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PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL
PERFECTIONISM: A META-ANALYSIS OF MAIN,
MEDIATING, AND MODERATING EFFECTS
YU XIE
Hefei University of Technology
JIYU YANG
Xuancheng Vocational and Technical College
FAXIANG CHEN
Hefei University of Technology
As results of researchers’ examination of the relationship between perfectionism and pro-
crastination have often been inconsistent, we conducted a meta-analysis of the relationship
between procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism. Results indicated that perfec-
tionistic strivings were negatively linked to procrastination, whereas perfectionistic concerns
were positively linked to procrastination. Gender, and the measures of perfectionism and
procrastination were found to moderate the relationship between procrastination and multi-
dimensional perfectionism. We found that self-efficacy played a mediating role in the
relationship between self-oriented perfectionism and procrastination. Our findings fill a gap
in the literature and provide confirmatory evidence that the temporal motivational theory can
be applied to gain further understanding of the perfectionism–procrastination relationship.
Keywords: multidimensional perfectionism, procrastination, self-efficacy, temporal
motivational theory, meta-analysis.
Procrastination is a prototypical motivational phenomenon, and is defined as
a functional delay or tendency to rush (Chu & Choi, 2005; Steel, 2007; Steel
& König, 2006). Procrastination has become prevalent throughout the world
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2018, 46(3), 395–408
© 2018 Scientific Journal Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680
395
Yu Xie, Student Working Office, Xuancheng Campus, Hefei University of Technology; Jiyu Yang,
Radio and Television University Working Department, Xuancheng Vocational and Technical College;
Faxiang Chen, Student Working Office, Xuancheng Campus, Hefei University of Technology.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jiyu Yang, Radio and Television
University Working Department, Xuancheng Vocational and Technical College, 698 Xunhua Road,
Xuancheng 242000, People’s Republic of China. Email: yangjy@xcvtc.edu.cn
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM
396
in recent years (Ozer, O’Callaghan, Bokszczanin, Ederer, & Essau, 2014),
and is a significant problem in academia, with findings in studies on procras-
tination showing that between 70% and 95% of students procrastinate (Klassen,
Krawchuk, & Rajani, 2008), and 50% of students procrastinate problematically
and consistently (Steel, 2007). In addition, procrastination is very prevalent
among working adults, with findings showing that approximately 20% of adults
procrastinate in their daily lives generally (Hammer & Ferrari, 2002).
Procrastination is harmful to the procrastinator and it occurs in behavioral and
emotional dimensions (Fee & Tangney, 2000; Kiamarsi & Abolghasemi, 2014).
Previous researchers have examined the correlation between procrastination and
individual performance, and found that procrastinators have poorer performance
than others (Steel, Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). For example, students who
put off a task or assignment tend to obtain a low grade (Kim & Seo, 2015).
Procrastination is also common in a variety of other fields such as medicine (e.g.,
delay in medical treatment) and commerce (e.g., postponement of tax declaration
resulting in errors leading to overpayment of taxes; see, e.g., Holland, 2001).
Previous researchers have linked procrastination to negative emotions such as
depression, anxiety, and frustration (Wolters, 2003). For example, students who
procrastinate are more likely than their peers to feel stressed and anxious at the
end of a course (Assur, 2003).
Psychology researchers have explored the causes and correlations of procras-
tination, and have produced models to elucidate the potential influencing factors
in procrastination (Dietz, Hofer, & Fries, 2007; Ozer et al., 2014; Seo, 2008).
However, the researchers failed to present the full picture of procrastination
in these models until Steel and König (2006) used expectancy theory (Vroom,
1964), need theory of motivation (Murray, 1938), cumulative prospect theory
(Tversky & Kahneman, 1992), and picoeconomics to propose their temporal
motivational theory (TMT), which is an integrative motivational model. In
regard to TMT, Steel further enhanced understanding of procrastination when he
established a nomological web of procrastination. Namely, although the causes of
procrastination vary, personality traits play a considerable role in its occurrence,
and Steel (2007) suggested in his meta-analysis that conscientiousness is a strong
predictor of procrastination.
