reduce the risk of drowning or near-drowning associated with marine recreational activities in Taiwan, this study collected data on the risk associated with marine recreational activities. It selected risk factors using a modified Delphi panel method, with an expert panel used to obtain probability values for each risk factor. A Bayesian network for risk assessment was then established. The results of this study can serve as a reference for stakeholders involved in marine recreational activities. Severe weather conditions increase wave height and current speed, resulting in an increased risk of drowning or near-drowning when coastal recreational activities occur under these conditions. Individuals who undertake marine recreational activities without safety awareness are more likely to exhibit risky behaviors. When self-rescue ability is insufficient to prevent possible danger, the probability of drowning or near-drowning is higher. Serious incidents may lead to death, and therefore, marine recreational activities should be avoided when weather conditions are poor. In addition, the safety awareness and self-rescue ability of individuals undertaking coastal recreational activities should be improved. This study did not explore emergency response measures or postincident policy management.
... Median income was positively related to green space availability in Scandinavia as well (Aamodt et al., 2023). A study with a large UK population sample found that less socioeconomically affluent people visit blue settings for leisure more often than their more affluent counterparts (Elliott et al., 2018). Lower availability or access to green and blue spaces during childhood is even more critical due to their increased vulnerability to environmental factors (Landrigan et al., 2018) and one German study clearly informs about increased distance to green spaces in children of families with low income (Rehling et al., 2021). ...
Availability of green and blue spaces in the area of residence has been related to various health outcomes during childhood, including mental health. These environmental exposures are not evenly distributed among socioeconomic groups, which may increase social inequalities in mental health. The mechanisms through which natural environments may promote mental health are numerous and diverse. This study aimed to explore 1) the potential associations of socioeconomic variables (SES and maternal education attainment) with mental health scores and residential greenness, blueness and NO2 metrics, and, 2) the association between greenness and blueness metrics and mental health scores of children in the Spanish INfancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA) birth cohort at two different time points. The study samples were composed of 1738 six-to eight-year-olds (49% female) and 1449 ten-to twelve-year-olds (living in Asturias, Gipuzkoa, Sabadell and Valencia, Spain. Individual Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values in 100-, 300- and 500-m buffers and availability of green and blue spaces >5000 m2 in 300-m buffers were calculated using Geographic Information Systems software. Residential NO2 values were estimated using land use regression models. Internalizing, externalizing and total problems scores were obtained with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Linear and logistic mixed-effects models revealed unequal distribution of environmental exposures by SES and maternal education but did not show statistically significant associations between greenness and blueness metrics and mental health indicators. The protective effect of green and blue spaces on children's mental health could not be confirmed in this study and therefore further research is required.
... MPAs are suitable locations to evaluate the state of the art SUPs consumption with the final aim of considering the necessity of designing and applying actions to reduce the misuse of plastic materials. The mission of MPAs involves ensuring the protection and conservation of the marine environment through legal and effective actions (Dudley et al., 2013) to maintain a healthy marine ecosystem with socio-economic benefits for the local community (White et al., 2014;Elliott et al., 2018). On the global scale, MPAs have been established to combat the decline of the marine environment and achieve conservation targets (Ban et al., 2017). ...
Modern society depends on plastic, especially through single-use plastic products (SUPs), which can affect ecological systems after use. Local policymakers can strategically adopt measures against SUPs pollution by setting effective local governance. This work was designed to evaluate SUPs consumption inside the Marine Protected Area of the Egadi Islands. A questionnaire mixed approach to understanding stakeholders' consumption, attitudes and perceptions about the uses and impacts of SUPs in the third sector was used. Results show a significant seasonal consumption of SUPs and uncertainty in the behaviour to discard them. These provide valuable insights to fill research gaps in estimating the use of SUPs and consumers' perceptions. The main aim of this work has been to understand the critical issues regarding the use of SUPs, considering the target area's patterns, in support of designing action plans for changing behaviour and the mitigation of critical issues in favour of environmental conservation.
... This may reflect the propensity of older people to use such environments for walking (e.g. coastal bluespace; Elliott et al. 2018) and extends previous research demonstrating associations between nature and health-enhancing physical activity in older populations (e.g. Astell-Burt et al. 2014) by demonstrating the importance of recreational visits to these spaces. ...
The role of neighbourhood nature in promoting good health is increasingly recognised in policy and practice, but consistent evidence for the underlying mechanisms is lacking. Heterogeneity in exposure methods, outcome measures, and population characteristics, little exploration of recreational use or the role of different types of green or blue space, and multiple separate mediation models in previous studies have limited our ability to synthesise findings and draw clear conclusions. We examined multiple pathways linking different types of neighbourhood nature with general health using a harmonised international sample of adults. Using cross-sectional survey data from 18 countries (n = 15,917), we developed a multigroup path model to test theorised pathways, controlling for sociodemographic variables. We tested the possibility that neighbourhood nature (e.g. greenspace, inland bluespace, and coastal bluespace) would be associated with general health through lower air pollution exposure, greater physical activity attainment, more social contact, and higher subjective well-being. However, our central prediction was that associations between different types of neighbourhood nature and general health would largely be serially mediated by recent visit frequency to corresponding environment types, and, subsequently, physical activity, social contact, and subjective well-being associated with these frequencies. Several subsidiary analyses assessed the robustness of the results to alternative model specifications as well as effect modification by sociodemographics. Consistent with this prediction, there was statistical support for eight of nine potential serial mediation pathways via visit frequency which held for a range of alternative model specifications. Effect modification by financial strain, sex, age, and urbanicity altered some associations but did not necessarily support the idea that nature reduced health inequalities. The results demonstrate that across countries, theorised nature-health linkages operate primarily through recreational contact with natural environments. This provides arguments for greater efforts to support use of local green/blue spaces for health promotion and disease prevention.
... Coastal recreation such as beach visits and bathing activities is an important source of tourism revenue and human wellbeing (Ghermandi & Nunes, 2013;MacKerron & Mourato, 2013). Using beaches for recreation, including physical and social activities, is highly valued, and different consequences of recreational beach use, such as economic development (Ghermandi & Nunes, 2013) and individual health benefits (Elliott et al., 2018), have been examined. However, beaches and coastal waters are a type of natural environment that also entail risks in the form of environmental hazards, such as rip currents, lightning, high winds, pollution, or encounters with potentially dangerous marine fauna. ...
Shark incidents are rare and graphic events, and their consequences can influence the behavior of beach users, including bathers, to a great extent. These incidents can be thought of as a fearsome risk that may lead decision makers to overreact or respond with inaction. This paper examines the reaction of recreational beach users, including bathers, to changes in the risk of shark incidents. In addition to valuing recreational visits to Durban Beach, South Africa, we study the reaction of beach visitors to a hypothetical scenario in which protective shark nets, deployed in coastal waters to protect bathers, are to be removed. To examine potential heterogeneity of the treatment effect in a travel cost‐contingent behavior model, we develop a semiparametric multivariate Poisson lognormal (MPLN) model to jointly analyze observed and stated visit counts. Results show that removing protective shark nets at Durban beach would decrease recreational visits by more than 20%. Applying the semiparametric MPLN model we further find that both the value of a recreational visit and the predicted change in visitation rates vary as a function of whether recreationists usually enter the water, whether they have heard of previous shark incidents, and their general risk attitude.
... Time or duration is a personal efect modifer for blue space engagement [1]. Tus, programme duration should be matched with service users' gender, age, ethnicity, and health conditions [90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99] because diferent individuals may be in situations that could limit their engagement. Reducing session time might also promote engagement amongst the elderly population [100]. ...
