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You've Come a Long Way…Maybe: How Moral Emotions Trigger Backlash Against Women Leaders
Abstract
Despite the progress American women have made in other arenas, they still remain underrepresented in top leadership positions in both the public and private sectors, thus contributing to their marginalized status in these domains. Although people do not expect to encounter women in positions of power, a solely cognitive process cannot fully account for the negative interpersonal characterizations and poor leadership evaluations (i.e., backlash) that female leaders disproportionately receive. Rather, recent evidence suggests that because female leaders are seen as gender norm deviants who threaten the gender status hierarchy, the backlash they encounter more likely constitutes a motivated process whereby perceivers’ negative evaluations stem from a desire to maintain the status quo (i.e., gender inequality). Here, we expand on this work by proposing that a desire to defend the gender hierarchy causes people to feel negative moral emotions when encountering powerful women who display dominance and/or agency which, in turn, causes backlash effects against such individuals. Study 1 finds that morally laden negative affect explains why evaluators penalize dominant female leaders, but not dominant male leaders. Studies 2 and 3 then manipulate this mediator via the use of use disgust primes. Given that embodied disgust amplifies moral judgment severity, we hypothesized that if moral emotions underlie gender backlash, enhanced feelings of disgust should result in harsher penalties for leaders in gender‐incongruent roles than those in gender‐congruent roles as only the former violate core gender norms that undermine the status quo. Indeed, compared to a neutral prime, disgust primes (taste in Study 2, visual in Study 3) resulted in lower leadership evaluations and liking of only the gender deviant targets. We discuss the implications of these findings for organizational interventions and female leaders’ impression management strategies.
... As women become gradually accepted for stimulating development, insufficient achievement exists for their leadership impact. The evaluation of female leadership paints a negative picture about powerful women leaders who display dominance and are considered social deviants who threaten the social hierarchical order (Brescoll, Okimoto and Vial 2018). From a socio-cultural perspective, women leaders face serious challenges in maintaining worklife balance; further creating fertile ground for excluding female participation in strategic decisions. ...
... From a socio-cultural perspective, women leaders face serious challenges in maintaining worklife balance; further creating fertile ground for excluding female participation in strategic decisions. Attempts have been made to promote gender equality in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries in tertiary institutions, but the gap continues to escalate, especially in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines that focus on innovative entrepreneurship (Brescoll et al 2018). This is a field that is mostly dominated by male students, thus widening the gender gap. ...
... Environmental pressures tend to compel women to adopt a less popular mechanistic leadership approach within perceived patriarchal society perceptions. In tandem with Brescoll et al (2018), the narrative reveals the demands levelled on female leaders as stimulating their intellectuality to repudiate negative male evaluations. According to Shafique et al (2018), while women may lack leadership traits such as self-confidence, resilience and emotional stability, Merkle, Reinold and Siegel (2018) find the presence of similarities in female and male leadership, but at varying degrees. ...
... Among these, 12 studies explicitly adopted Rudman and colleagues' definition of backlash effect, referring to social and economic sanctions for violating gender prescriptions (e.g., Phelan & Rudman, 2010;Rudman, 1998). Although the remaining 10 studies did not explicitly report whether they borrowed the definition or defined it independently, their definitions of backlash also described negative responses toward counter-stereotypical gender behaviors (e.g., Brescoll, 2011;Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018;Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008;Carlsson et al., 2014;Schock, Gruber, Scherndl, & Ortner, 2019). In other words, about half of the studies conceptualized backlash in association with violating traditional gender role prescriptions. ...
... Perpetrators of backlash were also variously mentioned. While Burke and Black (1997) limited the perpetrators to simply "men" (referring to White men), others claimed that backlash can be expressed by both men and women with diverse age groups and organizational positions (e.g., Brescoll et al., 2018;Elman et al., 2018;Scheuer & Loughlin, 2020). Backlash was also defined in accordance with the perpetrators' (e.g., resentment) or targets' perspectives (e.g., sanctions). ...
... One of the two most widely adopted theoretical frameworks to explain workplace backlash was backlash theory or status incongruity hypothesis (SIH) (e.g., Rudman, 1998;Rudman, Moss-Racusin, Glick, & Phelan, 2012). Sixteen studies used backlash theory as a guiding theoretical framework (e.g., Brescoll et al., 2018;Carlsson et al., 2014;Skewes, Fine, and Haslam (2018). According to Rudman et al. (2012), individuals who violate stereotypical expectations of their groups (called, vanguards) elicit backlash in the form of social and economic penalties. ...
Workplace backlash, the explicit/implicit, and/or intentional/unintentional attempts to reject efforts to promote diversity, taken by both dominant and subordinate social group members to maintain the group-based social hierarchy at work, has emerged as a major threat to fostering diversity and inclusiveness in the workplace. Although intense scholarly attention has been paid to workplace backlash, the literature has a highly individualistic and fragmented perspective of backlash, which hinders theoretical advancement. As a remedy for conceptual and theoretical heterogeneity, I first conducted a systematic review of the literature to present a critical overview of past scholarly endeavors and take stock of the empirical evidence. This article provides an alternative,
unified definition of workplace backlash drawn from intergroup relations and the power hierarchy among social group members. Finally, based on the perspective of group-based social hierarchy, this study describes the emergence, development, and maintenance of workplace backlash through the lens of social dominance theory. Implications and future research suggestions are also discussed.
... Female political candidates were voted for less when aiming for power, while power-seeking was no disadvantage for male candidates. Participants experienced feelings of moral outrage against the stereotype-violating woman, which mediated backlash (Brescoll et al., 2018). Based on this, we hypothesized: Workplace bullying accusations will lead to more moral outrage against a female leader than a male leader. ...
... This can be considered surprising, as past research would have suggested differently. Women were found to experience backlash effects when violating prescriptive gender norms (Brescoll et al., 2018;Okimoto & Brescoll, 2010;Rudman, 1998), such as being communal (Burgess & Borgida, 1999;Eagly, 1987). Furthermore, a female leader accused of workplace bullying was not judged to be significantly less credible (compared to a male leader). ...
We examined whether female leaders would be evaluated less favorably compared to male leaders regarding workplace bullying. Previous research has demonstrated that women violating prescriptive gender norms of communality experience backlash, and that female leaders are stereotyped of having a communality deficit. Building on that, we hypothesized (1) more moral outrage against and (2) more intentions to punish a female leader compared to a male leader. We further hypothesized (3) the accusations of workplace bullying against a female leader were going to be judged as more accurate than against a male leader. Further, defendants that stereotypically fit to the crime they are accused of were found to be judged guilty more often. So, we assumed, (4) a suspected bully that is a female leader was going to be judged as less credible, while (2) the suspected victim of a female leader bully was going to be judged as more credible compared to a male leader. Participants ( N = 202) read a workplace bullying scenario with a female employee accusing either a female or a male leader of bullying. No effect of gender of suspected bully was found for moral outrage measures, punishment intention judgments, and credibility judgments. Contrary to our predictions, participants found the accusations against the male leader significantly more accurate than against the female leader. Gender and sex-role scores of participants were found to be linked to judgments. Implications for future research are discussed.
... No entanto, algumas características podem reduzir ainda mais essas chances. Há na literatura uma série de evidências de que mulheres que ameaçam a hierarquia de status de gênero, confrontando o status quo sofrem mais reações negativas (Brescoll et al., 2018), como o estudo de Rudman et al. (2012) que indica uma maior rejeição às mulheres que agem de maneira assertiva e dominante . ...
PSICOLOGIA SOCIAL
Temas e teorias
Ana Raquel Rosas Torres
Marcus Eugênio Oliveira Lima
Elza Maria Techio
Leoncio Camino
Organizadores
3ª edição revisada e ampliada
... They tend to provide positive evaluations toward targets that comply with the stereotypical prototype and negative evaluations toward targets that do not comply with the stereotypical prototype (Burgers & Beukeboom, 2014). Some perceivers tend to dislike women who exhibit high competence (Brescoll et al., 2018), women who are good at math, engineering, and science (Kessels et al., 2014), and men who violate gender norms and exhibit traditionally feminine characteristics (Blakemore, 2003;Zhang & Zuo, 2011). In this study, we inferred that the ideal ratio of warmth to competence for the most likable target would differ based on the targets' gender, and that the primary effect of warmth might be apparent only in the evaluation of female targets, not male targets. ...
The current study aimed to test the perceivers’ ratings of likability and their willingness to become friends with targets who have different ratios of warmth to competence. In Study 1, we recruited 106 females and 61 males. The results of Study 1 showed that perceivers were reluctant to become friends with targets that had extreme ratios of warmth to competence (0:5 or 5:0). In Study 2, we recruited 137 males and 164 females. The results of Study 2 showed that male perceivers were willing to become friends with a female target whose ratio of warmth to competence was 5:0 and unwilling to become friends with a male target whose ratio was 0:5. Female perceivers were unwilling to become friends with a female target whose ratio was 0:5. Moreover, participants were unwilling to choose targets with a ratio of 5:0 as partners in a competition context. These results could help researchers understand how the process of impression formation works when considering different ratios of warmth to competence.