Perfectionism is broadly defined as a personality trait characterized by individuals
having exceedingly high standards for themselves, with accompanying tendencies
of extreme self-critical evaluation (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost, Marten, Lahart,
& Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Perfectionists have irrational beliefs
about the need for them to be perfect, and they rarely feel satisfaction. Previous
findings have shown that there is a close correlation between perfectionism and
procrastination (e.g., Stöber & Joormann, 2001). However, empirical results have
been contradictory in regard to the perfectionism–procrastination relationship.
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM 397
Some findings show that perfectionism is negatively related to procrastination
(Bong, Hwang, Noh, & Kim, 2014; Tian & Deng, 2011), whereas others show
there is a positive correlation (Brownlow & Reasinger, 2000; Burns, Dittmann,
Nguyen, & Mitchelson, 2000; Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992).
Meta-analyses could be performed to fill this gap in the literature through
aggregation of the resulting values and estimation of the strength of correlations.
However, previous meta-analysis results are inconsistent in terms of the
correlation between perfectionism and procrastination. Van Eerde (2003)
conducted a meta-analysis on procrastination and found that perfectionism was
a major cause of procrastination, although the effect size was small. However,
Steel’s (2007) meta-analysis results indicated that the correlation between
perfectionism and procrastination was nonsignificant, leading him to conclude
that perfectionism does not contribute to procrastination. There are two possible
reasons for the inconsistent results: The first of these is that Van Eerde did
not differentiate between multidimensional constructs when he explored the
relationship between perfectionism and procrastination; the second possibility is
that Steel combined self-perfectionism and other perfectionism dimensions into
one variable and combined social perfectionism, self-consciousness, evaluation
anxiety, and fear of failure into another variable. Thus, Steel likely distorted the
perfectionism–procrastination relationship.
Researchers have tended to subscribe to the belief that perfectionism has
multiple dimensions. Since Frost and colleagues (1990) developed the Frost
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS), a number of other measures
have been proposed to assess multidimensional perfectionism. Stoeber and
Otto (2006) classified perfectionism into two dimensions: perfectionistic
strivings, defined as a form of positive perfectionism that includes high personal
performance standards and a self-oriented striving for perfection, and perfec-
tionistic concerns, defined as a form of negative perfectionism that includes
feelings of discrepancy between expectations and results, doubts about actions,
and concern over mistakes and conforming to socially prescribed perfectionism.
The approach of differentiating these two dimensions of perfectionism has been
supported by factor analysis (Bieling, Israeli, & Antony, 2004), and has been
adopted by researchers to examine perfectionism. For example, Hill and Curran
(2016) conducted a meta-analysis to explore the relationship between multidi-
mensional perfectionism and burnout by adopting this approach to differentiate
types of perfectionism.
Researchers have found that perfectionistic strivings and concerns are
useful predictors of some psychological variables (Stoeber, 2011; Stoeber &
Otto, 2006). For example, perfectionistic strivings are correlated with positive
psychological outcomes, such as achievement motivation and positive affect
(Hill, Stoeber, Brown, & Appleton, 2014; Stoeber & Otto, 2006). Perfectionistic
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM
398
concerns play a significant role as a vulnerability factor for a number of negative
psychological outcomes, such as negative affect, depression, and avoidant coping
(Dunkley, Sanislow, Grilo, & McGlashan, 2006; Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein,
2003; Stoeber & Childs, 2010). As procrastination is considered a motivational
problem, we hypothesized that perfectionistic strivings would be negatively
linked to procrastination, and perfectionistic concerns would be positively linked
to procrastination. Thus, our first aim in the meta-analysis was to evaluate
the strength of the correlation between procrastination and multidimensional
perfectionism.