Nature-based social prescribing such as “blue prescription” promotes public health and health improvement of individuals with long-term health conditions. However, there is limited evidence explaining the relationship of contexts, mechanisms, and outcomes of implementing blue prescription programmes (BPPs) in health and social care settings that could inform policy and practice. We conducted a systematic realist review by searching PubMed, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Scopus, MEDLINE, and CINAHL for articles published in English between January 2000 and June 2022 about health and social care professionals providing referral to or prescription of blue space activities (e.g., swimming, fishing, surfing, etc.) with health-related outcomes. Components and descriptions of BPP implementation were extracted and used to develop themes of contextual factors used to develop programme theories and a logic model demonstrating the mechanisms of BPP implementation. Sixteen studies with adequate to strong quality were included from 8,619 records. After participating in BPPs referred to or prescribed by health and social care professionals, service users had improvements in their physical, cognitive (mental), social health, and proenvironmental knowledge. Service user-related contextual factors were referral information, free equipment, transportation, social support, blue space environments, and skills of service providers. Programme-related contextual factors were communication, multistakeholder collaboration, financing, and adequate service providers. Programme theories on service user enrolment, engagement, adherence, communication protocols, and programme sustainability explain the mechanisms of BPP implementation. BPPs could promote health and wellbeing if contextual factors and programme theories associated with service users’ characteristics and programme delivery are considered in the design, delivery, and evaluation of BPPs. Our study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020170660).
... Two separate groups of models were conducted predicting: a) concern over marine species loss; and b) research preferences into marine species protection, with predictor variables selected based on previous marine-related papers (e.g. Papathanasopoulou et al., 2016;Elliott et al., 2018;Garrett et al., 2019) entered into the models in three stages (first socio-demographics and political orientation, then marine contact/experience, then personality traits). To explore RQ3, concern was additionally added as a predictor of research support in the final research support model (see also Davison et al., 2021). ...
Introduction
Marine biodiversity loss has direct and indirect effects on human health and wellbeing. Recent European data suggest that the public is aware of this, identifying marine biodiversity protection as its top research priority in terms of oceans and human health, rated higher than issues such as plastic, chemical, and microbial pollution.
Methods
The current study aimed to better understand key sociodemographic and personality predictors of concern about marine biodiversity loss and the desire for more research into marine biodiversity protection, in an attempt to support communication efforts targeting specific sectors in society. Data were drawn from nationally representative samples of 14 European countries (n = 14,167).
Results
Results show greater concern about marine biodiversity loss and support for more research into marine biodiversity protection by older adults, females, and individuals: (i) without (vs. with) a university degree; (ii) with lower (vs. middle) incomes; (iii) who identified as politically left-wing; (iv) who visited the coast more often; and (v) those with more open, agreeable and conscientious personalities.
Discussion
These results suggest that, although concern and research support are generally high among European citizens, policy makers and communicators need to take into consideration individual-level variation.
... The predominance of land-based activities (walking) over water-based activities (swimming, water sports, etc.), whose results standardise coastal recreation in England and can influence policy decisions on coastal and maritime accessibility and its implications for public health. Elliott et al. (2018) Activities Interaction between residents and the coast/ sea Analyse the interaction of residents of Malta's deprived neighbourhoods with the coast and the sea and its impacts on health and well-being. ...
There are regions whose features allow them to function as catalysts for the health and well-being of those who live there and those who visit them. However, to make the most of this vocation, it is necessary to know and understand these regions in depth. This will make it possible to plan and implement a development model that enhances their characteristics in favour of health and well-being, making their residential and tourist functions compatible to their mutual benefit. The main objective is to propose a specific model for planning Blue Tourism in Blue Spaces. For this, the state of the art on blue territories, their characteristics and impacts on human health and well-being are analysed, and Blue Tourism is integrated in this approach. From a diachronic perspective, tourism planning models are broached, and an innovative proposal is made. It takes the form of a theoretical model that is based on a thorough knowledge of the tourism vocation of blue territories and aims to develop a sustainable Blue Tourism. It sets out to improve the quality of life of local residents and the quality of the tourist experience for visitors, and to promote the health and well-being of both.
... Consequently, increased interest in outdoor recreation and sports activities is contributing to a growing demand for marine sports tourism (Yang et al., 2020). As are the health and therapeutic benefits associated with outdoor exercise along the coast and in the sea (Elliott et al., 2018;White et al., 2020). The commercialization of water sports and angling and the development of coastal walks and trails, also provide economic opportunities for a range of local hospitality and other service providers (Cooper and Boyd, 2018;Huveneers et al., 2017;ECORYS, 2013;Hynes et al., 2017). ...
Domestic marine and coastal tourism has increased in importance over the last number of years due to the impacts of environmental concerns connected with international travel, the associated health benefits and COVID-19 related travel restrictions. Consequently, this paper analyses the determinants of demand for domestic day trips and overnight stays by Irish residents to marine and coastal areas. Two logit models examine the factors that influence participation in the coastal day trip and overnight stay markets, respectively. Two truncated travel cost models are employed to explore trip duration, one analyzing the number of day trips taken and the other examining the number of nights spent in marine and coastal areas. The results suggest a division amongst those who can and cannot access marine and coastal tourism. In particular, those who are financially better off have a greater level of access to Irish marine and coastal tourism. Additionally, although generally disregarded in tourism policy and marketing, the results indicate a vibrant day trip market that commands high per person consumer surplus.
... In contrast, blue spaces are thought to be more evenly distributed socio-economically 31 . However, recent evidence has indicated that those better off are more likely to visit blue spaces than people with lower incomes 56 . Therefore, equitable use and access to blue space should be actively encouraged. ...
The incidence of mental health disorders in urban areas is increasing and there is a growing interest in using urban blue spaces (urban waterways, canals, lakes, ponds, coasts, etc.) as a tool to manage and mitigate mental health inequalities in the population. However, there is a dearth of longitudinal evidence of the mechanisms and impact of blue spaces on clinical markers of mental health to support and inform such interventions. We conducted a 10-year retrospective study, following STROBE guidelines, using routinely collected population primary care health data within the National Health Service (NHS) administrative area of Greater Glasgow and Clyde for the North of Glasgow city area. We explored whether living near blue space modifies the negative effect of socio-economic deprivation on mental health during the regeneration of an urban blue space (canal) from complete dereliction and closure. A total of 132,788 people (65,351 female) fulfilling the inclusion criteria were entered in the analysis. We established a base model estimating the effect of deprivation on the risk of mental health disorders using a Cox proportional hazards model, adjusted for age, sex and pre-existing comorbidities. We then investigated the modifying effect of living near blue space by computing a second model which included distance to blue space as an additional predicting variable and compared the results to the base model. Living near blue space modified the risk of mental health disorders deriving from socio-economic deprivation by 6% (hazard ratio 2.48, 95% confidence interval 2.39–2.57) for those living in the most deprived tertile (T1) and by 4% (hazard ratio 1.66, 95% confidence interval 1.60–1.72) for those in the medium deprivation tertile (T2). Our findings support the notion that living near blue space could play an important role in reducing the burden of mental health inequalities in urban populations.
... It was also remarkable that in a spanned of only two days during weekends; it still has a higher sum total of PPE litters collected than five days on weekdays (Fig. 5). This may be due to the "weekend effect," where during these days, the number of people in the beach areas increased, and there was an increase in the number of visitors to the site for relaxation and other recreational activities (Elliot et al., 2018). Our findings were also similar to the results of Hassan et al. (2022), where they also revealed that the amount of PPE litters increased by 76 % and 48 % during weekends in Alexandria, Egypt and Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, respectively. ...
The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused worldwide health constraints. This study was conducted to establish a baseline monitoring survey to describe the distribution of PPE litters during the COVID-19 pandemic in the province of Palawan, Philippines. A total of 386 COVID-19-related PPE items were present in 83 % of coastal sampling sites with over a cumulative area of 48,200 m², with a density of 8 × 10⁻³ items m⁻². The facemask (98 %; n = 377) was the primary type of PPE, followed by face shield (2 %; n = 9). Meanwhile, the daily density of PPE litters in San Manuel, Puerto Princesa ranged from 0 to 9.9 × 10⁻² items m⁻², with a mean density of 8 × 10⁻³ items m⁻². The accumulation rates of PPE items ranged from 3.27 × 10⁻¹ items to 1.143 items d⁻¹, with an average rate of 7.29 × 10⁻¹ items d⁻¹.