... Scholars have also linked binding values to increased blame attributed to female rape victims (Milesi et al. 2020, Niemi andYoung 2016). In addition, when women violate gender roles, third parties' binding moral concerns can influence those third parties to attempt to discourage such deviance in the future (Brescoll et al. 2018). Relatedly, Harper and Harris (2017) theorize that high adherence to binding foundations may lead to a tendency to minimize and endorse less punitive responses toward sexual indiscretions, but this idea has not yet been empirically tested. ...
We build on deontic justice and moral foundations theories to shed light on responses to sexual misconduct at work by proposing a model that explains why some third parties punish accusing victims and support alleged perpetrators. We theorize that when third parties are given conflicting he-said, she-said information, they intuitively evaluate organizational injustice based on moral values. We further theorize that binding moral foundations (loyalty, authority, purity) give rise to sympathy toward men accused of sexual misconduct and anger toward female accusers. Across five studies (total n = 5,413) utilizing archival, field, and vignette designs, we examined third-party responses to sexual misconduct accusations ranging in severity across several industries. Third-party endorsement of binding moral foundations was linked to increased perpetrator-directed sympathy and victim-directed anger (Studies 1–4). These emotions jointly mediated the relationship between binding values and credibility perceptions of the accusing victim and the alleged perpetrator (Studies 2 and 3). Moreover, victim credibility was negatively associated with social sanctions and punishment severity levied toward the accusing victim, and perpetrator credibility was negatively associated with the same punishment outcomes for the alleged perpetrator (Studies 3 and 4). In Study 5, we found that managers framing the accusing victim as disloyal exacerbated negative judgments and emotions toward the victim and positive judgments and emotions toward the perpetrator for individuals who highly ascribe to binding moral foundations. We discuss the theoretical contributions and practical implications of moral concerns on third parties’ emotions, judgments, and motivations to punish actors involved in sexual misconduct allegations.
Supplemental Material: The e-companion is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2022.1652 .
... (sr. assistant loco pilot, 5 years work experience, 32 years old) women experience lack of support from male employees which creates hindrance in learning and maintaining good relationships at the workplace (Brescoll et al., 2018). it not only questions women's competence but also questions their identity and worth in the organisation. ...
The issue of women’s under-representation in male-dominated occupations has been a topic of research for the last few decades. The extant literature has identified gender differences and social and structural discrimination based on a theoretical lens and sensitising concepts around which career barriers were experienced by women within a developed nation’s context (Eaton et al., 2020; French & Strachan, 2009; Hernandez & Ritchie, 2015; Miner et al., 2018). While there has been research on women in transport in developed countries, there has been little research on women employees’ career experiences within Indian Railways. To address this gap, this chapter explores the career barriers of women employed in male-dominated occupations within Indian Railways, in relation to gendered cultural norms. In-depth semi-structured interviews have been undertaken to understand the lived experiences of women employees. Thematic analysis was used for data analysis. The findings highlight the interplay of barriers such as gender roles, limited empowerment and occupational segregation, working conditions, lack of role models and mentors, backlash by men, queen-bee behaviour, beta career priorities and restricted informal networks that collectively restrict women in achieving senior level positions in such occupations.
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
This chapter discusses in more detail how a meaning-making-focused political psychology can bring about new theoretical innovations and experimental novelties. To examine the benefits of a cultural political psychology, the processes of unionization and actualized democracy were analyzed together. In engaging in a dialectic examination of both processes together, I seek to point out new research avenues that emerge when thinking in terms of values, policy, and power, including the hypogeneralization of values, one’s exclusion through activism, and everyday revolutions.KeywordsUnionizationActualized democracyApplicationRevolutionsRelationship-destroying activism
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
In the previous chapter, I outlined how a cultural political psychology required the examination of values, policy, and power dynamics. This chapter tackles the first of the three: values. This chapter addresses the importance of the process of value-creation over value-outcomes by focusing on one process – that of the scientific publication process. Science and politics are frequently seen in opposition to each other – a “good” scientist must be one that leaves their values and political beliefs at the lab door. However, a deeper examination of science shows that psychology is inherently political and value-laden. I first explore psychological processes that are political, mainly focused on othering and identity formation. I also consider how the politics of science function by exploring how research is conducted, what questions are asked, and how research is disseminated. By the end of the chapter, I will note how to engage in science is to engage in value-creation. Political psychology must recon with values in a more serious manner since any hope for objectivity is inherently subjective at each stage of the scientific process.KeywordsValuesPublication processScienceMethodology cycleIdentity formation
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
This chapter looks at what work already has been done in considering the intersection of psychology and public policy – that of political psychology but argues that current formulations of political psychology are theoretical dry. In focusing far too much on the content of politics, political psychology has failed to consider the process of politics – that which makes politics psychological. I argue that we must reframe political psychology by pushing for a cultural political psychological framework, identified by focusing on process in the place of product, the stories in place of the statistics, and the individual in place of the institution. In doing so, I will come to define a cultural political psychology as the psychological study of the process of values, policy, and power dynamics.KeywordsPolitical psychologyValuesPublic policyPower dynamicsCultural political psychology
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
The intersection of psychology and public policy is in the process of policy creation and policy implementation. Yet, the notion of public policy requires an analysis of not just public policy, but also the existence of private policy as well. After exploring the psychological consequences of public policy, I turn to consider private policies – both in terms of social norms, but also in the private, silenced voices of the staff members who write the public policy. This leads to an obscured identity of political leaders. Finally, this chapter considers how public policy can either be hypergeneralized or hypogeneralized in its discussions to sway individuals to support their cause.KeywordsPrivate publicPublic policyInvisible identityHypogeneralizationHypergeneralization
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
Policies are made by individuals to order individuals. This produces a codependent but anonymous relationship of creator and created, where our rules are constructed to control our further actions. This codependence of power dynamics can be best understood by examining the individual who is acting at the border of this relationship, including when one chooses to not act. The inaction of an individual is a significant political decision that entails the use of secondary control – changing oneself around the environment, instead of actively changing the environment for oneself. In approaching political psychology through this lens, we can better understand issues such as political hobbyism, political disengagement, and the “unsophisticated” voter.KeywordsBetweengroupParticipatory efficacySecondary controlPolitical hobbyism
... The importance of marginal leadership has only recently started to gain traction in psychology (Rast et al., 2018). However, this growth has focused particularly on race-minority (Packer et al., 2018) or gender-minority (Brescoll et al., 2018) leaders, failing to address unions as a way for workers to find leadership in a minority-power position. ...
This book takes an insider perspective of the psychological issues of creating policy. Instead of considering what the products of policy are - often the case in psychological and political science work - this book examines the individual processes present in proposing and engaging with policy. The individual who engages with the policy and its meanings, the individual who resists the policy through conformity, and the individual who writes the policy for their own ideological purposes are all political actors in a psychological system.
This book puts forward a cultural political psychology as the psychological study of the process of values, policy, and power dynamics. Through exploring public policy through private policy generation and individual interaction, this book pushes theoretical understandings of policy and activism in new ways. Centering on an individual’s own values in facing various policy restrictions from governments, parents, or peers, the importance of examining collective actions and also collective inactions of individuals is noted and expanded on in the text.
The book provides applications of its arguments through examining the processes of unionization and actualized democracy. It seeks to point out new research avenues, including the hypogeneralization of values, one’s exclusion through activism, and everyday revolutions. This book addresses the centrality of the individual and meaning-making systems when considering where policy, politics, and psychology intersect.
This book is primarily addressed to psychologists and political scientists interested in how to make change in public policy. While the experiences within the book are United States-centric, the thoughts and theories behind them are meant to be applicable to a wide variety of political systems. As there is currently very little literature on the topic, this book seeks to fill the gap and offer concise information on such an important dimension of cultural and political psychology. It is expected that the book will be of great interest for researchers in these areas, as well as for graduate-level students. In particular, this book will be relevant to researchers and students working on political psychology, public policy, development, community psychology, social representations, semiotics, activism, and social movements, to name a few.
... Again, although these findings represent only a small sample of leaders, they do provide some insight into the potential differences and similarities across gender. We might speculate, for example, that findings are consistent with the argument that women may be viewed negatively if they display emotion by engaging in either a charismatic or ideological style (Brescoll, 2016;Brescoll et al., 2018) and may be pressured into a more pragmatic leadership style as they feel it necessary to explain and justify their leadership decisions. Future research will be necessary (see also Griffith & Medeiros, 2020), but this area of investigation appears worthy of consideration. ...
Abstract: The charismatic, ideological, and pragmatic (CIP) theory of
leadership has emerged as a novel framework for thinking about the
varying ways leaders can influence followers. The theory is based on the
principle of equifinality or the notion that there are multiple pathways
to the same outcome. Researchers of the CIP theory have proposed that
leaders are effective by engaging in one, or a mix, of the three leader
pathways: the charismatic approach focused on an emotionally
evocative vision, an ideological approach focused on core beliefs and
values, or a pragmatic approach focused on an appeal of rationality and
problem-solving. Formation of pathways and unique follower
responses are described. The more than fifteen years of empirical work
investigating the theory are summarized, and the theory is compared
and contrasted to other commonly studied and popular frameworks of
leadership. Strengths, weaknesses, and avenues for future investigation
of the CIP theory are discussed
... Additionally, systemic biases such as gender norms and stereotypes can put ambitious women in a double bind (Dittmar, 2015). Gender stereotypes regarding the traits necessary for leadership may put women, particularly mothers, at a disadvantage for prestigious leadership positions in political science and social sciences (Prentice and Carranza, 2002;Brescoll et al., 2018). Additionally, while outright hostility has decreased over time, researchers have found more resistance toward women Presidents (Streb et al., 2008), representing a considerable stigma associated with women in leadership roles. ...
