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Farming Systems of the World
... Figure 5, adapted from Nakanishi, shows the presentation variants of Arabic letters. [8] [ Figure 5 (Arabic Presentation Forms) is not available in ASCII format.] ...
... (The first and last years of two eras may coincide. Showa, the previous era, ended January 7, 1989, and Heisei started on January 8,1989.) This date format is routinely used in business in Japan. ...
Throughout the world, computer users approach a computer system with a specific set of cultural requirements. In all cultures, they expect computer systems to accommodate their needs. A major part of interaction with computers occurs through written language. Cultural requirements, particularly written languages, influence the way computer systems must operate. Cultural differences concerning national conventions for the presentation of date, time, and number and user interface design for the components of images, color, sound, and the overall layout of the screen also affect the development of computer technology. Successful computer systems must respond to the multicultural needs of users.
... Given the importance of trade for food availability, the economics and social science research communities have addressed these broader aspects of food security for several decades. Socioeconomic aspects have also been an important component of farming systems research since the early 1970s, and Duckham and Masefield (1970) noted that "the relevance of research and technology to any farming system can only be assessed with a knowledge of both the ecological and economic factors operating on that system." The notion of food policy analysis (Timmer et al., 1983) was a further step forward. ...
... Small ruminant production systems form a component of farming systems (Duckham and Masefield 1970;Ruthenberg 1976; Spalding 1979). Although agroecological conditions determine the types of crops and livestock systems suitable to any one location, the prevailing ruminant production systems have evolved in response to the total availability of land, the type of crop production practiced, the frequency of cropping, the area of uncultivated wasteland, and the density of animal populations. ...
... Thus the term 'in dustrialised farming' has been used to summa rise the characteristics of productivist agricul ture and its associated land uses (Troughton 1986). ...
Agriculture in the European Union (EU) is moving into a ‘post-productivist transition’. From a period of maximizing food output, farmers are being redirected to reduce their production, provide society with ‘environmental goods’ and create a more ‘sustainable’ agriculture. The motivations for this transition can be traced to the removal of food surpluses, control of the cost of subsidies to agriculture, and repair of environmental damage associated with productivist agriculture. This paper offers a perspective on the agricultural land-use implications of this redirection of EU agriculture by examining agricultural land use in the past (productivism), the present (post-productivist transition) and the future (post-productivism). Attention is directed to three changing land use dimensions: from intensification to extensification; from concentration to dispersion; and from specialisation to diversification. There are national, regional and local variations in these dimensions, but overall a more diversified land use structure is emerging within the EU. Non-food crops (including bio-fuel), forestry, set-aside, nature conservation and recreation are the main rural, rather than agricultural, land uses increasing in importance. Future rural land use trends will revolve around three processes: the extent of ‘surplus’ farmland in the EU, global competition in markets for food, and global climatic change. Much depends on the application of technological progress in the genetic engineering of crops and livestock, the international competitiveness of regional agricultural systems, and the international agricultural response to global climatic change.
... -Under conditions of intensive land use milk production is the biologically most efficient form of food protein production being more efficient in this respect than cereal or legume grains per unit land area (Duckham and Masefield 1970). The biological potential for milk production per head is considerably above present levels. ...
I have been asked to take a long term view of the potential for animal production in the temperate zone and to stress the biological potential rather than short term economic prospects. For statistical convenience, I have taken the temperate zone to comprise the 71.4 million hectares of the wheat-sheep and high rainfall zones of the Grazing Industry Survey (B.A.E. 1976) (excluding Queensland) of which 49.2 million hectares is used as pasture. Of the 165,000 commercial farms in the temperate zone only 31,000 are primarily concerned with crop production; the remaining 134,000 have animal production as their principal activity, illustrating the dominant position of animal production in the rural economy (Table 1). The turnover in Australia from the sale of livestock and livestock products in 1973-74 was m1600 from crops (A.B.S. 1976a). TABLE 1: Agri cultural establ prin.cipal activity.