... For example, coastal proximity is positively associated with the likelihood of achieving recommended guidelines of physical activity a week (White et al., 2014). Coastal environments are also seen as areas that boost social interactions and spending time with family and friends is stated as a key motivation for visiting the coast (Elliott et al., 2018). Furthermore, several environmental factors can explain the positive effects of the coast on well-being such as temperature regulation and sea spray aerosols (Van Acker, 2021). ...
Coastal environments are increasingly shown to have a positive effect on our health and well-being. Various mechanisms have been suggested to explain this effect. However, so far little focus has been devoted to emotions that might be relevant in this context, especially for people who are directly or indirectly exposed to the coast on a daily basis. Our preregistered qualitative study explored how coastal residents experience the emotions they feel at the coast and how they interpret the effect these emotions have on them. We conducted semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of eight Belgian coastal residents aged 21–25 years old. The interviews were analyzed with the approach of interpretative phenomenological analysis. Five superordinate themes were identified and indicate that, for our participants, the coast represents a safe haven (1) in which they can experience emotional restoration (2), awe (3), and nostalgia (4). These emotional states are accompanied with adaptive emotion regulating strategies (5), such as reflection and positive reappraisal, that may facilitate coping with difficult thoughts and feelings. Our study demonstrates the importance of investigating specific emotions and related processes triggered at the coast and how these could contribute to the therapeutic value of the coast.
... It is stressed that coastal recreational activities, such as walking, provide major economic benefits to rural communities via tourism. So, it is becoming more widely understood that coastal walking routes promote rural landscape variety, creative experiences, and regional development [9,10]. ...
The researchers utilized a participatory approach based on expert opinion, which was used to assess the environmental, social, economic, and visual value and accessibility benefits of the Güzelcehisar Beach Boardwalk (GBB) application in the province of Bartın in Turkey’s Western Black Sea Region. The questionnaire was administered face-to-face and online to 120 professionals from various subject area fields. According to field specialists, the benefits of the GBB are as follows: social benefit, visual value and accessibility, economic benefit, and environmental benefit. The GBB was evaluated as an example of infrastructure within the scope of effective solutions for tourism and recreation activities and resilience within sustainable development of rural coastal landscapes using a participatory approach, so the results will guide Integrated Coastal Zone Management planning for the area.
... For example Elliott et al. (2018) found that visits to beaches were undertaken by a wider spectrum of demographics than other coastal environments. Indeed, research is increasingly showing that coasts do not provide the same well-being benefits to everyone. ...
Saltmarshes are increasingly recognised for the range of benefits they offer, including coastal protection, flood regulation and carbon sequestration. However, much less is known about how people perceive these environments and their importance for non‐material aspects of human well‐being.
As climate change and sea‐level rise render these environments increasingly vulnerable, there is a need to better understand how saltmarshes are valued. This is because these values influence—and are influenced by—the ways in which people interact with places and therefore gain well‐being benefits from them. These values also shape management decisions, which in turn affect the well‐being of people and environment.
To address this need, we use a multimodal qualitative approach (mobile interviews, photo elicitations, mapping and word association) to explore the values held in connection to saltmarshes at two Welsh case study sites: the Taf Estuary in Carmarthenshire and the Mawddach Estuary in Gwynedd.
We find that saltmarshes are ambiguous places, not having one obvious meaning, and being open to more than one interpretation. They are both known and unknown; valued and (literally) overlooked. We suggest that this ambiguousness is related to both the physical characteristics of saltmarshes, which change and shift on short and long time‐scales, as well as to the ways in which people (can) relate with them.
We discuss how ambiguity renders saltmarshes as places of exclusive, privileged human–nature relationships, and reflect on the implications of our findings for human well‐being and the management of threatened environments. We also consider how multimodal, in‐depth and place‐based methods such as ours provide ways in which to explore the more intangible and changeable values associated with particular habitats.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... In northern, colder oceans and seas such as the North Pacific and North Atlantic, much of the contact with blue spaces occurs on land rather than on/in/under the water (e.g. walks along beaches or coastal paths; Elliott et al. 2018). However, in warmer waters such as the Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean Sea or the Indian Ocean, water sports are highly popular, particularly in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). ...
Non-motorized water sports requiring physical efforts such as swimming, scuba diving, kayaking, sailing and surfing are becoming increasingly popular in Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs). This research investigates the relationship between these types of water sports and practitioners’ psychological and mental health. It takes the MPAs of Cap de Creus and Gulf of Roses (north-western Mediterranean) as a case study and is underpinned by a literature review and in-depth interviews with specialized water sports instructors. Results provide evidence that doing non-motorized water sports in the sea has positive outcomes for practitioners’ physical and mental health. When done in well-preserved areas, these sports may be a viable tool for both wellness and health recovery, and could be introduced in the community as a preventative and rehabilitation health strategy. This should be accompanied by strategies to address the ecological impacts these sports may have on MPAs.
Coastal destinations are highly popular for leisure, yet the effects of spending time at the coast on mental and physical health have remained underexplored. To accelerate the research about the effects of the coast on health, we compiled a dataset from a survey on a sample (N = 1939) of the adult Flemish population about their visits to the Belgian coast. The survey queried the number of days spent at the coast in the previous year or before and the following characteristics of their visits: how often they performed specific activities, which of the 14 municipal seaside resorts they visited, who they were with, what they mentally and physically experienced, and what reasons they had for not visiting the coast more often. The respondents’ geo-demographic (including residential proximity to the coast), socio-economic, and health profile was also collected. We anticipate that investigations on the data will increase our understanding about the social structuring of coastal visits and give context to the effects of the coast on human health.
Background
Cross-sectional evidence suggests that living near green and blue spaces benefits mental health; longitudinal evidence is limited.
Objectives
To quantify the impact of changes in green and blue spaces on common mental health disorders, well-being and health service use.
Design
A retrospective, dynamic longitudinal panel study.
Setting
Wales, UK.
Participants
An e-cohort comprising 99,682,902 observations of 2,801,483 adults (≥ 16 years) registered with a general practice in Wales (2008–2019). A 5312-strong ‘National Survey for Wales (NSW) subgroup’ was surveyed on well-being and visits to green and blue spaces.
Main outcome measures
Common mental health disorders, general practice records; subjective well-being, Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale.
Data sources
Common mental health disorder and use of general practice services were extracted quarterly from the Welsh Longitudinal General Practice Dataset. Annual ambient greenness exposure, enhanced vegetation index and access to green and blue spaces (2018) from planning and satellite data. Data were linked within the Secure Anonymised Information Linkage Databank.
Methods
Multilevel regression models examined associations between exposure to green and blue spaces and common mental health disorders and use of general practice. For the National Survey for Wales subgroup, generalised linear models examined associations between exposure to green and blue spaces and subjective well-being and common mental health disorders.
Results and conclusions
Our longitudinal analyses found no evidence that changes in green and blue spaces through time impacted on common mental health disorders. However, time-aggregated exposure to green and blue spaces contrasting differences between people were associated with subsequent common mental health disorders. Similarly, our cross-sectional findings add to growing evidence that residential green and blue spaces and visits are associated with well-being benefits:
Greater ambient greenness (+ 1 enhanced vegetation index) was associated with lower likelihood of subsequently seeking care for a common mental health disorder [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.80, 95% confidence interval, (CI) 0.80 to 0.81] and with well-being with a U-shaped relationship [Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale; enhanced vegetation index beta (adjusted) –10.15, 95% CI –17.13 to −3.17; EVI ² beta (quadratic term; adj.) 12.49, 95% CI 3.02 to 21.97].
Those who used green and blue spaces for leisure reported better well-being, with diminishing extra benefit with increasing time (Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale: time outdoors (hours) beta 0.88, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.24, time outdoors ² beta −0.06, 95% CI −0.11 to −0.01) and had 4% lower odds of seeking help for common mental health disorders (AOR 0.96, 95% CI 0.93 to 0.99).