There is a national interest in United States women’s underrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM); however, gender inequality in the social sciences has not received similar attention. Although women increasingly earn postgraduate degrees in the social sciences, women faculty still experience gender inequities. Consistent gender inequities include slower career advancement, blunted salaries, unequal workloads, work-life conflict, systemic gender biases, underrepresentation in positions of power, and hostile work environments. Cultural biases suggest that once women have achieved parity, gender bias no longer exists. This review challenges that notion by providing evidence from social science domains in which women are well-represented but continue to face systemic gender biases. We examine cultural influences on gender representation and career advancement in psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology. We make interdisciplinary comparisons of career trajectories and salaries using national data, documenting patterns across the social sciences. For example, women economists face gendered standards in publishing, and women political scientists are less likely to have their work cited than men. Furthermore, data show that salaries become stagnant as the representation of women in these fields increases. These disparities reflect cultural biases in perceptions of women’s competence stemming from social role theory. We discuss best practices to address these problems, focusing on the ADVANCE organizational change programs funded by the National Science Foundation that target (a) improving academic climate, (b) providing professional development, and (c) fostering social networking. Federally supported interventions can reveal systemic gender biases in academia and reduce gender disparities for women academics in the social sciences.
... The kinds of behaviors that are seen as required for leaders tend to be valued in men but contradict the traditional feminine role, which prescribes women to be kind and considerate rather than assertive (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). This incongruity can lead to bias against female leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002), who are often disliked by others (Brescoll et al., 2018;Heilman & Okimoto, 2007), penalized for exercising authority (Sinclair & Kunda, 2000), and undermined by subordinates (Koch, 2005;Vial et al., 2016). The prospect of social disapproval can be a powerful disincentive (e.g., Tomasello, 2014); indeed, women tend to anticipate a lack of support from others if they were to behave assertively, which often deters them from doing so (Brescoll, 2011;Moss-Racusin et al., 2010). ...
Understanding how children think of leadership may provide important insights on the roots of adult gender gaps in leadership ambition. In three studies, we evaluated children’s anticipation of social support for leaders as well as their own motivation to pursue leadership roles, paying close attention to the way that gender may influence children’s responses. In Study 1, girls expected lower social support for leaders than boys across a variety of contexts involving group activities. In Study 2, girls appeared to be less interested than boys in a novel leader role in the context of a group game, and this difference was especially large among White children younger than 8 years old. In Study 3, we tested whether interest in a leader role could be increased by framing the role in a communal and gender-neutral manner. Results revealed that, regardless of their gender, children were more interested in the leader role in the communal leader condition (vs. control) and anticipated stronger social support and cooperation from others if they were to be the leader, as well as higher self-efficacy as leaders.
... Gender stereotypes also result in women's contributions being devalued or ignored in team settings when working on masculine tasks (e.g., creating an investment portfolio or engineering a water diversion system) and, particularly, where there is ambiguity regarding the input of male and female team members (Heilman, 2012). These findings are consistent with research that shows women's stereotypical attributes (i.e., nurturing, kind) hold lesser value (Froehlich et al., 2020) and when women exhibit gender incongruent attributes (i.e., assertiveness), particularly in leadership roles, they are seen as strident or difficult (Acker, 1990;Brescoll et al., 2018;Johnson et al., 2008). ...
Several traditionally male-dominated professions, including law and medicine, have experienced an influx of women over the last 30 years. We extend research on gender equality in the professions, which has often examined segmentation and stratification, by examining the integration of men and women into a traditionally male-dominated profession in terms of the emotional and instrumental support they receive from colleagues. We examine veterinary medicine as a case study because interestingly this profession has seen the most dramatic growth in the representation of women over the last 30 years - more than law or medicine. We also explore whether traditional masculine control tasks (clinic ownership and autonomy) and traditional female care tasks (animal care and client interactions) are related to integration. We analyze survey data from 384 Canadian veterinarians. Findings show that practice ownership and challenging client interactions are associated with reduced support for women, but not for men. In contrast, directly caring for animals is associated with more support for men, but this is not the case for women. We discuss the implications of differential levels of social support for the integration of women into traditionally male-dominated professions.
... Research indicates that gendered cultural scripts and public opinions are among the main obstacles that women face on their journey toward the top [7][8][9]. While they are encouraged to "smash the glass ceilings", powerful women tend to be held at much higher standards than their men counterparts and face backlash against their challenge to patriarchal orders [10,11], a phenomenon vividly exemplified by the U.S. 2016 presidential election [12]. In this paper, we ask and seek answers to what shape public opinions towards women leadership and how national contexts condition this process. ...
Despite their achievements in the past few decades, women remain largely excluded from impactful leadership positions in many countries and fields. In this research, we focus on how gender and education shape public opinions that favor men over women for political and economic leadership in three East Asian countries. Utilizing an intersectional theoretical framework and multilevel methodological approach to analyze the World Value Survey data, we investigate the heterogeneous effects of education on gender attitudes between men and women and how such heterogeneity is conditioned by national contexts. We found that the negative association between higher levels of education and traditional gender attitudes is much stronger among women than among men, especially in Japan. National contexts not only directly shape gender attitudes but also modify the main and interactive effects of gender and education on attitudes toward women leadership. This research contributes to the emergent literature on the contingency of intersectionality and highlights the utility of multilevel analysis in intersectional and/or comparative studies.
... Relatedly, Brescoll, Okimoto, and Vial (2018, 147) note that many people not only expect women and men to behave in gendered ways but also believe that they "ought" to do so. When that is not the case, moral outrage may result (Brescoll 2011;Brescoll et al. 2018;Okimoto and Brescoll 2010). In her research on workplace abuse, Berdahl (2007a) links gender norm violations to issues of sexual harassment. ...
In this paper, we present analysis of an original dataset of levels of colleague aggression among U.S. state senators, whether women senators face more of these behaviors than men, and whether numerical and positional gender inequality in state senates affects these relationships. The results indicate that, overall, colleague aggression in U.S. state senates is relatively rare, and, in general, women do not face more aggression than men. Under certain conditions, however, subsets of women senators experience more aggressive behaviors than their counterparts, male or female. Specifically, when they serve in senates with higher percentages of women or growing numbers of women, they are disproportionally targeted. There is also some evidence that women committee chairs are more likely than rank-and-file women to face this type of behavior.
... Our observation of the coaches' perceptions initially tended to adhere to the masculine hegemony of the profession, as they tried to adapt their coaching style to that of the stereotypical autocratic male coach. Brescoll, Okimoto, and Vial (2018) identified the potential for a greater backlash of negative response (i.e., contempt, disdain) when women act in this manner. Women can end up in a no-win situation, in some ways needing to demonstrate they can coach in a male-dominated environment, but at risk of not using their natural interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge (Burton, Grappendorf, & Henderson, 2011). ...
This best practice paper reflects on a pilot coach education program designed for women coaching Australian Rules football. Focused on enhancing self-regulation, and underpinned by a growth mindset framework, the "Coach like a Woman" program was delivered to a selected group of female coaches either working in or having been identified with the potential to coach at high-performance levels. This manuscript describes the program content and discusses the key insights identified by the delivery team. Creating a community of practice encouraged the transfer of knowledge and experience between the enrolled coaches, which increased competence and self-confidence. Providing an understanding of behavioral tendencies enhanced positive self-talk and aided self-regulation by the coaches. The delivery of the program and challenges experienced are also discussed. This reflection on the program is provided to assist future developments in coach education.
... Other studies have noted that the higher the level of women's rights in a country (Cho et al., 2014), and similarly, the higher the number of female parliament members (Avdeyeva, 2012), the greater the implementation of anti-trafficking laws. However, in some countries, women have experienced a backlash to increased gender equality, leading to increased victimization (Brescoll et al., 2018;Krook, 2015). Additionally, in countries such as those of the former Soviet Bloc, aspects of gender inequality have been linked to higher levels of human trafficking in conjunction with migration, with these countries often ranking as primary sources of trafficked persons globally (Benería et al., 2012;Cameron et al., 2019a;Cameron et al., 2019b;Noyori-Corbett & Moxley, 2016;Vijeyarasa, 2012). ...
Although efforts to combat human trafficking have increased in recent decades, human trafficking remains a significant global human rights issue, with an estimated 40.3 million victims. Due to the covert nature of human trafficking, and incongruencies in reporting, accurate data is scarce. Human trafficking legal cases can provide a partial record of the extent of human exploitation occurring within countries. Despite extensive research, factors driving human trafficking remain unclear. Our research examined the predictive value of indicators of gender inequality and violence against women on human trafficking legal cases across countries. Regression analysis revealed multiple significant models. The model with the largest effect size included the predictors Gender Development Index, labour force participation for women, share of seats in parliament for women, life expectancy for females, estimated gross national income for women, and rape rate. Rape rate was the single best predictor. Results indicate that specific aspects of structural gender inequality and violence against women are significantly associated with human trafficking legal cases. Future research is needed to more clearly understand the motivations and behaviors of traffickers and what drives trafficking conviction rates at national levels.