... The economics and social science research communities have been addressing the broader perspectives on food security for several decades. Socioeconomic aspects have been an important component of farming systems research since the early 1970s, and Duckham and Masefield (1970) noted that the relevance of research and technology to any farming system can only be assessed with a knowledge of both the ecological and economic factors operating on that system. Since the World Food Conference in 1974 researchers have been interested in livelihoods at household and individual levels, an important determinant of food security given the need of many to buy food (Maxwell, 1996), while more recent work has studied the role of food prices (e.g. ...
... .scale landscape modifications constructed centuries ago still function effectively to prevent erosion. The terraced mountainsides of Java, Bali, and Luzon are examples of this and have been crucial to the sustainability of agricultural activities in steep mountain areas (Duckham and Masefield 1969). Traditional upland agriculture in Java employs a patchwork of cropping systems such that soil eroded from one field is recaptured by fields immediately downhill (El. . . ...
... While agricultural systems analysis had previously partly considered the links between functions (see e.g. Dixon & Gulliver, 2001;Duckham & Masefield, 1970), multifunctionality places these interrelations centre-stage. ...
This introductory paper provides an overview of the emergence of the concept of ‘the multifunctionality of agriculture and rural areas’, with particular emphasis on its historical and research dimensions and how it is interrelated with the notion of ‘territory’. The paper is based on a state-of-the-art review of the different conceptualizations of the multifunctionality of agriculture and rural areas in policy related discourses. It examines how the concept of multifunctionality was taken on board and operationalized, in scientific analyses, strategic policy analysis and evaluation. In this special issue we focus on policy related analyses and discourses and the related analytical frameworks. We argue that scientific research should dissociate itself from political and interest driven discourses where multifunctionality tends to be primarily defined in economic terms (with a focus on the difference between private and public goods terms), and instead treat multifunctionality as a valuable conceptual framework. This paper emphasizes the important analytical and strategic links between multifunctionality and sustainability. In so doing it also closely links the notions of territory and territorial development with those of multifunctionality and sustainability. The adoption of a wider territorial development perspective has several implications in terms of governance and policies and these will be discussed. Theoretical and empirical gaps relating to these issues are identified, some of which are addressed in the other papers within this special issue.
... Crop-animal systems have evolved and developed over many centuries. The principal determinants of the type of crop and animal systems in a particular location are the agro-ecological conditions (Duckham and Masefield, 1970;Spedding, 1975;Ruthenberg, 1980;Sere and Steinfeld, 1996). Climate, and to a lesser extent soils, affect the natural vegetation and determine what crops can be grown. ...
Asian animal production systems are discussed in the context of their relevance, types, trends, opportunities for productivity enhancement, and the implications for natural resource management (NRM). These include a variety of systems in agro-ecological zones which can be grouped broadly into one of three categories: landless, crop-based and, and rangeland-based. The landless production systems are of two types: (i) highly industrialised pig and poultry production, and (ii) extensive systems involving small ruminants, cattle and camels and resource-poor nomads, transhumants or agricultural laborers and seasonal migrations. Within crop-based systems, animals are found in both irrigated and rainfed areas. The genesis of these systems is illustrated, and includes two broad categories: systems combining animals with annual or perennial cropping. The significance of crop–animal interactions and economic benefits from 31 case studies in 11 countries highlight the importance of animals in crop-based systems. Animal production trends are influenced by strong demand-led factors such as population growth, urbanisation, income growth and changing consumer preferences These are of two categories: (i) modern, demand-driven and capital intensive non-ruminant (pig and poultry) sector which is dominant, growing, and supplies the major share of animal proteins,which however is unable to meet current and projected human requirements, and (ii) traditional resource-driven and labour intensive ruminant (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) sector which mainly involve small farms and small farmers and are lagging. The disparity questions efficiencies of prevailing animal production systems and NRM. Integrated animals–tree crop production systems are underestimated and are potentially very important. Two possible scenarios for the future of crop–animal systems are increased size and specialisation, and the other disintegration due to population pressure. It is suggested that crop–animal systems and small farms will continue to be predominant in Asia, in which intensification, growth and increased contribution are likely in the future. Major issues to be addressed across systems include inter alia nutrient flows, waste disposal, overgrazing, all year round feeding systems, zoonosis, and policy issues. The less-favored and more constrained rainfed areas can be made more productive through increased public and private sector investments, interdisciplinary research and development, and improved technology application. The challenges and benefits for the future include improved efficiency of NRM, agricultural growth, reduced poverty, improved livelihoods of the poor and environmental sustainability.