Those in urban areas benefited most from greater access to green and blue spaces (AOR 0.89, 95% CI 0.89 to 0.89).
Those in material deprivation benefited most from leisure time outdoors (until approximately four hours per week; Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale: time outdoors × in material deprivation: 1.41, 95% CI 0.39 to 2.43; time outdoors ² × in material deprivation −0.18, 95% CI −0.33 to −0.04) although well-being remained generally lower.
Limitations
Longitudinal analyses were restricted by high baseline levels and limited temporal variation in ambient greenness in Wales. Changes in access to green and blue spaces could not be captured annually due to technical issues with national-level planning datasets.
Future work
Further analyses could investigate mental health impacts in population subgroups potentially most sensitive to local changes in access to specific types of green and blue spaces. Deriving green and blue spaces changes from planning data is needed to overcome temporal uncertainties.
Funding
This project was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme (Project number 16/07/07) and will be published in full in Public Health Research ; Vol. 11, No. 10. Sarah Rodgers is part-funded by the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration North West Coast.
Estuarine compound flooding can happen when an extreme sea level and river discharge occur concurrently, or in close succession, inundating low-lying coastal regions. Such events are hard to predict and amplify the hazard. Recent UK storms, including Storm Desmond (2015) and Ciara (2020), have highlighted the vulnerability of mountainous Atlantic-facing catchments to the impacts of compound flooding including risk to life and short- and long-term socioeconomic damages. To improve prediction and early-warning of compound flooding, combined sea and river thresholds need to be established. In this study, observational data and numerical modelling were used to reconstruct the historic flood record of an estuary particularly vulnerable to compound flooding (Conwy, N-Wales). The record was used to develop a method for identifying combined sea level and river discharge thresholds for flooding using idealised simulations and joint-probability analyses. The results show how flooding extent responds to increasing total water level and river discharge, with notable amplification due to the compounding drivers in some circumstances, and sensitivity (~7 %) due to the time-lag between the drivers. The influence of storm surge magnitude (as a component of total water level) on flooding extent was only important for scenarios with minor flooding. There was variability as to when and where compound flooding occurred; most likely under moderate sea and river conditions (e.g. 60–70th and 30–50th percentiles), and only in the mid-estuary zone. For such cases, joint probability analysis is important for establishing compound flood risk behaviour. Elsewhere in the estuary, either sea state or river flow dominated the hazard, and single value probability analysis is sufficient. These methods can be applied to estuaries worldwide to identify site-specific thresholds for flooding to support emergency response and long-term coastal management plans.
The National Social and Economic Survey of Recreational Fishers, jointly conducted by ABARES, the University of Canberra and the Australian Recreational Fishing Foundation, is the first national survey of its type in over 20 years. The report has shown that one in five Australian adults participate in recreational fishing every year, improving wellbeing and contributing 100,000 jobs and $11 billion to the Australian economy.
Contact with natural environments is associated with good health and well-being. Although childhood nature experiences may be important in the development of an individual's relationship with nature and subsequent well-being, previous studies have tended to focus on ‘nature’ in general, and the mechanisms by which childhood experiences influence well-being in adulthood remain insufficiently studied. Drawing on cross-sectional survey data from an 18-country sample (N = 15,743) the current work extended previous research by examining: a) blue spaces (coasts, rivers, lakes, etc.) in particular; b) associations between adults' recalled childhood exposure to blue spaces, frequency of recent visits to green and blues spaces, and adult subjective well-being; c) the role of childhood exposure to blue spaces on intrinsic motivations to spend time in nature; and d) the consistency of these relationships across different countries. Tests of a model where childhood exposure to blue spaces was linked to adult subjective well-being serially through intrinsic motivation and then recent blue and green space visits exhibited a good fit, a pattern largely consistent across all 18 countries. However, an alternative model where recent visits predicted intrinsic motivation also demonstrated good fit, indicating that these processes may be iterative. Building familiarity with and confidence in and around blue spaces in childhood may stimulate a joy of, and greater propensity to spend recreational time in, nature in adulthood, with positive consequences for adult subjective well-being.
Coastal recreation as a cultural ecosystem service (CES) is key to human wellbeing. However, anthropogenic impacts at the coast affect CES supply. Mapping and assessing CES can help achieve better coastal planning and management of the coast. Quantitative approaches for assessing and mapping CES are lacking, especially in coastal areas. We develop three quantitative models to assess and map coastal recreation CES supply, flow, and demand. We applied the developed models in the coastal region of Lithuania. The coastal recreation CES supply model comprises natural (e.g., naturalness) and cultural (e.g., points of interest) components. The input variables were (1) analysed for multicollinearity, (2) normalised and (3) overlayed using ArcGIS 10.8. An online survey was undertaken to assess and map CES flow and demand based on locations chosen by respondents where they perform recreation at the coast and the number of activities performed when visiting the coast. The coastal recreation CES supply model results showed that natural recreation is close to the coastline, forest areas, waterlines, and protected areas, while cultural recreation is highest in coastal urban areas. The supply model was validated (r² = 0.11) based on the respondents' chosen coastal locations for recreation. The low validation allowed us to identify the mismatch between model results and respondents' preferences occurring in Klaipėda urban area. When removing respondents’ points in Klaipeda urban area, the model validation increased (r² = 0.36). CES flow results highlighted Palanga, Šventoji, and Nida as the prime coastal recreation locations. The results of CES demand show that respondents living in municipalities near the coastline (Baltic Sea and Curonian Lagoon) perform fewer activities when visiting the coast. For other municipalities, a demand pattern was not observed. Our results yielded important spatial information that can be useful for planners and decision-makers in the context of coastal management.
Recreational blue space use generates important social benefits, that are supported by proximity to coastal and freshwater spaces. Yet, little research has explored different patterns of blue space use and how this is influenced by subjective perceptions about blue spaces. Here we draw on data from a representative survey of residents of South East Queensland (Australia) (N = 3128) to develop a typology of blue space use and quantify the frequency with which different types of blue spaces are used. We identified five distinct groups of blue space users: three frequent use groups, and two low use groups. Greater proximity to coastal areas which permit diverse types of activities supported all three frequent use groups, while greater distance from the coast limited low use groups. However, subjective perceptions about enablers and constraints also influenced use. For example, frequent exercisers and regular users do report constraints, but these tend to be related to place (suggesting structural constraints), and these groups also report high motivations. Non-users represented 13% of the sample, and reported low motivation, and high intrapersonal constraints such as not-belonging. Our findings suggest that behaviour patterns in and around waterways reflect both perceptions of the environment, and individual-level constraints that may transcend environmental context.
Water is a critical element of human existence and has shaped cities for centuries. In urban environments, water provides multiple ecosystem services and is an important element in the design of urban environments. Next to the many qualities and services provided by water, recent research indicates that exposure to freshwater blue space also enhances human health and wellbeing. However, health benefits are often not or implicitly taken into account in the design perspective.
This research aims to provide a systematic overview of the available body of knowledge regarding the relationship between freshwater blue space, health, and design. This study first proposes a bi-directional conceptual framework connecting health evidence with design practice. And then, scientometric analysis is employed to review 1338 research articles on freshwater blue-health research. The results show that the number of articles in this area is increasing yearly, attracting more and more disciplines and stimulating interdisciplinary collaboration. Freshwater blue-health research is broadening to emphasize usage and experience, psychological advantages, and particular demographics, which provides a solid basis for future design research. At the same time, it becomes clear that there is a strong demand to develop adaptive design knowledge that integrates the available health evidence and operationalizes it in healthy freshwater blue space design. This paper could help researchers understand the current research progress and future research directions, as well as facilitate multiple applications of health evidence by practitioners.