... Thus, current gender disparities in HIT use are dependent on social and economic forces rather than any inherent affinity based on gender. Unfortunately, the literature also suggests that backlash is a typical response when women use their agency and seek to advance their station (Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). Male backlash may include refusing to make changes or engaging in interpersonal violence (Flood, Dragiewicz, & Pease, 2018). ...
Technological innovation has served as a useful catalyst for development goals across sectors, from agriculture to education. Various forms of health information technology (HIT), such as mobile health and telemedicine, have been used globally to support health care delivery systems. Forms of HIT, developed primarily by men in rich countries, are touted to support all patients and providers. However, while women perform most global health delivery, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), they have less access to technology. Stakeholders have been slow to recognize and resolve conflicts about how technology affects gender disparities, especially in health care. In this paper, we describe, using a social capital framework, how integrating HIT in health systems can empower women in the health care workforce. We conclude with policy recommendations that can support women in the health care workforce through HIT. © 2020 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
... Furthermore, because women who exercise authority (especially over men) are labeled "power-hungry", a "dominance penalty" may result. Even without misdeeds, but rather only because of possessing an agentic trait, females may be "demonized" to preserve the gender hierarchy, a phenomenon informed by the Status Incongruity Hypothesis (Brescoll et al. 2018;Rudman et al. 2012). ...
Female villains, both fictional and real, are subject to unconscious gender bias when part of their iniquity involves the disruption of male authority. Disney’s most popular animated villain, Maleficent, from Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Elizabeth Holmes of the now-disgraced blood testing startup, Theranos, reveled in their power, deviating from idealized feminine propriety. An analysis of scenes featuring Maleficent, the “mistress of all evil”, and coverage of Elizabeth Holmes, once the first self-made female billionaire, illustrate how powerful women with hubris are censured beyond their misdeeds. Elizabeth Holmes’ adoption of a deep voice and other masculine characteristics parallels Maleficent’s demeanor and appearance that signal female usurpation of traditional male power. Both antagonists also engage in finger pricking that penetrates the skin and draws blood, acts associated with symbolic male potency. The purported ability to bewitch, in conjunction with the adoption of patterns associated with male dominance, suggest that Maleficent and Elizabeth Holmes wield power over men and wield the power of men. Discomfort with the way in which magical powers were allegedly employed by these women echo historical fears of witches accused of appropriating male power. Furthermore, powerful women who encroach on male authority but ultimately fail to upend the gender hierarchy trigger schadenfreude beyond that expected from their wrongdoings. In the end, the stories of Maleficent and Elizabeth Holmes celebrate the downfall of women who brazenly embrace power, without showing women how to challenge the gender hierarchy.
... Women in positions of power and authority may also be viewed as deviants who threaten the gender status hierarchy (Brescoll et al., 2018;Rudman & Glick, 2001). Thus, women's status as leaders may motivate backlash and/or resistance. ...
This article analyzes whether the representation of women in leadership roles reduces sexual harassment claims on college campuses. We test competing claims regarding the impact of women’s workplace authority on sexual harassment. Our framework draws on the women as agents of change and power paradox perspectives to interrogate the role of gender and power in reducing workplace harassment in institutions of higher education. We find that women’s overall integration into upper administrative positions reduces harassment claims. However, we also find that the gender of the president and the Title IX officer is not significantly related to the number of harassment claims. We consider the implications of these findings for ongoing efforts to reduce harassment on college and university campuses.
... Second, by treating moral emotions (e.g. anger, fear and contempt) as an underlying mechanism between DL and bullying behavior, we answer the calls for more research to unearth the antecedent and outcomes of moral emotions at the workplace (Xie et al., 2019;Brescoll et al., 2018;Liang et al., 2019). Drawing from the lens of AET framework, when employees perceive despotic behavior from the supervisor's side, they feel anger, disgust and contempt toward the leader and they engage in subsequent bullying behavior which is potentially fueled by moral emotions (van de Vliert et al., 2013). ...
Purpose
This study investigates despotic leadership (DL) as an antecedent to bullying behavior with a mediating role of moral emotions at work. Another aim is to study the moderating role of self-concordance to buffer the relationship between DL and arousal of moral emotions.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors collected two-source (self-reported and supervisor reported) time-lagged data in the shape of a three-wave survey (i.e. one month time interval for each time) from 242 dyads in the health sector of Pakistan.
Findings
The results revealed that moral emotions mediated the relationship between DL and bullying behavior. Furthermore, self-concordance moderates the relationship between DL and moral emotions, such that the relationship will be stronger in the case of low self-concordance.
Research limitations/implications
Managers need to promote a culture that accommodates diversity of opinion at the organization so that everyone is able to express and share their views openly. Organizations should encourage supervisors to participate in leadership development programs aimed at eliminating DL.
Originality/value
This study establishes the role of self-concordance and moral emotions in the relationship between despotic leadership DL and bullying behavior.
... Applied to the struggle for gender equality, some men may view women's gains-in politics, educational contexts, and the workplace-as a threat to men (Ruthig, Kehn, Gamblin, Vanderzanden, & Jones, 2017). Men who do so may be more inclined to view women as hostile usurpers of men's power (e.g., Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018;Glick et al., 2004), and therefore refuse to support gender equality actions. ...
Men sometimes withdraw support for gender equality movements when their higher gender status is threatened. Here, we expand the focus of this phenomenon by examining it cross‐culturally, to test if both individual‐ and country‐level variables predict men's collective action intentions to support gender equality. We tested a model in which men's zero‐sum beliefs about gender predict reduced collective action intentions via an increase in hostile sexism. Because country‐level gender equality may threaten men's higher gender status, we also examined whether the path from zero‐sum beliefs to collective action intentions was stronger in countries higher in gender equality. Multilevel modeling on 6,781 men from 42 countries supported the individual‐level mediation model, but found no evidence of moderation by country‐level gender equality. Both country‐level gender equality and individual‐level zero‐sum thinking independently predicted reductions in men's willingness to act collectively for gender equality.
... Moreover, recent insight into the motivational explanation for backlash effects suggests that when people encounter gender deviants, they may feel negative moral emotions toward them because they are considered as threatening core moral values. These moral emotions, in turn, would elicit sanctions against the deviants (Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). A first line of research pertaining to free-riding suggests that childfree women are likely to elicit negative moral emotions. ...
The number of women who remain childfree is on the rise, as documented by demographic statistics. Yet, because research on women in the workplace has so far been focused on documenting the motherhood penalty in the workplace, childfree women have remained almost invisible. Relying on empirical data and theoretical arguments, the present paper gathers evidence that deviating from the motherhood mandate may have negative consequences for women's work–life. An integrative framework is offered which posits that childfree women's characteristics and features of the workplace interact in a unique and potentially underestimated way to impact childfree women's quality of work–life. Childfree women's characteristics include age, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and social class. Features of the workplace pertain to the culture of the organization and job characteristics. Quality of work–life encompasses career outcomes (i.e., pay and position, hiring and evaluation) and working conditions (i.e., work–life balance, workplace incivility). Drawing on the proposed framework, I suggest several research avenues and consider the challenges of exploring the issue of childfree women's work–life within interdisciplinary research teams, and from an intersectional perspective.
... Female leaders who conform to their gender role (i.e., more communal and tending to the morale and welfare of others) are likely viewed as weak, thereby failing to meet the requirements of their leadership role. In contrast, female leaders who conform to their leadership role by adopting a maleagentic style could suffer negative reactions from their subordinates because of the cognitive conflicts arising from these leaders' perceived gender norm (Brescoll, 2016;Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). Such prejudice toward female leaders inadvertently affects their leadership styles. ...
This study examines how the gender of corporate social responsibility (CSR) leaders (as signers of the CSR reports) could affect two psychometric properties (i.e., solidarity and certainty) and the readability of the reports. We also investigate how these gender-based differences are associated with firms' future perceived social performance. We conduct textual analyses on a sample of 346 firms in the S&P500 index that issued annual CSR reports during the period of 2006 to 2015. Our findings show that CSR reports with a female (vis-à-vis male) executive as the signer or co-signer are more readable, show more solidarity with readers, but express less certainty in the narratives. In examining their impacts, we find that readability and solidarity, but not certainty, are positively associated with firms' future social performance. Our results suggest the value relevance of leveraging greater female representation in firms' CSR reporting leadership teams so as to help firms enhance their social objectives and signal their future social performance.
... In other words, women may face a backlash in the form of being targeted for sexual harassment for defying gender stereotypes and challenging the gender hierarchy (e.g., Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018; Hoover, Hack, Garcia, Goodfriend, & Habashi, 2019; Mansbridge & Shames, 2008). This backlash can also take a variety of forms beyond sexual harassment, ranging from bias against women in hiring decisions (Hoover et al., 2019) to negative evaluations of and prejudice towards women leaders and politicians (Brescoll et al., 2018;Okimoto & Brescoll, 2010;Phelan & Rudman, 2010;Skewes, Fine, & Haslam, 2018). All told, when women take on power, men may feel motivated to protect power they view as threatened. ...