... Many of these systems have been described and compared (e.g. Duckham & Masefield 1970, Grigg 1974, Klee 1980, Ruthenberg 1980. They vary greatly in terms of productivity and efficiency of using land, labour and capital, and in their effects on the environment. ...
... Seasonal rainfall dominates the lives of most of the people, as it determines their activities geared towards earning a livelihood based on exploitation of the resources of the land. Duckham and Masefield (1985) stated that in the tropics generally, rainfall is the main determinant of agricultural activities. The same fact had been expressed by Jodha and Mascarenhas (1985) as characteristic of much of the rest of Africa. ...
The semi-arid savannah environment (SASE) of sub-Saharan Africa are characterized by low erratic rainfall which result to high risk of droughts, intra-seasonal dry spells and frequent food insecurity. The main occupation is subsistence small-scale rainfed agriculture and livestock production, which normally compete for the limited water resources. The main challenges to improving the livelihoods of the small-scale farmers are how to upgrade rainfed agriculture to improve rural livelihoods and conserve nature, and upgrade upstream landuse in balance with water needs for human and ecosystems downstream. There is an increased interest in opportunities of improving rainfed agriculture through adoption of rainwater harvesting (RWH) technologies. However, there is inadequate knowledge on hydrological impacts and limits of up-scaling rainwater harvesting at a river basin scale. Rainwater harvesting has a potential of addressing spatial and temporal water scarcity for domestic, crop production, livestock development, environmental management and overall water resources management is SASE. However, this potential has not been exploited despite the occurrence of persistent low agricultural production and food shortage in sub-Saharan Africa. The need to quantify this perceived potential and related hydrological impacts on a river basin led to the on-going research project titled “hydrological impacts of up-scaling RWH on upper Ewaso Ng’iro river basin water resources management”. It is envisaged that the study will contribute to formulation of sustainable RWH up-scaling strategies to enhance food production and hydro-ecological balance in semi-arid savannahs of Africa. This paper presents the preliminary findings of the study mainly focusing on assessment of the potential of RWH technologies for improving food and water availability especially in semi-arid regions of eastern Africa. This was achieved by evaluating six RWH case studies selected from four countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda). Despite the success of a number of RWH systems, the rate of adoption is still low, hence making their impacts marginal. Nevertheless, there is a knowledge gap on the limits of up-scaling RWH in a river basin, which the other components of the study will address. The assessment of the hydrological impact of up-scaling RWH technologies is expected to provide answers to the question, what is the limit of up-scaling rainwater harvesting in a river basin?
... Shaner et al., 1982). Agricultural features, it is claimed, are strongly intertwined not only with environmental factors but also with social, cultural and political aspects, forming one complex production process (Duckham & Masefield, 1970;MacKinnon, 1975). Saint & Coward (1977) emphasized the importance of the human factor and the effect existing organizational or institutional features have on agricultural development and, in particular, on the adoption of new technologies. ...
This paper presents a case study of agroecosystems classification focusing on goat herding in the dry tropical region of Piura in northern Peru. It is claimed that the ecological setting is important but not sufficient for a meaningful and reliable characterization of a production process. Only a multidisciplinary analysis including environmental (availability and reliability of sources of herbaceous pasture), economic (stability, alternative sources of income) and socio-political (land-tenure, control over resources) aspects enables us to define and distinguish between the various production units in Piura. Seven distinct herding systems are identified within a relatively small region; the systems are characterized by using data from a field survey of 200 households. The combined effect of the three dimensions—environmental, economic and socio-political—on production and productivity features, management practice and marketing strategies is demonstrated quantitatively. The principal factors limiting herd production, herd size and economic success are also presented for each system.