We reasoned that it would also be necessary to explore several potential
moderating effects in the correlation between procrastination and multidi-
mensional perfectionism. Therefore, this exploration was our second aim in the
meta-analysis. Age might be a possible moderator as researchers have shown
that age was negatively related to both perfectionism and procrastination (Landa
& Bybee, 2007; Van Eerde, 2003), with younger people being more likely than
those in older age groups to be perfectionistic and to procrastinate. Gender might
also have an impact on perfectionism and procrastination. Stoeber and Stoeber
(2009) found that although men were more often perfectionistic than women in
some domains of perfectionism, in perfectionism overall, correlation scores were
not significant in the relationship between perfectionism and gender. In addition,
although Sepehrian and Lotf (2011) found a significant difference in procras-
tination according to gender, Steel (2007) reported a weak relationship between
gender and procrastination. Van Eerde (2003) found that men were marginally
more likely to procrastinate than women.
Our final aim in the meta-analysis was to test the mediating role of self-efficacy
in the relationship between procrastination and self-oriented perfectionism. It
has been found that self-efficacy has a significant impact on procrastination
(Haycock, McCarthy, & Skay, 1998). Self-efficacy is individuals’ belief that they
can accomplish a particular task using their own skills (Bandura, 1997). High
self-efficacy individuals tend to use more regulatory strategies than other people
and display a greater capacity to persist, whereas low self-efficacy individuals
are more likely than high self-efficacy individuals to avoid tasks (Bandura,
1997). Sirois (2004) found that low self-efficacy individuals reported more
procrastination behavior than did high self-efficacy individuals. Flett, Hewitt,
Blankstein, and Mosher (1995) suggested that perfectionism and procrastination
reflected personal efficacy. Seo (2008) proposed a model to test the mediating
role of self-efficacy in the correlation between perfectionism and procrastination.
The test result indicated that self-efficacy fully mediated the relationship between
academic procrastination and self-oriented perfectionism, which is an indicator
of perfectionistic strivings.
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM 399
Method
Literature Search
We conducted a literature search using the databases PsycINFO, PubMed,
Academic Search Complete, Web of Science, and ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses. We used the search terms “perfection,” “perfectionist,” “perfectionism,” or
“perfectionistic,” combined with “procrastination,” “procrastinate,” “postpone,”
or “delay.” We conducted the search on 14 September 2016. The publication
years were limited to 1990 to 2016, because the first article in which the concept
of multidimensional perfectionism was introduced was published in 1990. We
located 126 articles in this search, and added three articles by reviewing the
reference lists of these articles and existing meta-analyses. We also contacted the
corresponding authors of the articles by email, and requested their unpublished
data on the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination. However,
after 4 weeks, we had received a response from only one author, who provided
one additional data set that had been presented at a conference.
We selected only studies that met the following criteria: The studies must (a) be
quantitative, (b) measure perfectionism using a multidimensional perfectionism
scale, (c) use a measure of procrastination, (d) use a general or domain-
specific self-efficacy scale where relevant, (e) be written in English, and (f)
report a correlation coefficient between procrastination and multidimensional
perfectionism or provide sufficient statistics to perform conversion into a
correlation coefficient. Of the studies that met these criteria, 21 were included
in a correlational meta-analysis and two were included in a mediation model in
the meta-analysis.
Study Coding
We coded each study as follows: (a) authors and year; (b) number, (c)
mean age, and (d) male/female percentage, for participants; (e) measurement
of perfectionism, (f) measurement of procrastination, (g) measurement of
self-efficacy, for measurements; (h) indicators of perfectionistic strivings, (i)
indicators of perfectionistic concerns, for indicators; (j) bivariate correlations
between perfectionism and procrastination, and (k) correlation matrices of
self-oriented perfectionism, self-efficacy, and procrastination where relevant.
Indicators of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were selected
based on previous perfectionism studies (Stoeber, 2011; Stoeber & Otto, 2006).