Recent high‐profile cases of unwanted sexual attention in the workplace and the vibrancy of the associated #MeToo movement have drawn attention to the need to continue to explore workplace sexual harassment. In this article, we review existing literature on workplace sexual harassment, with an emphasis on the roles of power and structural vulnerability—key factors underlying sexual harassment. We argue for the need to contextualize structural vulnerabilities, with an eye towards uncovering how dimensions of power and vulnerability vary across workplaces, creating different mechanisms contributing to sexual harassment in specific contexts. With this backdrop, we then use the restaurant service industry as an example to illustrate the unique structural vulnerabilities workers are exposed to in this environment. We conclude with a discussion of the importance of continuing to investigate the dynamics of sexual harassment, especially with work that takes an intersectional approach.
... Eagly and Sczesny (2008) suggest that even when female leaders bring additional benefits to boards, male leadership behaviour is the dominant stereotype and highly prized. Heilman (2012) proposes that gender stereotypes have both descriptive and prescriptive properties and that women are exposed to potential derogation and devaluation if they violate them (see also Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). According to Heilman "The gendertyping of agentic behaviours is culturally determined and highly resistant to change." ...
This study provides analysis and insight into the views and experiences of 12 top executives of FTSE 350 companies about appointing women to their boards, against background growth in the number of female non-executive directors but the number of female executive director appointments showing no progress. Findings showed that the idea of women on boards as non-executive directors is well embedded, yet many barriers to increasing the numbers of women executive directors remain. Lack of robust selection processes, negative views of executive search companies, and views about the shortage of suitably qualified women are reported while most participants did not view the development of the female executive pipeline as a top priority. Findings suggest that public focus on increasing the number of non-executive directors has been effective, attention should be shifted to galvanise efforts in FTSE companies to develop their female talent and increase executive director numbers.
... Backlash intensifies when women express dominance explicitly (e.g. Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). When they manipulated the gender and agentic behavior of job candidates in two studies, Rudman andGlick (1999, 2001) found that women applicants who expressed dominance were rated as less likeable than dominant men and as less hirable for a more stereotypically feminine job role. ...
... 2. This figure excludes law enforcement and security employees. 3. The definition of assault used in the poll is that "someone touched you in an inappropriate, sexual manner without your consent." 4. See also: research on the Status Incongruity Hypothesis, which examines attitudes and behaviors resulting from reactions against women who disrupt the gendered status quo (Okimoto and Brescoll 2010;Rudman et al. 2012;Brescoll et al. 2018). 5. ...
Despite reports of physical violence and psychological abuse against US officeholders, the subject has not been addressed in research at any level of government. This study reports results from survey research of mayors with three aims: examination of the frequency, types, and correlates of experiences of physical violence and psychological abuse among mayors; exploration of gender differences; and estimates of the effects of violence and abuse on mayors’ desire to stay in office. Our findings suggest that US mayors face meaningful levels of physical violence and psychological abuse – and these events are widespread across types of cities. Our data also show that female mayors are more likely than men to experience most types of violence and abuse. And, although having these experiences did not reduce the majority of officeholders’ political ambition, those who suffered physical violence were more likely than those who faced psychological abuse to have considered curtailing their political careers. Finally, we consider the implications for these results on the quality and diversity of future representation.
... Backlash intensifies when women express dominance explicitly (e.g. Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018). When they manipulated the gender and agentic behavior of job candidates in two studies, Rudman andGlick (1999, 2001) found that women applicants who expressed dominance were rated as less likeable than dominant men and as less hirable for a more stereotypically feminine job role. ...
In recent years, research from various disciplines, including social psychology, sociology, economics, gender studies, and organizational behavior, has illuminated the importance of considering the various ways in which multiple social categories intersect to shape outcomes for women in the workplace. However, these findings are scattered across disciplines, making it difficult for organizational scholars to leverage this knowledge in the advancement of gender research. The purpose of this review is to assemble these findings to capture how gender and race, when considered in tandem, can generate new understandings about women of different racial groups and their experiences in the workplace. We first provide a review of both historic and contemporary interpretations of the intersectionality concept. Next, using an intersectional framework, we review key findings on the distinct stereotypes ascribed to Black, Asian, and White women, and compare and contrast the differential impact of these stereotypes on hiring and leadership for these subgroups of women. Building from these stereotypes, we further review research that explores the different job roles that Black, Asian, and White women occupy, specifically focusing on the impact of occupational segregation, organizational support, and the motherhood penalty. Finally, we examine how the frequency, emotional toll, and legal implications of sexual harassment can vary for women of differing races. Through this review, we bring attention to the pitfalls of studying women as a monolithic category and call for organizational scholars to consider the role of intersectionality in shaping workplace outcomes.
... Specifically, research suggests that communality may be broken into sub-dimensions of warmth or sociability (e.g., friendly, empathetic) and morality (e.g., fair, honest) ( Abele et al., 2016), a distinction that may be meaningful and consequential in the evaluation of leaders. It has been argued that morality in particular, more so than warmth/sociability, plays a primary role in social judgment (Brambilla et al., 2011;Brambilla and Leach, 2014;Leach et al., 2017), and moral emotions are implicated in bias against agentic female leaders ( Brescoll et al., 2018). Thus, future investigations may examine how the tradeoff between agency and communality explored in our research might change when the morality facet of communality is considered separately from the warmth/sociability facet. ...
Although leader role expectations appear to have become relatively more compatible with stereotypically feminine attributes like empathy, women continue to be highly underrepresented in leadership roles. We posit that one reason for this disparity is that, whereas stereotypically feminine traits are appreciated as nice “add-ons” for leaders, it is stereotypically masculine attributes that are valued as the defining qualities of the leader role, especially by men (who are often the gatekeepers to these roles). We assessed men’s and women’s idea of a great leader with a focus on gendered attributes in two studies using different methodologies. In Study 1, we employed a novel paradigm in which participants were asked to design their “ideal leader” to examine the potential trade-off between leadership characteristics that were more stereotypically masculine (i.e., agency) and feminine (i.e., communality). Results showed that communality was valued in leaders only after meeting the more stereotypically masculine requirements of the role (i.e., competence and assertiveness), and that men in particular preferred leaders who were more competent (vs. communal), whereas women desired leaders who kept negative stereotypically masculine traits in check (e.g., arrogance). In Study 2, we conducted an experiment to examine men’s and women’s beliefs about the traits that would be important to help them personally succeed in a randomly assigned leader (vs. assistant) role, allowing us to draw a causal link between roles and trait importance. We found that both men and women viewed agentic traits as more important than communal traits to be a successful leader. Together, both studies make a valuable contribution to the social psychological literature on gender stereotyping and bias against female leaders and may illuminate the continued scarcity of women at the very top of organizations, broadly construed.
... The attributional ambiguity associated with receiving negative feedback from men supervisors highlights the difficult situation women face when receiving negative feedback from men supervisors at work. On the one hand, if the negative feedback is rooted in bias, consistent with the notion of backlash against high performing women who violate gender stereotypes(Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018;Rudman & Phelan, 2008), then women, as we suggest, are not wrong to conclude that their leadership opportunities may be limited despite their qualifications. On the other hand, if the negative feedback is in fact accurate, women will have missed an opportunity to benefit from the feedback and make corresponding changes to become stronger candidates for leadership roles in the organization. ...
Two studies examined how the gender of a workplace supervisor can affect a woman's response to performance evaluations and also her professional advancement aspirations. In Study 1, employed women reviewed a performance evaluation in which feedback was manipulated to reflect one of two stereotypes of women (high in warmth or low in competence). Findings showed that participants were more likely to attribute negative (i.e., low competence) feedback from men supervisors to gender biases than the same feedback from women supervisors. There was no effect of supervisor gender when the feedback was positive (i.e., high warmth) or neutral. In Study 2, negative feedback from men supervisors, regardless of evaluative dimension (competence or warmth) resulted in women reporting decreased professional aspirations. This relationship was mediated by women's attribution of supervisor feedback to gender biases. Together, these findings suggest that same‐gender supervisors can potentially buffer women's long term professional aspirations after a discouraging performance review.
... Relatedly, research on social role theory has demonstrated that female leaders are evaluated less positively than male leaders, even when engaging in the same leadership behaviors (Eagly & Karau, 2002;Forsyth, Heiney, & Wright, 1997). Eagly and Karau (2002) argued that the disparity is due to the incongruity between the traditional female gender role and male-oriented stereotypes of leaders (see also Brescoll, Okimoto, & Vial, 2018;Randsley de Moura, Lecht, Leite, Goclowska, & Crisp, 2018). encouraging members to follow typical or prescribed patterns of behavior. ...