... Which are the most important characteristics of certain agricultural practices depends on the scale of comparison. For example, Duckham and Masefield (1969) used four degrees of land use intensity and land use types as the two main characteristics for a classification of agriculture on a world-wide scale. Turner and Brush (1987: 7) use the type of technology applied, in addition to land use intensity and production type, as a third distinctive characteristic to classify farming practices. ...
Ribereños, the native farmers of the lowland Peruvian Amazon region, subsist in an ecologically complex Amazonian varzea environment by practicing a highly diverse agriculture, and following individualistic agricultural strategies. A total of 14 different agricultural methods, identified as agricultural types, and the variation in agricultural strategies are described for two villages located at the Ucayali river. Diversity of swidden-fallow agroforestry on terra firme lands, and of varzea agroforestry is investigated. Ribereño agricultural diversity and variation in agricultural strategies can be explained as adaptations to the complex and dynamic conditions of the varzea. The case of ribereño resource use gives reason to question several theories that have been formulated about varzea, resource utilization.
... c~ Agricultura industrializada y «agribusiness». El tema está cobrando interés de forma muy rápida, como pone de manifiesto no sólo su tratamiento en las obras de base comentadas (Ilbery, 1985; Troughton, 1986), sino también la sucesiva y reciente aparición de monografias al respecto (Healey y Ilbery, 1985; Wallace, 1985; Kinsey, 1987). Troughton enfoca el tema desde la perspectiva de la tercera revolución agrícola que supondría la adopción por parte del sector agrado de los principios econ~micos de la revolución industrial, fundamentalmente las economías de escala y la integración vertical del sector alimenticio. ...
Writing Systems and Phonetics provides students with a critical understanding of the writing systems of the world. Beginning by exploring the spelling of English, including how it arose and how it works today, the book goes on to address over 60 major languages from around the globe and includes detailed descriptions and worked examples of writing systems which foreground the phonetics of these languages. Key areas covered include:
the use of the Latin alphabet in and beyond Europe
writing systems of the eastern Mediterranean, Greek and its Cyrillic offshoot, Arabic and Hebrew
languages in south and south-east Asia, including Hindi, Tamil, Burmese and Thai, as well as in east Asia, including Chinese, Japanese and Korean
reflections on ancient languages such as Sumerian, Egyptian, Linear B and Mayan
a final chapter which sets out a typology of writing systems.
All of the languages covered are contextualised by authentic illustrations, including road signs, personal names and tables, to demonstrate how theoretical research can be applied to the real world.
This chapter is primarily about agriculture: its primary enterprise — the farm — and the manner in which agricultural products (food and fibre) reach the consumer (i.e. the commodity chain) It provides an understanding of how a modernised and industrialised agriculture has emerged in many countries, thereby laying the foundations for chapters 8 and 9 where the problems of fashioning more sustainable farming systems are addressed in more detail.
Integrated crop-animal systems are important in Asia. Both ruminants and non-ruminants are used in a variety of combinations with annual arid perennial crops in Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, China and Sri Lanka. These combined systems provide distinct economic benefits, and are more compatible with ecological and environmental sustainability. Increased investment in these systems is likely and research is needed on feed resources, use of indigenous animal genetic resources and livestock disease to increase livestock production. In addition, available research results should be applied and enabling policies developed to promote increased investment in livestock production and natural resource use and management in the rainfed warm humid/ subhumid and arid/semiarid tropics.
What is the point of this paper? That an icon is like a logogram, the type of object that was created at the start of the development of writing; therefore, when first seen, an icon cannot be expected to stand alone, without descriptive, supporting material supplied as written text.
Attempts to extend and to a degree revise available political-economy theory on food and fibre production, by drawing on the writings of industrial and political geographers, who have tried to develop a theoretical framework for analysing capitalist dynamics, especially worldwide and country-specific industrial restructuring. -after Author
An attempt is made to use the ratio⋋ of precipitation to potential evapotranspiration to qualify earlier climatic classifications of Nigeria for proper ecological zonation.
Results show that in the pure forest belt located south of latitude 7° N the⋋ value is greater than 0.75, while in the middle belt (7–10° N) belonging to the wooded savanna and in areas further north gradually approaching steppe-type vegetation of pure Sahel, the values of⋋ below 0.40.