Domestic marine and costal tourism has increased in importance over the last number of years due to the impacts of international travel, environmental concerns, associated health benefits and COVID-19 related travel restrictions. Consequently, this paper conceptualizes domestic marine and coastal tourism within an economic framework. Two logit models examine the factors that influence participation in the coastal day trips and overnight stays markets, respectively. Two truncated travel cost models are employed to explore trip duration, one analyzing the number of day trips taken and the other examining the number of nights spent in marine and coastal areas. Although a range of variables predict participation, no one variable had a significant and consistent affect in every model. A division in access to domestic marine and coastal tourism is also observed based on variation in household income. The results also indicate a vibrant day trip market and large consumer surpluses. The decision to use logit participation models and travel cost models applied to day trips and overnight stays is a direct result of the audiences this paper aims to inform. Firstly, by presenting the decision making process for domestic marine and coastal tourism in this depth, evidence based decision makers can gather a better understanding of how domestic tourist decided to participate in marine and coastal tourism, who the larger beneficiary are of the different types of marine and coastal tourism and how policy focused solely on overnight stays can adversely affect particular segment of society, often those less well off financially. Secondly, the academic literature has presented a dearth of information comparing day trip participation to overnight stays in marine and coastal tourism, as such, this paper provides a valuable source of information.
Open water swimming is becoming an increasingly popular recreational activity. Understanding the human well-being benefits that open water swimmers derive from interaction with outdoor spaces is fundamental to environmental decision making, yet little is currently known about the benefits, threats and needs of open water swimmers in relation to the environments they swim in. In this study we provide a balanced assessment of the perceived cultural ecosystem services (CES) and ecosystem disservices (EDS) experienced by open water swimmers in the UK. Factor analysis based on an online questionnaire with 505 respondents revealed three distinct clusters of CES benefits that contribute to human well-being (‘spiritual value and interaction with nature’, ‘mental and physical health’, and ‘social bonds’). Swimming frequency, site type, gender and whether respondents were members of environmental groups affected response patterns towards CES benefits. There were five distinct clusters of EDS (‘natural hazards’, ‘security and safety (health)’, ‘security and safety (weather)’, ‘recreation’ and ‘material (biotic and abiotic)’. Key EDS ranked as an issue (by more than 50% of respondents) related to water quality, currents, rubbish and litter in water bodies and boat traffic. Swimming duration, age and swimming frequency in particular affected response patterns surrounding EDS, and to a small extent the site type. The results can be used to support the effective implementation of national and international policy, which aims to improve human well-being through encouraging use of outdoor spaces, whilst promoting the conservation and sustainable use of freshwater and marine ecosystems.
Management implications
The results of this study support effective ecosystem management of aquatic environments used by recreational open water swimmers through:
-Facilitating the inclusion of cultural ecosystem services/ ecosystem disservices experienced by open water swimmers in management planning
-Identifying the main human well-being benefits experienced by open water swimmers when interacting with waterbodies and demonstrating that these vary depending on the demographics of the recreational user, and characteristics of the recreational activity
-Understanding the main ecosystem disservices experienced by open water swimmers and identifying management actions to address these
-Providing a framework that can be used for similar assessments
Introduction
Proximity and access to water have long been central to human culture and accordingly deliver
countless societal benefits. Over 200 million people live on Europe’s coastline, and aquatic
environments are the top recreational destination in the region. In terms of public health,
interactions with ‘blue space’ (e.g. coasts, rivers, lakes) are often considered solely in terms of
risk (e.g. drowning, microbial pollution). Exposure to blue space can, however, promote health
and well-being and prevent disease, although underlying mechanisms are poorly understood.
Aims and methods
The BlueHealth project aims to understand the relationships between exposure to blue space and
health and well-being, to map and quantify the public health impacts of changes to both natural
blue spaces and associated urban infrastructure in Europe, and to provide evidence-based
information to policy makers on how to maximise health benefits associated with interventions
in and around aquatic environments. To achieve these aims, an evidence base will be created
through systematic reviews, analyses of secondary datasets, and analyses of new data collected
through a bespoke international survey and a wide range of community-level interventions. We
will also explore how to deliver the benefits associated with blue spaces to those without direct
access through the use of virtual reality. Scenarios will be developed that allow the evaluation of
health impacts in plausible future societal contexts and changing environments. BlueHealth will
develop key inputs into policy-making and land/water-use planning towards more salutogenic
and sustainable uses of blue space, particularly in urban areas.
Conclusions
Through mapping and quantifying the benefits of blue space to health and well-being of the
European population, BlueHealth will support consideration of state-of-the-art evidence on
health and well-being in the planning and development of Europe’s blue infrastructure.
Exercise in natural environments (“green exercise”) confers numerous health benefits, but little is known about why people engage in green exercise. This study examined the importance of nature experiences as a motive for physical activity and the motivational profile of people who engage in green exercise compared to gym- and sports-based exercise. Physical activity motives and typical times spent in different domains of physical activity were reported by 2168 Norwegian adults in a survey. Experiencing nature was generally rated as the second-most important physical activity motive, exceeded only by convenience motives, and it was especially important for older adults and those who engage in greater amounts of instrumental physical activity. Green exercisers reported stronger motives concerning convenience and experiencing nature, whereas gym- or sports-based exercisers reported stronger motives for physical health and sociability. The motives associated with different leisure-time exercise domains may assist in understanding optimal promotion of green exercise.
Background: Physical activity (PA) in natural environments, known as green exercise (GE), can provide health benefits above and beyond PA in other environments, but little is known about the extent to which GE is an accessible form of weekly PA across different social groups. This study aims to examine the “GE phenomenon” in Norway, and evaluate possible differences in GE habits and perceived factors that promote GE across sub-groups of this population. Methods:
2168 adults from all over Norway reported weekly GE and other forms of PA, specific forms of GE, and perceived factors that promote GE. Data were examined in the overall sample and in relation with the respondents’ PA status and sociodemographic characteristics. Results: GE, especially “walking in the forest” and “activities by/on the sea”, was the most popular form of weekly PA, even among those with low PA levels. GE was fairly represented across all social groups, and especially among the elderly, those who live with spouse/partner and those who live in the west regions of Norway, while no associations were found in relation to sex, centrality, education level or household income. “Time flexibility” and “PA-supportive places” were generally perceived as the most important factors that promote GE across all social groups. “Accessibility to nature” was generally perceived relatively little important, though a gradient was observed in relation to age, education level and household income. Conclusions: GE is an important source of weekly PA and health among adult Norwegians, especially in sub-groups of interest for public health such as the elderly, those with lower socio-economic status and those who live in non-urban areas.
More should be done to understand and address the inequities relative to the perceived accessibility to nature.
Background:
Lack of physical activity (PA) is a growing public health concern. There is a growing body of literature that suggests a positive relationship may exist between the amount of local green space near one's home and PA levels. For instance, park proximity has been shown to predict PA levels amongst certain populations. However, there is little evidence for the role of relatedness towards nature and perceptions of local green space on this relationship. The aim of this study was to examine, in a National UK sample, whether subjective indices associated with local green space were better predictors of visit frequency to local green space and PA levels compared to objectively measured quantity of local green space.
Methods:
A cross-sectional survey was designed. From a random sample, 2079 working age adults responded to an online survey in September 2011. Demographics, self-reported PA, objective measures of the local environment (including local green space, road coverage, and environmental deprivation), were assessed in conjunction with perceptions of local green space and nature relatedness. Quantity of local green space was assessed by cross-referencing respondents' home postcodes with general land use databases. Regression models were conducted to assess which of our independent variables best predicted visit frequency to local green space and/or meeting PA guidelines. In addition, an ordinal regression was run to examine the relationship between visit frequency to local green space and the likelihood of meeting national PA guidelines.
Results:
Nature relatedness was the strongest predictor for both visit frequency to local green space and meeting PA guidelines. Results show that perceived quality is a better predictor of visit frequency to local green space than objective quantity of local green space. The odds of achieving the recommended amount of PA was over four times greater for people who visited local green space once per week compared to never going (OR 4.151; 95 % CI, 2.40 to 7.17).