Research suggests that prototypical group members often exert stronger social influence and thus have greater leadership opportunities relative to members of marginalized or underrepresented social categories. This article offers a new model for understanding and promoting leadership diversity by focusing on the mechanisms by which a group or organization coordinates behavior among its members. We predict that means-focused groups (in which social norms drive coordination) are likely to suppress influence among non-prototypic members, whereas ends-focused groups (in which shared goals drive coordination) are more likely to allow for leadership from a diverse set of members. The primary mechanism by which a group coordinates its members—social norms versus shared goals—is thus expected to serve as a critical moderator affecting the likelihood that group-level diversity will translate into inclusion, innovation, performance, and prosperity. Implications of the model for policy and practice, particularly in organizational settings, are discussed. © 2018 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
This study aims to provide evidence that managers’ commitment towards preventing gender violence against women is affected by implicit resistance from the patriarchal culture. A structured questionnaire was given to 673 managers of 243 small, medium, and large private companies in Metropolitan Lima, Peru. We design and test a conceptual model using covariance-based structural equation modeling. Even though 90.3% of managers report being committed to and in favor of preventing gender violence in companies, 48.6% have intense implicit resistance against it. In general, 3 out of 4 managers do not believe in violence against women because they consider it “biased”, and think that policies should only talk about family or partner violence. In addition, 2 out of 4 believe that equality policies have “hidden interests” that generate mistrust. The structural equations show that implicit resistance, directly and indirectly, decreases managers’ commitment and actions towards preventing gender violence in organizations. Gender biases, irrational beliefs about sexual violence, and a lack of appreciation of gender equality strongly predict these resistances. Business involvement in the prevention of gender violence is a more complex process than expected, requiring a reinforced strategy aimed at overcoming managers’ implicit resistance.
Assertiveness development in women can be hindered by gendered norms of agreeableness and passivity. Despite this, many women become assertive, although less is known about how they negotiate the process. This grounded theory examined women’s assertiveness development based on experiences of eleven, primarily post-secondary educated women from a large Western Canada university. Women currently struggling with assertiveness (n = 6) and those who once struggled but now considered themselves more assertive (n = 5) were recruited to compare the immediate experience of barriers to assertiveness and reflections on overcoming these barriers, respectively. Semi-structured interviews and an assertiveness measure were used to capture participants’ convergent and divergent experiences. Participants’ main concerns centered on a desire to be socially accepted, which precluded assertive behaviour and culminated in personal costs such as not getting needs met. Processes in resolving these concerns involved cognitive, behavioural, and social changes, and finding a purpose in life that required assertiveness. These processes form the base of Assertive Identity Negotiation theory, where women negotiate an assertive identity by continually reflecting on and committing to self-assertion while balancing interpersonal concerns.
There is a growing body of literature suggesting that women politicians face greater hostility and violence than men and that this depresses the willingness of women to serve and ultimately descriptive representation. Here we add to this burgeoning literature by examining gender differences in the psychological and physical violence experienced by state house candidates in the 2020 election cycle. Using a survey administered in 18 states, we find that women candidates were significantly more likely than men to report physical violence but not psychological violence. Further, women reported significantly more gendered violence, including sexualized violence. For women, but not for men, running in states more likely to support traditional gender norms was associated with more reported violence. Finally, on one measure of power (running for seats in full-time legislatures), women were more likely than men to report violence.
This review seeks to enrich our understanding of how a leader's status influences leadership outcomes such as motivation to lead, leader emergence and perceived leader effectiveness. The focus is on the leader's diffuse status, i.e., status derived from demographic (e.g., gender and race) and physical (e.g., height and body shape) characteristics. Drawing insights from empirical findings and their theoretical underpinnings, we (1) highlight the need to explicitly model the leader's diffuse status as a mediator in the relationship between leader demographic and physical characteristics and leadership outcomes, (2) differentiate the effects of the leader's diffuse status as perceived by others (interpersonal level) and the leader's diffuse status as perceived by the leader (intrapersonal level) and (3) synthesise a wide range of contextual factors that influence the degree to which the leader's demographic and physical characteristics affect leadership outcomes through the leader's diffuse status. Moreover, we explain how other status types, such as status derived from the leader's position in the organisational hierarchy and status related to task-relevant leader characteristics, can moderate the effects of the leader's diffuse status. Finally, we discuss the utility of our proposed integrative framework for researchers and practitioners and outline promising future research opportunities.
Power-seeking women incur social penalties known as backlash, yet research has identified two motive bases for leadership: power and status. Across five studies (N = 1683) using samples of working professionals, MBA students, undergraduates, and online participants, we investigate perceptions of individuals with varying motives for power and status. We uncover the motive for status is more congruent with feminine stereotypes compared to the power motive (Study 1), and that women who desire status are less likely to incur backlash compared to women who desire power (Study 2). We find that women who desire power appear to have greater perceived leadership potential compared to women who desire only status. However, women who desire both power and status benefit, as they are perceived as highly leaderlike but incur less backlash than women who only desire power (Study 3). We detect support for the novel “Status Compensation Effect” in experimental (Studies 1–3) and naturalistic settings (Studies 4–5), such that the negative social consequences typically incurred by power-seeking women (i.e., backlash) are reduced for women who simultaneously desire status. The current research highlights how women's desires for power and status serve competing functions in impacting their likelihood of incurring backlash.
Research suggests that White women often experience more gender backlash than women of color in response to expressions of agency. We consider whether this differential in backlash is driven by the match or mismatch of the race of both perceivers and targets. Much of the existing work in this space examines the perspective of White perceivers, which might underestimate racial minority women’s susceptibility to backlash if backlash occurs primarily in same-race interactions. We examine how the racial group memberships of targets and perceivers jointly affect backlash against gender-norm violating women. In analyses of Dr. Christine Blasey-Ford’s accusations of sexual assault against Brett Kavanaugh and Anita Hill’s accusations against Clarence Thomas during their respective U.S. Supreme Court confirmation hearings, an archival analysis of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and two experiments, we find that perceivers of different races tend to express more backlash toward racial in-group than out-group women.
Chinese adults’ preference for long-term partners who had a gender-congruent or gender-incongruent occupation were examined. Participants were 442 university students who described themselves as heterosexual. They evaluated opposite-sex targets in traditional female or male occupations. It was found that the Chinese adults endorsed traditional occupational roles in the selection of ideal partners. Men viewed women in feminine occupations to be more family-oriented, more sexually loyal, and more likely to treat their male partners as the head of household, compared with women in masculine occupations. Women viewed men with traditional male occupations as more work-oriented and more likely to be the head of household, but less sexually loyal and less family-oriented. The results are relevant for interventions aimed at increasing people’s participation in counter-stereotypical careers.
In this study, we report results of a survey of U.S. state senators about their experiences of psychological abuse, physical violence, and sexualized abuse and violence on the job, as well as gender differences among senators. Overall, our results indicate that more than 80% of state senators reported having faced abuse and violence, and women senators reported more physical violence than men. Moreover, we found differences in the factors that contributed to abuse and violence among women and men state senators. Most notably, women with higher levels of power (party or committee leaders) were more likely than other women to experience psychological abuse and sexualized abuse and violence, and Democratic women senators faced more sexualized abuse and violence than Republican women. The implications for continued service by state senators in the face of these experiences, the likelihood of attracting future candidates, and the implications for gender diversity in office are explored.
Psychology's study of women has revealed some themes that span cultures and countries, yet women's lived experiences in different cultures can be dramatically different. This Element explores, from a psychological perspective, women's issues in cultural contexts. Beginning with the question of public and private identity (i.e., who 'counts' as a woman), it goes on to examine embodiment, sexuality, reproduction, family roles, economic participation and power, violence, leadership, and feminist activism. It concludes with a brief discussion of women's complicated relationship to culture: as both keepers and sometimes prisoners of cultural traditions - particularly in the context of migration to different cultures. Running through the Element are two general themes: the pervasiveness of a gender hierarchy that often privileges men over women, and the ways in which women's lived experience varies within cultures according to the intersection of gender with other categories that affect expectations, norms, power and privilege.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine the joint effect of the focal customer’s gender and fellow customer’s gender in influencing voice complaint intentions and intention to convey negative word of mouth (NWOM).
Design/methodology/approach
Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two dining conditions (same-gender fellow customer vs opposite-gender fellow customer). Their intention to voice a complaint and to spread NWOM were measured after reading a scenario describing a service failure. A 2 (focal customer gender: male vs female) × 2 (fellow customer: same gender vs opposite gender) between-subjects quasi-experimental design was conducted to test the hypotheses.
Findings
The results demonstrate that female customers’ voice complaint intentions were significantly higher when a fellow customer’s gender was female rather than male. In contrast, regardless of the fellow customer’s gender, no significant differences in voice complaint intentions were found among male customers. The results further indicate that voice complaint intentions mediate the impact of a fellow customer’s gender on intention to spread NWOM among female customers. However, both female and male participants show equally high levels of voice complaint intentions in the context of fine-dining restaurant.
Practical implications
This study broadens the understanding of customer complaining behavior and also provides insights to practitioners on how to manage customers who are in same- and mixed-gender situations.
Originality/value
This research extends the literature on agency–communal theory and complaining behaviors by examining the role of a fellow customer’s gender influencing the focal customer’s intentions to voice complaints and to spread NWOM.