Modulations of⋋ values (hence the eco-zones) appear to be responses to variable precipitation, especially in drought years. It is suggested that this notwithstanding, irreversible trends in land-surface degradation are mainly due to uncontrolled human interference in relation to large-scale agriculture in areas where⋋ is less than 0.40 in the Sudan-Shael belt of Nigeria. This needs to be re-appraised, if this desertification trend is to be checked
Mediterranean-type environments* are found in the Mediterranean Basin, Central and Southern California, Central Chile, South-West Cape Province, Southwest of Western Australia and in the southern part of South Australia. They support a wide range of farming systems, but nearly all contain, or have contained, common elements: cereals, small livestock, olives, vines, fruit trees and vegetables. The major influences that have given rise to differences in presentday farming systems are the history of population growth and settlement; political developments and the type of relationship with metropolitan centres; forms of land tenure and the role of farmers in the social and political structure; and the growth of urban demand and the degree of commercialisation and specialisation in production. The Mediterranean Basin itself has been important since settled agriculture began, being a centre of origin of many of the major cereal and legume crops and of the early domestication of sheep and goats. It is also the area where dry farming techniques of growing cereal crops were first developed (White, 1963, 1970) and was a focal point for the introduction and spread of new crops and the development of intensified agricultural systems during the spread of Islam. (Watson, 1974; Grigg, 1974). The region experienced two periods in which it probably contained the most highly organised and productive agricultural systems in the world, during the Roman administration, and later during the period of Arab domination. However, the more recent colonial experiences of the 19th and 20th centuries resulted in a period of stagnation and decline of productivity, particularly of the main food crops, as the colonising powers, supporting the settlers and the wealthy landowning classes, concentrated on high value export crops, often grown on the * The geographic, topographic, climatic, edaphic and vegetation features of Mediterranean environments have been adequately described elsewhere (de Brichambaut and Wallen, 1963: Emberger, 1977: Hills. 1966: Matthews, 1924; Meigs, 1964: Newbegin, 1929; Papadakis, 1973; U N ESCO/FAO, 1963; Wbittlesey, 1963). The principal land use systems have also been discussed (Duckham and Masefield, 1970: G rigg, 1974; Stamp, 1961; U N ESCO, 1964) and a number of writers have considered present farming systems in the Mediterranean basin in comparison with the historical development of agriculture in similar regions elsewhere (Aschmann, 1977; Grigg, [974; Oram, 1979).
Restructuring of the organisational and spatial production patterns in the primary sector is a development which is running parallel with changes in the other economic sectors, especially the sector of industrial goods production. In the course of this development, the functions of both enterprises and production locations have become increasingly differentiated due to the fact that, even in the primary sector, the product no longer represents a single ‘unit’ which is manufactured at one enterprise and one location. Instead, the product has been broken down into various elements so that it is possible to prepare and process it at different enterprises and different locations. Due to this segmentation of production, the individual enterprise has more options for specialisation, i.e. for the assumption of specific functions within the overall production process, which thus takes on a chain-like pattern. This development is especially pronounced in flower and ornamental plant cultivation which today is marked by highly differentiated production and distribution chains.
The literature on food regimes gives insufficient attention to the national and regional variability in the experience of food regimes. Two analytical frameworks are integrated for this purpose in this paper. Recent debates on the nature of family farming as a form of production and its relationships to the capitalist economy and further development of the concept of ‘real’ regulation enable us better to understand past food regimes and the processes of uneven development in western economies. Social and political movements in the countryside, often supported by legislation, are suggested as neglected elements in understanding the experience of individual nations within historical and emerging global food systems. By their association in communities, in cooperatives, and in more politically-oriented organizations, farmers are able to influence the form of agro-commodity chains and legislation governing the rural sector, key factors which influence the variability of the experience of food regimes. Our examples are France and the settler economy of New Zealand.
this paper we will try to synthesize, from a typographical point of view, the various instances of Greek script. Globally, one can say that the Greek script is used for the following cases :
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