Conclusions:
These results suggest that perceptions of local green space and nature relatedness play an important role in the relationship between local green space and PA. Considering the known health benefits of PA, our results are potentially important for public health interventions, policy making and environmental planning.
Physical inactivity poses a significant challenge to physical and mental health. Environmental approaches to tackle physical inactivity have identified natural environments as potentially important public health resources. Despite this, little is known about characteristics of the activity involved when individuals visit different types of natural environment. Using Natural England's Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment Survey, we examined 71,603 English respondents' recreational visits to natural environments in the past week. Specifically, we examined the intensity of the activities they undertook on the visits (METs), the duration of their visit, and the associated total energy expenditure (MET minutes). Visits to countryside and urban greenspace environments were associated with more intense activities than visits to coastal environments. However, visits to coastal environments were associated with the most energy expenditure overall due to their relatively long duration. Results differed by the urbanity or rurality of the respondent's residence and also how far respondents travelled to their destination. Knowledge of what types of natural environment afford the highest volumes and intensities of physical activity could inform landscape architecture and exercise prescriptions. Isolating activity-supporting characteristics of natural environments that can be translated into urban design is important in providing physical activity opportunities for those less able to access expansive environments.
Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.
To examine temporal trends in participation in sport and exercise activities in England between 1997 and 2006 while taking into account wider societal changes.
A series of annual cross-sectional surveys.
Nationally representative samples of men (n = 27 217) and women (n = 33 721) aged >or=16 years.
Any (more than once every 4 weeks) and regular (more than once a week) participation in overall sport and exercise and a number of sport and exercise groupings (eg cycling, swimming, gym and fitness club-based activities (G/FC), racquet sports). Time point (1997/98, 2003/04, 2006) was the main dependent variable.
Age-standardised overall regular participation changed from 40.8% in 1997/98 to 41.2% in 2006 for men (multivariable-adjusted participation OR = 1.11 in 2006, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.19, p<0.001) and from 31.2% to 33.9% for women (1.21, 1.13 to 1.29, p<0.001). Regular G/FC increased from 17.0% to 19.2% for men (1.19, 1.09 to 1.30) and from 15.9% to 18.7% for women (1.23, 1.14 to 1.33) and regular running increased from 2.4% to 4.0% for women only (1.84, 1.56 to 2.18). Overall increases were apparent only in older adults (>or=45 years) (1.25, 1.16 to 1.35, p<0.001). Young men (16-29 years) had reduced ORs for cycling (0.72, 0.58 to 0.88, p = 0.008), dancing (0.60, 0.45 to 0.82, p = 0.001), running (0.78, 0.64 to 0.94, p<0.001) and racquet sports (0.60, 0.42 to 0.86, p = 0.003). In men, increases were pronounced only among men from non-manual social classes, higher income households and white ethnic backgrounds.
Sports and exercise participation in England has changed between 1997 and 2006 as the result of increases among middle-aged and older adults and decreases among young men. There are no signs that the participation gap between less and more advantaged population groups is narrowing.
Water is one of the most important physical, aesthetic landscape elements and possesses importance e.g. in environmental psychology, landscape design, and tourism research, but the relationship between water and health in current literature is only investigated in the field of environmental toxicology and microbiology, not explicitly in the research field of blue space and human well-being. Due to the lack of a systematic review of blue space and well-being in the various fields of research, the aim of this review is to provide a systematic, qualitative meta-analysis of existing studies that are relevant to this issue. Benefits for health and well-being clearly related to blue space can be identified with regard to perception and preference, landscape design, emotions, and restoration and recreation. Additionally, direct health benefits have already been stated. The studies included in the review are mostly experimental studies or cross-sectional surveys, focusing on students as the subject group. There is a need for more qualitative and multi-faceted, interdisciplinary studies, using triangulation as a method to achieve a resilient image of reality. A broader study design considering all age groups would contribute to identifying benefits for the whole of society. The inattentiveness to blue space makes it difficult to measure long-term effects of blue space on well-being. There is still little respect for water and health in planning issues, although salutogenetic health benefits can be identified. To close the gap regarding missing systematic concepts, a concept for assessing salutogenetic health effects in blue space is provided. Blue space is considered therein as a multi-dimensional term including four dimensions of appropriation, as well as at least five ontological dimensions of substantiality. The aim of the concept is to support researchers and practitioners analysing health effects in blue space.
To review and update the evidence relating to the personal, social, and environmental factors associated with physical activity (PA) in adults.
Systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature to identify papers published between 1998 and 2000 with PA (and including exercise and exercise adherence). Qualitative reports or case studies were not included.
Thirty-eight new studies were located. Most confirmed the existence of factors already known to be correlates of PA. Changes in status were noted in relation to the influence of marital status, obesity, smoking, lack of time, past exercise behavior, and eight environmental variables. New studies were located which focused on previously understudied population groups such as minorities, middle and older aged adults, and the disabled.
The newly reported studies tend to take a broader "ecological" approach to understanding the correlates of PA and are more focused on environmental factors. There remains a need to better understand environmental influences and the factors that influence different types of PA. As most of the work in this field still relies on cross-sectional studies, longitudinal and intervention studies will be required if causal relationships are to be inferred.
This study was designed to investigate the effect of exercise intensity on cardiorespiratory fitness and coronary heart disease risk factors. Maximum oxygen consumption (Vo(2 max)), lipid, lipoprotein, and fibrinogen concentrations were measured in 64 previously sedentary men before random allocation to a nonexercise control group, a moderate-intensity exercise group (three 400-kcal sessions per week at 60% of Vo(2 max)), or a high-intensity exercise group (three 400-kcal sessions per week at 80% of Vo(2 max)). Subjects were instructed to maintain their normal dietary habits, and training heart rates were represcribed after monthly fitness tests. Forty-two men finished the study. After 24 wk, Vo(2 max) increased by 0.38 +/- 0.14 l/min in the moderate-intensity group and by 0.55 +/- 0.27 l/min in the high-intensity group. Repeated-measures analysis of variance identified a significant interaction between monthly Vo(2 max) score and exercise group (F = 3.37, P < 0.05), indicating that Vo(2 max) responded differently to moderate- and high-intensity exercise. Trend analysis showed that total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and fibrinogen concentrations changed favorably across control, moderate-intensity, and high-intensity groups. However, significant changes in total cholesterol (-0.55 +/- 0.81 mmol/l), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (-0.52 +/- 0.80 mmol/l), and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (-0.54 +/- 0.86 mmol/l) were only observed in the high-intensity group (all P < 0.05 vs. controls). These data suggest that high-intensity training is more effective in improving cardiorespiratory fitness than moderate-intensity training of equal energy cost. These data also suggest that changes in coronary heart disease risk factors are influenced by exercise intensity.
Background:
A growing number of quantitative studies have investigated the potential benefits of outdoor blue spaces (lakes, rivers, sea, etc) and human health, but there is not yet a systematic review synthesizing this evidence.
Objectives:
To systematically review the current quantitative evidence on human health and well-being benefits of outdoor blue spaces.
Methods:
Following PRISMA guidelines for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analysis, observational and experimental quantitative studies focusing on both residential and non-residential outdoor blue space exposure were searched using specific keywords.
Results:
In total 35 studies were included in the current systematic review, most of them being classified as of "good quality" (N=22). The balance of evidence suggested a positive association between greater exposure to outdoor blue spaces and both benefits to mental health and well-being (N=12 studies) and levels of physical activity (N=13 studies). The evidence of an association between outdoor blue space exposure and general health (N=6 studies), obesity (N=8 studies) and cardiovascular (N=4 studies) and related outcomes was less consistent.
Conclusions:
Although encouraging, there remains relatively few studies and a large degree of heterogeneity in terms of study design, exposure metrics and outcome measures, making synthesis difficult. Further research is needed using longitudinal research and natural experiments, preferably across a broader range of countries, to better understand the causal associations between blue spaces, health and wellbeing.