Sometimes leaders seem to come from nowhere—that is, from a social group or situation has seldom produced leaders. Their emergence generally requires special conditions and unusual competence. Once occupying such a role, unexpected leaders have to meet challenges that are more difficult than those faced by expected leaders. Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany, provides an example of a political leader who, against all odds, has achieved high office and extraordinary success. Both role congruity theory and social identity theory explicate the processes that enable such leaders to emerge and sometimes be successful despite their origins in a marginal status or unusual social location. When unexpected leaders are successful, they serve as symbolic vanguards of social change and sometimes produce wider social change in groups, organizations, or nations. © 2018 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Leaders often deviate from group norms or social conventions, sometimes innovating and sometimes engaging in serious transgressions or illegality. We propose that group members are prone to be more permissive toward both forms of deviance in the case of ingroup leaders compared to other ingroup members or outgroup members and leaders. This granting of “deviance credit” is hypothesized to be underpinned by perceptions of an ingroup leader's prototypicality of the group (“accrual”) and belief that occupancy of the role confers a right to be supported (“conferral”). Analyses of data from four studies demonstrate that both accrual and conferral (1) mediate evaluations, inclusion and punishment of deviant leaders, and (2) they make independent contributions to deviance credit. Implications for leadership, marginalization, corruption, innovation, and transformation are discussed. © 2018 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Leadership is a process of influence, an omnipresent feature of human societies, and an enduring focus of research and popular interest. Research tends to focus on individual and situational factors facilitating effective leadership and identifying obstacles to leadership. One key obstacle many leaders face it being stigmatized as an outsider who is not suited to leadership. This article and issue of the Journal of Social Issues focuses on how and when people can overcome these obstacles to leadership–the emergence of marginalized, deviant, or minority group members as leaders even when their success is unexpected. This article and issue discuss the challenges these leaders face and identifies conditions under which such leaders can exert influence to achieve social change. We cover various forms of marginal leadership, focusing on leaders who are marginal individuals (e.g., non-prototypical leaders), who belong to marginal minority subgroups (e.g., leaders from numerical minority groups), or who have marginal demographic status (e.g., female leaders). This article introduces and frames the subsequent articles in this issue of the Journal of Social Issues, on the psychology of being a marginal leader. © 2018 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Despite societal shifts, women are still underrepresented in leadership positions. Previous research has found that women are often placed in risky and precarious leadership positions. This is likely to be the case when the context (economic, social, political) is uncertain. This article investigates (1) the support given to women leaders with leadership styles that are congruent or not with gender stereotypes, under uncertainty (Study 1) and (2) the role of counterstereotypical thinking in strengthening the support for women leaders who are role congruent (vs. incongruent) under uncertainty (Study 2). Study 1 found a preference for strong, role incongruent women leaders in times of uncertainty (vs. certainty). Study 2 found that this preference can be attenuated and role congruent women leaders perceived as more effective following a counterstereotypical thinking intervention that challenge participants’ social cognitive processing styles. We discuss applied implications regarding how to effectively promote diversity in leadership. © 2018 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Research has shown that mindfulness can positively affect peoples’ lives in a number of ways, including relying less on previously established associations. We focused on the impact of mindfulness on implicit age and racial bias as measured by implicit association tests (IATs). Participants listened to either a mindfulness or a control audio and then completed the race and age IATs. Mindfulness meditation caused an increase in state mindfulness and a decrease in implicit race and age bias. Analyses using the Quad Model showed that this reduction was due to weaker automatically activated associations on the IATs.
The research examines whether anger rather than disgust is more likely to be responsible for changes in moral judgment, after individuals consider potential circumstances. Participants first read a scenario that described a moral violation (harm or fairness vs. purity) and then gave their initial moral judgment and emotions toward the act. They were then asked to list things that could change their opinion and were provided with an opportunity to fill out the measures again, re-evaluating the scenario with these changes in mind. It was found that ratings of disgust did not change after generating potential circumstances; however, anger changed in differential ways for the two violation types. It was also found that anger but not disgust predicted change in moral judgment. These findings suggest that moral anger is a more flexible emotion than moral disgust because anger is more likely to respond to changes in circumstances.
With the recent upswing in research interest on the moral implications of disgust, there has been uncertainty about what kind of situations elicit moral disgust and whether disgust is a rational or irrational player in moral decision making. We first outline the benefits of distinguishing between bodily violations (e.g., sexual taboos, such as pedophilia and incest) and nonbodily violations (e.g., deception or betrayal) when examining moral disgust. We review findings from our lab and others' showing that, although many existing studies do not control for anger when studying disgust, disgust at nonbodily violations is often associated with anger and hard to separate from it, while bodily violations more consistently predict disgust independently of anger. Building on this distinction, we present further empirical evidence that moral disgust, in the context of bodily violations, is a relatively primitively appraised moral emotion compared to others such as anger, and also that it is less flexible and less prone to external justifications. Our review and results underscore the need to distinguish between the different consequences of moral emotions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Can sweet-tasting substances trigger kind, favorable judgments about other people? What about substances that are disgusting and bitter? Various studies have linked physical disgust to moral disgust, but despite the rich and sometimes striking findings these studies have yielded, no research has explored morality in conjunction with taste, which can vary greatly and may differentially affect cognition. The research reported here tested the effects of taste perception on moral judgments. After consuming a sweet beverage, a bitter beverage, or water, participants rated a variety of moral transgressions. Results showed that taste perception significantly affected moral judgments, such that physical disgust (induced via a bitter taste) elicited feelings of moral disgust. Further, this effect was more pronounced in participants with politically conservative views than in participants with politically liberal views. Taken together, these differential findings suggest that embodied gustatory experiences may affect moral processing more than previously thought.
Two experimental studies examined the effect of power-seeking intentions on backlash toward women in political office. It was hypothesized that a female politician's career progress may be hindered by the belief that she seeks power, as this desire may violate prescribed communal expectations for women and thereby elicit interpersonal penalties. Results suggested that voting preferences for female candidates were negatively influenced by her power-seeking intentions (actual or perceived) but that preferences for male candidates were unaffected by power-seeking intentions. These differential reactions were partly explained by the perceived lack of communality implied by women's power-seeking intentions, resulting in lower perceived competence and feelings of moral outrage. The presence of moral-emotional reactions suggests that backlash arises from the violation of communal prescriptions rather than normative deviations more generally. These findings illuminate one potential source of gender bias in politics.
Two meta-analyses found that young Americans increasingly believe their lives are controlled by outside forces rather than their own efforts. Locus of control scores became substantially more external (about.80 standard deviations) in college student and child samples between 1960 and 2002. The average college student in 2002 had a more external locus of control than 80% of college students in the early 1960s. Birth cohort/time period explains 14% of the variance in locus of control scores. The data included 97 samples of college students (n = 18,310) and 41 samples of children ages 9 to 14 (n = 6,554) gathered from dissertation research. The results are consistent with an alienation model positing increases in cynicism, individualism, and the self-serving bias. The implications are almost uniformly negative, as externality is correlated with poor school achievement, helplessness, ineffective stress management, decreased self-control, and depression.
Highly hypnotizable participants were given a posthypnotic suggestion to feel a flash of disgust whenever they read an arbitrary word. They were then asked to rate moral transgressions described in vignettes that either did or did not include the disgust-inducing word. Two studies show that moral judgments can be made more severe by the presence of a flash of disgust. These findings suggest that moral judgments may be grounded in affectively laden moral intuitions.
How, and for whom, does disgust influence moral judgment? In four experiments participants made moral judgments while experiencing extraneous feelings of disgust. Disgust was induced in Experiment 1 by exposure to a bad smell, in Experiment 2 by working in a disgusting room, in Experiment 3 by recalling a physically disgusting experience, and in Experiment 4 through a video induction. In each case, the results showed that disgust can increase the severity of moral judgments relative to controls. Experiment 4 found that disgust had a different effect on moral judgment than did sadness. In addition, Experiments 2-4 showed that the role of disgust in severity of moral judgments depends on participants' sensitivity to their own bodily sensations. Taken together, these data indicate the importance-and specificity-of gut feelings in moral judgments.
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.
The belief that women are more emotional than men is one of the strongest gender stereotypes held in Western cultures (Shields, 2002). And yet, gender stereotypes of emotion have received little attention from gender and leadership scholars. In this paper, I review the existing research on gender and emotions and propose that gender stereotypes of emotion present a fundamental barrier to women's ability to ascend to and succeed in leadership roles. I first define the nature of people's gender-emotion stereotypes and outline why perceptions of emotionality may be particularly detrimental to women when they are in high-status positions in work contexts. I then suggest that gender-emotion stereotypes create two complex minefields that female, but not male, leaders have to navigate in order to be successful: (1) identifying how much emotion should be displayed and (2) identifying what kind of emotions should be displayed. Specifically, female leaders can be penalized for even minor or moderate displays of emotion, especially when the emotion conveys dominance (e.g., anger or pride), but being emotionally unexpressive may also result in penalties because unemotional women are seen as failing to fulfill their warm, communal role as women. I conclude by considering the interactive role of race and ethnicity with regards to gender stereotypes of emotion and proposing avenues for future research.
Previous research suggests that women, more than men, experience negative outcomes when they display dominance. A closer look, however, reveals ambiguity about the specific forms of dominance proscribed for women. Here, we suggest that negative reactions to women's dominance, a counter-stereotypical behavior, may require that the behavior be clearly encoded as counter-stereotypical-which is less likely when the behavior is expressed implicitly. This hypothesis was tested with a meta-analysis of studies on the evaluation of individuals behaving dominantly, including articles not directly investigating gender. Results revealed that dominance indeed hurts women's, relative to men's, likability (although the overall effect is small, d = -0.19, k = 63), as well as more downstream outcomes such as hireability (d = -0.58, k = 20). More important, however, dominance expressed explicitly (e.g., direct demands) affected women's likability (d = -0.28) whereas implicit forms of dominance (e.g., eye contact) did not (d = 0.03). Finally, the effect of dominance on men's and women's perceived competence did not differ (d = 0.02, k = 31), consistent with the idea that it is interpersonal (rather than instrumental) evaluations that obstruct women leaders. Implications for theory, and for the success of male and female leaders, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
Although past research has noted the importance of both power and gender for understanding volubility—the total amount of time spent talking—in organizations, to date, identifying the unique contributions of power and gender to volubility has been somewhat elusive. Using both naturalistic data sets and experiments, the present studies indicate that while power has a strong, positive effect on volubility for men, no such effect exists for women. Study 1 uses archival data to examine the relationship between the relative power of United States senators and their talking behavior on the Senate floor. Results indicate a strong positive relationship between power and volubility for male senators, but a non-significant relationship for female senators. Study 2 replicates this effect in an experimental setting by priming the concept of power and shows that though men primed with power talk more, women show no effect of power on volubility. Mediation analyses indicate that this difference is explained by women’s concern that being highly voluble will result in negative consequences (i.e., backlash). Study 3 shows that powerful women are in fact correct in assuming that they will incur backlash as a result of talking more than others—an effect that is observed among both male and female perceivers. Implications for the literatures on volubility, power, and previous studies of backlash are discussed.
Agentic female leaders risk social and economic penalties for behaving counter-stereotypically (i.e., backlash; Rudman, 1998), but what motivates prejudice against female leaders? The status incongruity hypothesis (SIH) proposes that agentic women are penalized for status violations because doing so defends the gender hierarchy. Consistent with this view, Study 1 found that women are proscribed from dominant, high status displays (which are reserved for leaders and men); Studies 2–3 revealed that prejudice against agentic fe-male leaders was mediated by a dominance penalty; and in Study 3, participants' gender system-justifying beliefs moderated backlash effects. Study 4 found that backlash was exacerbated when perceivers were primed with a system threat. Study 5 showed that only female leaders who threatened the status quo suf-fered sabotage. In concert, support for the SIH suggests that backlash functions to preserve male dominance by reinforcing a double standard for power and control.
Argues that occupational sex bias is not inevitable nor invariable and presents a "lack of fit" model to describe the dynamics of sex bias and the conditions that prompt and support its occurrence in organizational settings. The model uses a single principle to explain how both self-directed sex bias (self-limiting behavior) and other-directed sex bias (discrimination) operate before and after a woman's entry into an organization. Areas considered include selection, evaluation, and causal explanations of success. A review of the literature demonstrates the integrative capacity of the model, and consideration of the model's implications illustrates its practical utility in furthering organizational change to reduce sex bias in the workplace. (71 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
As the number of women in management roles increases and organizations place a greater emphasis on diversity, a subsequent change in perceptions of women as leader-like is expected. To test this notion, we examined gender and management stereotypes of male and female managers and students. Results reveal considerable change in male managers' views of women over the past 30 years, as evidenced by greater congruence between their perceptions of women and successful managers and stronger endorsement of agentic and task-oriented leadership characteristics for women. Stereotypes held by male students changed less, remaining strikingly similar to stereotypes held by male managers 15 years ago. Across samples, there was general agreement in the characteristics of managers but less agreement about the characteristics of women. We also found men somewhat less likely than women to attribute successful manager characteristics to women. Respondents with positive past experiences with female managers tended to rate women higher on management characteristics.
Results of an experimental study varying the sex of the employee and the gender-type of the job demonstrated that men, as well as women, are penalized when they are successful in areas that imply that they have violated gender norms. But the nature of these penalties differed. When depicted as being successful at a female gender-typed job, men were characterized as more ineffectual and afforded less respect than women successful at the same job or than men successful in a gender-consistent position. Women, in contrast, were more interpersonally derogated and disliked when said to be successful at a male gender-typed job. Regardless of these differing characterizations, both men and women successful in gender-inconsistent jobs were reported to be less preferable as bosses than their more normatively consistent counterparts. These results suggest that success, when it violates gender norms, can be disadvantageous for both men and women, but in different ways.
This meta-analysis examined the extent to which stereotypes of leaders are culturally masculine. The primary studies fit into 1 of 3 paradigms: (a) In Schein's (1973) think manager-think male paradigm, 40 studies with 51 effect sizes compared the similarity of male and leader stereotypes and the similarity of female and leader stereotypes; (b) in Powell and Butterfield's (1979) agency-communion paradigm, 22 studies with 47 effect sizes compared stereotypes of leaders' agency and communion; and (c) in Shinar's (1975) masculinity-femininity paradigm, 7 studies with 101 effect sizes represented stereotypes of leadership-related occupations on a single masculinity-femininity dimension. Analyses implemented appropriate random and mixed effects models. All 3 paradigms demonstrated overall masculinity of leader stereotypes: (a) In the think manager-think male paradigm, intraclass correlation = .25 for the women-leaders similarity and intraclass correlation = .62 for the men-leaders similarity; (b) in the agency-communion paradigm, g = 1.55, indicating greater agency than communion; and (c) in the masculinity-femininity paradigm, g = 0.92, indicating greater masculinity than the androgynous scale midpoint. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses indicated that this masculine construal of leadership has decreased over time and was greater for male than female research participants. In addition, stereotypes portrayed leaders as less masculine in educational organizations than in other domains and in moderate- than in high-status leader roles. This article considers the relation of these findings to Eagly and Karau's (2002) role congruity theory, which proposed contextual influences on the incongruity between stereotypes of women and leaders. The implications for prejudice against women leaders are also considered.
Across two meta-analyses, American women's assertiveness rose and fell with their social status from 1931 to 1993. College women and high school girls' self-reports on assertiveness and dominance scales increased from 1931 to 1945, decreased from 1946 to 1967, and increased from 1968 to 1993, explaining about 14% of the variance in the trait. Women's scores have increased enough that many recent samples show no sex differences in assertiveness. Correlations with social indicators (e.g., women's educational attainment, women's median age at first marriage) confirm that women's assertiveness varies with their status and roles. Social change is thus internalized in the form of a personality trait. Men's scores do not demonstrate a significant birth cohort effect overall. The results suggest that the changing sociocultural environment for women affected their personalities, most likely beginning in childhood.
The authors suggest that the traditional conception of prejudice--as a general attitude or evaluation--can problematically obscure the rich texturing of emotions that people feel toward different groups. Derived from a sociofunctional approach, the authors predicted that groups believed to pose qualitatively distinct threats to in-group resources or processes would evoke qualitatively distinct and functionally relevant emotional reactions. Participants' reactions to a range of social groups provided a data set unique in the scope of emotional reactions and threat beliefs explored. As predicted, different groups elicited different profiles of emotion and threat reactions, and this diversity was often masked by general measures of prejudice and threat. Moreover, threat and emotion profiles were associated with one another in the manner predicted: Specific classes of threat were linked to specific, functionally relevant emotions, and groups similar in the threat profiles they elicited were also similar in the emotion profiles they elicited.
To understand how and why people tolerate ongoing social and economic inequality, we conducted two studies investigating the hypothesis that system justification is associated with reduced emotional distress and a lack of support for helping the disadvantaged. In Study 1, we found that the endorsement of a system-justifying ideology was negatively associated with moral outrage, existential guilt, and support for helping the disadvantaged. In Study 2, the induction of a system-justification mind-set through exposure to "rags-to-riches" narratives decreased moral outrage, negative affect, and therefore intentions to help the disadvantaged. In both studies, moral outrage (outward-focused distress) was found to mediate the dampening effect of system justification on support for redistribution, whereas existential guilt (Study 1) or negative affect in general (Study 2; inward-focused distress) did not. Thus, system-justifying ideology appears to undercut the redistribution of social and economic resources by alleviating moral outrage.
Disgust is a basic emotion characterized by revulsion and rejection, yet it is relatively unexamined in the literature on prejudice. In the present investigation, interpersonal-disgust sensitivity (e.g., not wanting to wear clean used clothes or to sit on a warm seat vacated by a stranger) in particular predicted negative attitudes toward immigrants, foreigners, and socially deviant groups, even after controlling for concerns with contracting disease. The mechanisms underlying the link between interpersonal disgust and attitudes toward immigrants were explored using a path model. As predicted, the effect of interpersonal-disgust sensitivity on group attitudes was indirect, mediated by ideological orientations (social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism) and dehumanizing perceptions of the out-group. The effects of social dominance orientation on group attitudes were both direct and indirect, via dehumanization. These results establish a link between disgust sensitivity and prejudice that is not accounted for by fear of infection, but rather is mediated by ideological orientations and dehumanizing group representations. Implications for understanding and reducing prejudice are discussed.
Fear of a female president. The Atlantic
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Men, women, and managers: Are stereotypes finally changing? Personnel Psychology
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The deep disgust for Hillary Clinton that drives so many evangelicals to support Trump
- Bailey
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to support Trump. Washington Post, Retrieved from https://wapo.st/2dVBH1s?tid=ss_tw-bottom&utm_term=.029ecf043298
- Bohnet
Who takes the floor and why: Gender, power, and volubility in organizations
- Brescoll
Wimpy and undeserving of respect: Penalties for men's gender-inconsistent success
- Heilman
Fear of a female president
- Beinhart