Despite growing interest in the relationships between natural environments and subjective wellbeing (SWB), previous studies have various methodological and theoretical limitations. Focusing on urban/peri-urban residents (n=7272) from a nationally representative survey of the English population, we explored the relationships between three types of exposure: i) ‘neighbourhood exposure’, ii) ‘visit frequency’, and iii) ‘specific visit’; and four components of SWB: i) evaluative, ii) eudaimonic, iii) positive experiential and iv) negative experiential. Controlling for area and individual level socio-demographics and other aspects of SWB, visit frequency was associated with eudaimonic wellbeing and a specific visit with positive experiential wellbeing. People who visited nature regularly felt their lives were more worthwhile, and those who visited nature yesterday were happier. The magnitude of the association between weekly nature visits and eudaimonic wellbeing was similar to that between eudaimonic wellbeing and life circumstances such as marital status. Findings are relevant for policies to protect and promote public access to natural environments.
Cultural geographers are increasingly interested in research on water and water-based practices as sites of study. Parallel literatures on therapeutic landscapes, especially emergent work on healthy blue space, have also begun to explore emotional geographies. This paper is an empirical study of outdoor swimming in Ireland with a specific focus on health and wellbeing. A key aim is to uncover evidence on how specific blue places and practices enable health. The idea of a continuum is utilised to link theory and practice and connect rather than divide affect, feeling and emotion. This is articulated through a set of embodied experiential practices that proposed swimming as a process of therapeutic accretion. Both personal and shared histories are used to identify the importance of both swimming practices and places to show how therapeutic accretions emerge to build healthy resilience. Additional insights suggest aspects of embodied health that are enhanced by outdoor swimming, especially in relation to bodies perceived to be inactive due to age, illness or disability. While the risks are not ignored, the need to better value outdoor swimming in cooler climates for public health is proposed, suggesting new directions for research on outdoor swimming to simultaneously capture active and passive embodied and emotional experiences within blue space.
The marine environment provides a number of services which contribute to human well-being including the provision of food, regulation of climate and the provision of settings for cultural gains. To ensure these services continue to be provided, effective management is required and is being strategically implemented through the development of marine spatial plans. These plans require an understanding of the costs and benefits associated with alternative marine uses and how they contribute to human well-being. One benefit which is often difficult to quantify is the health benefit of engaging with the marine environment. To address this, the research develops an approach which can estimate the contribution aquatic physical activities makes to quality adjusted life years (QALYs) in monetary and non-monetary terms. Using data from the Health Survey for England, the research estimates that physical activities undertaken in aquatic environments at a national level provides a total gain of 24,853 QALYs. A conservative estimate of the monetary value of a QALY gain of this magnitude is £176 million. This approach provides estimates of health benefits which can be used in more comprehensive impact assessments, such as cost-benefit analysis, to compare alternative marine spatial plans. The paper concludes by discussing future steps.
Exposure to natural environments can help restore depleted emotional and cognitive resources. However, investigation of the relative impacts of different natural environments among large samples is limited. Using data from 4255 respondents drawn from Natural England's Monitoring Engagement with the Natural Environment survey (2009-2011), we investigated feelings of restoration (calm, relaxed, revitalized and refreshed) recalled by individuals after visits to different natural environments within the last week. Controlling for demographic and visit characteristics we found that of the broad environmental categories, coastal visits were associated with the most restoration and town and urban parks with the least. In terms of specific environmental types two "green space" locations (woodlands/forests and hills/moorland/mountains) were associated with levels of restoration comparable to coastal locations. Urban playing fields were associated with the least restoration. Restoration was positively associated with visit duration (a potential dose-response effect), and visits with children were associated with less restoration than visits alone. There was little evidence that different activities (e.g. walking, exercising) were associated with differences in restoration. The data may improve our understanding of the "cultural eco-system services" provided by different natural environments and help decision makers keen to invest scare resources in those environments most associated with psychological benefits. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Background
Recent findings suggest that individuals living near the coast are healthier than those living inland. Here we investigated whether this may be related to higher levels of physical activity among coastal dwellers in England, arising in part as a result of more visits to outdoor coastal settings.
Method
Participants (n = 183,755) were drawn from Natural England’s Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment Survey (2009-2012). Analyses were based on self-reported physical activity for leisure and transport.
Results
A small, but significant coastal proximity gradient was seen for the likelihood of achieving recommended guidelines of physical activity a week after adjusting for relevant area and individual level controls. This effect was statistically mediated by the likelihood of having visited the coast in the last seven days. Stratification by region, however, suggested that while the main effect was relatively strong for west coast regions, it was not significant for those in the east.
Conclusions
In general, our findings replicate and extend work from Australia and New Zealand. Further work is needed to explain the marked regional differences in the relationship between coastal proximity and physical activity in England to better understand the coast’s potential role as a public health resource.
Research on ecosystem services mapping and valuing has increased significantly in recent years. However, compared to provisioning and regulating services, cultural ecosystem services have not yet been fully integrated into operational frameworks. One reason for this is that transdisciplinarity is required to address the issue, since by definition cultural services (encompassing physical, intellectual, spiritual interactions with biota) need to be analysed from multiple perspectives (i.e. ecological, social, behavioural). A second reason is the lack of data for large-scale assessments, as detailed surveys are a main source of information. Among cultural ecosystem services, assessment of outdoor recreation can be based on a large pool of literature developed mostly in social and medical science, and landscape and ecology studies. This paper presents a methodology to include recreation in the conceptual framework for EU wide ecosystem assessments (Maes et al., 2013), which couples existing approaches for recreation management at country level with behavioural data derived from surveys and population distribution data. The proposed framework is based on three components: the ecosystem function (recreation potential), the adaptation of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum framework to characterise the ecosystem service and the distribution of potential demand in the EU. Results show that 38% of the EU is characterised by a high outdoor recreation potential, which is easily accessible, and that such areas can host about 35.4% of potential demand for close-to-home trips (<8 km). This proportion increases to 37.6% for long distance travelling (<80 km). The analysis framework can be applied to quantify the availability of outdoor recreation potential as an ecosystem service to EU citizens, to describe through country profiles differences in ecosystem service provision at regional level, and can be used as an input to land use planning processes.
ProblemDepression is a common disorder worldwide. Most patients are treated within primary care and antidepressant treatment is not recommended for people with mild depression. Physical activity has been shown to alleviate depression but it is not known whether the less vigorous activity of walking – a potentially widely acceptable and safe intervention – confers such benefit.Method
Eleven databases were systematically searched for randomised, controlled trials of walking as a treatment intervention for depression, from database inception until January 2012. Meta-analyses were carried out on all trials eligible for inclusion and on sub-groups of outdoor, indoor and group walking.ResultsOf the 14,672 articles retrieved, eight trials met the inclusion criteria. The pooled standardised mean difference (effect size) was −0.86 [−1.12, −0.61] showing that walking has a statistically significant, large effect on symptoms of depression. However, there was considerable heterogeneity amongst the interventions and research populations and it is uncertain whether the results can be generalised to specific populations such as primary care patients.Conclusions
Walking has a statistically significant, large effect on the symptoms of depression in some populations, but the current evidence base from randomised, controlled trials is limited. Thus, while walking is a promising treatment for depression or depressive symptoms with few, if any, contraindications, further investigations to establish the frequency, intensity, duration and type(s) of effective walking interventions particularly in primary care populations would be beneficial for providing further recommendations to clinical practitioners.
Analysis of English census data revealed a positive association between self-reported health and living near the coast. However that analysis was based on cross-sectional data and was unable to control for potential selection effects (e.g. generally healthier, personality types moving to coastal locations). In the current study we have used English panel data to explore the relationship between the proximity to the coast and indicators of generic and mental health for the same individuals over time. This allowed us to control for both time-invariant factors such as personality and compare the strength of any relationship to that of other relationships (e.g. employment vs. unemployment). In support of cross-sectional analysis, individuals reported significantly better general health and mental health when living nearer the coast, controlling for both individual (e.g. employment status) and area (e.g. green space) level factors. No coastal effect on life satisfaction was found. Although individual level coastal proximity effects for general health and mental health were small, their cumulative impact at the community level may be meaningful for policy makers.
Policy makers in Denmark are increasingly recognising the potential health benefits associated with green space, in particular with the use of green space. Knowledge on how green space is used, why it is used, and which factors influence its use, is becoming interesting for researchers, city planners and managers of green space. The present study is based on data from a nationwide study of 11238 randomly selected adult Danes. Respondents were asked about the distance to four different types of green space, their frequency of use of each of these types of green space, and the main reasons for visiting green space. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the association between potential predictor factors and visits to green space at least a few times per week. Results show that 66.9% of the respondents live within 300m of green space, 43.0% visit green space every day and 91.5% visit green space at least once a week. Only 0.9% never visit green space. To enjoy the weather and get fresh air is the most important reason for visiting green space for 87.2% of the respondents. Distance to green space is not a limiting factor for the majority of the Danish population and for that reason we recommend a thorough analysis of a neighbourhood or city, its population, and the available green spaces, before deciding on a viable strategy to increase the use of green space.
Physical inactivity is an important contributor to non-communicable diseases in countries of high income, and increasingly so in those of low and middle income. Understanding why people are physically active or inactive contributes to evidence-based planning of public health interventions, because effective programmes will target factors known to cause inactivity. Research into correlates (factors associated with activity) or determinants (those with a causal relationship) has burgeoned in the past two decades, but has mostly focused on individual-level factors in high-income countries. It has shown that age, sex, health status, self-efficacy, and motivation are associated with physical activity. Ecological models take a broad view of health behaviour causation, with the social and physical environment included as contributors to physical inactivity, particularly those outside the health sector, such as urban planning, transportation systems, and parks and trails. New areas of determinants research have identified genetic factors contributing to the propensity to be physically active, and evolutionary factors and obesity that might predispose to inactivity, and have explored the longitudinal tracking of physical activity throughout life. An understanding of correlates and determinants, especially in countries of low and middle income, could reduce the eff ect of future epidemics of inactivity and contribute to effective global prevention of non-communicable diseases.
It is often assumed that spending time by the coast leads to better health and wellbeing, but there is strikingly little evidence regarding specific effects or mechanisms to support such a view. We analysed small-area census data for the population of England, which indicate that good health is more prevalent the closer one lives to the coast. We also found that, consistent with similar analyses of greenspace accessibility, the positive effects of coastal proximity may be greater amongst more socio-economically deprived communities. We hypothesise that these effects may be due to opportunities for stress reduction and increased physical activity.
Describe the proportion of total moderate or vigorous physical activity (MVPA) time that is represented by specific types of physical activity among active adults.
We analyzed data from 4750 adult participants in the 2008 Health Survey for England who reported ≥30 min of MVPA on ≥5 days per week. The proportion of their MVPA time spent in: occupational, domestic, walking, exercise and fitness, team sports, non-team sports, outdoor pursuit, and leisure pursuit activities were calculated and averaged across 6 age categories.
Exercise and fitness activities make up a greater proportion of total MVPA for young adults (16-24 years: men=27%; women=21%) than old adults (65+ years: 12%; 11%); the same is true for Team sports (16-24 years: 12%, 2%; 65+ years: 0%, 0%). Domestic activities make up a greater proportion of total MVPA time among older men and women (16-24 years: 9%, 16%; 65+ years: 34%, 38%). Walking is one of the most important contributors to total MVPA across all age groups for both sexes (range all ages: 26-42%, 37-45%).
The physical activity profile of physically active English adults varies with age. Age-specific interventions to increase physical activity among adults may be needed.
Behavioral economics is a relatively new field of economics that uses experimental techniques to produce insights about human decision-making. One of its key findings is that people's preferences for actions are not absolute, but rather relative to some anchor point, and can therefore be influenced by changing the anchor. Anchor points can be social norms, habits acquired in childhood, or a cultural frame-whether physical activity is presented as fun or as drudgery. Physical activity promotion can benefit by intervening on these anchors, but doing so is most effective when it is undertaken for society as a whole. Behavioral economics accordingly suggests that physical activity promotion should incorporate attempts at a cultural shift to support individual health-promotion efforts.
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an independent effect on health and health-related behaviours. We postulated that income-related inequality in health would be less pronounced in populations with greater exposure to green space, since access to such areas can modify pathways through which low socioeconomic position can lead to disease.
We classified the population of England at younger than retirement age (n=40 813 236) into groups on the basis of income deprivation and exposure to green space. We obtained individual mortality records (n=366 348) to establish whether the association between income deprivation, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality (circulatory disease, lung cancer, and intentional self-harm) in 2001-05, varied by exposure to green space measured in 2001, with control for potential confounding factors. We used stratified models to identify the nature of this variation.
The association between income deprivation and mortality differed significantly across the groups of exposure to green space for mortality from all causes (p<0.0001) and circulatory disease (p=0.0212), but not from lung cancer or intentional self-harm. Health inequalities related to income deprivation in all-cause mortality and mortality from circulatory diseases were lower in populations living in the greenest areas. The incidence rate ratio (IRR) for all-cause mortality for the most income deprived quartile compared with the least deprived was 1.93 (95% CI 1.86-2.01) in the least green areas, whereas it was 1.43 (1.34-1.53) in the most green. For circulatory diseases, the IRR was 2.19 (2.04-2.34) in the least green areas and 1.54 (1.38-1.73) in the most green. There was no effect for causes of death unlikely to be affected by green space, such as lung cancer and intentional self-harm.
Populations that are exposed to the greenest environments also have lowest levels of health inequality related to income deprivation. Physical environments that promote good health might be important to reduce socioeconomic health inequalities.
To examine the association between geographical proximity to the coast and physical activity participation levels.
Using stratified random sampling, a telephone survey was carried out in 1994 with 1,000 adults in each of the 16 health service regions in New South Wales (N = 16,178). Physical activity levels were measured through self-report of the frequency and duration of walking, moderate and vigorous activities in the two weeks preceding the survey. Logistic regression modelling was carried out to examine the association between physical activity and 'coastal' location of residence, adjusting for age, sex, employment status, education level and country of birth.
After adjusting for other demographic factors, respondents who lived in a coastal postcode were 23% less likely to be classified as sedentary, 27% more likely to report levels of activity considered adequate for health, and 38% more likely to report high (vigorous) levels of physical activity than those who lived inland. Each of these associations was significant at the 0.05 level.
Characteristics of the physical environment in coastal postcodes are related to physical activity participation.
Physical environments may contribute to physical activity participation. Further efforts to conceptualise and measure these environmental influences is warranted. Public health efforts to promote physical activity should consider aspects of the physical environment as part of any intervention.
To quantify the association between walking and the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality in healthy men and women.
Medline, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and Web of Science databases were searched to May 2007. Study selection: Prospective epidemiological studies of walking and CVD and all-cause mortality.
18 prospective studies were included in the overall analysis, which incorporated 459 833 participants free from CVD at baseline with 19 249 cases at follow-up. From the meta-analysis the pooled hazard ratio of CVD in the highest walking category compared with the lowest was 0.69, (95% CI 0.61 to 0.77, p<0.001), and 0.68 (0.59 to 0.78, p<0.001) for all-cause mortality. These effects were robust among men and women, although there was evidence of publication biases for the associations with CVD risk. Walking pace was a stronger independent predictor of overall risk compared with walking volume (48% versus 26% risk reductions, respectively). There was also evidence of a dose-response relationship across the highest, intermediate, and lowest walking categories in relation to the outcome measures.
The results suggest walking is inversely associated with clinical disease endpoints and largely support the current guidelines for physical activity. The mechanisms that mediate this relationship remain largely unknown and should be the focus of future research.