Specifically, we included the indicator labeled personal standards in the FMPS,
self-oriented perfectionism from Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) Multidimensional
Perfectionism Scale (HMPS), and high standards from the Almost Perfect
Scale-Revised (APS-R; Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001), as
indicators of perfectionistic strivings. We selected concern over mistakes and
doubts about actions from the FMPS, socially prescribed perfectionism from
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM
400
the HMPS, and discrepancy from the APS-R, as indicators of perfectionistic
concerns. Two of the authors of this study independently coded the information
from the selected studies. Any disagreement was resolved by consensus.
Data Analysis
We conducted meta-analyses using the metafor (Viechtbauer, 2010) and
metaSEM (Cheung, 2015) packages with the R statistical computing environment.
We used a Hedges/Olkin-type random effects model to compute the mean
correlation between procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism (Hedges
& Olkin, 1985; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). In terms of heterogeneity, subgrouping
and metaregression were conducted to explore moderators. We used a two-stage
structural equation modeling (TSSEM) method to assess the mediation model
(Cheung & Chan, 2005, 2009). The pooled correlation matrix and its asymptotic
covariance matrix were estimated in Stage 1, and then the proposed model
was fitted in Stage 2. To test the homogeneity of the correlation matrices, we
calculated model fit statistics including chi square (2), degrees of freedom
(df), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA). In regard to the mediation model, statistics concerning both the
direct and indirect paths, as well as the Sobel, Aroian, and Goodman tests, were
computed.
Results
Relationship Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism
In the 21 studies included in the meta-analysis, there were 14,604 participants
from 56 samples (sample size range = 77 to 524 participants, mean age range
= 13.00 to 30.28 years, female percentage range = 47.90% to 78.41%). We
calculated sample sizes (k), number of participants (N), mean weighted effect
sizes (r), 95% confidence intervals (CI), heterogeneity statistics (Q), and
Rosenthal’s fail-safe N, using a random-effects model. A negatively significant
mean-weighted correlation of r = -.136 (z = -4.785, p < .001, 95% CI [-0.192,
-0.081], Q = 92.329; p < .001, fail-safe N = 893) was found for the correlation
between procrastination and perfectionistic strivings, and a positively significant
mean-weighted correlation of r = .200 (z = 7.986, p < .001, 95% CI [0.151,
0.249], Q = 269.471; p < .001, fail-safe N = 5,016) was found for the correlation
between procrastination and perfectionistic concerns.
Moderation Analysis
Age. To examine age as a potential moderator, we performed metaregression.
The results (QModel = 3.651, p > .05; QModel = 2.467, p > .05) suggested that the age
of participants did not significantly affect the correlation between procrastination
and multidimensional perfectionism.
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM 401
Table 1. The Effects of Moderators on the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Procrastination
Qb k Mean r 95% confidence Qb k Mean r 95% confidence
interval interval
Lower Upper Lower Upper
limit limit limit limit
Perfectionistic strivings Perfectionistic concerns
Perfectionism measures 23.966*** 83.282***
HMPS 12 -.232 -0.383 -0.080 3 0.199 0.128 0.270
FMPS 7 -.133 -0.229 -0.037 16 0.164 0.100 0.228
APS-R 3 -.112 -0.192 -0.033 15 0.387 0.243 0.530
Procrastination measures 23.074** 81.051***
TPS 5 -.092 -0.210 0.025 12 0.278 0.203 0.353
PASS 10 -.174 -0.259 -0.089 14 0.135 0.065 0.206
GPS 4 -.122 -0.264 0.019 5 0.179 0.054 0.304
AIP 1 .010 -0.309 0.329 1 0.239 0.036 0.443
API 2 -.136 -0.340 0.069 2 0.140 -0.174 0.454
Note. HMPS = Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, FMPS = Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, APS-R = Almost Perfect Scale-Revised,
TPS = Tuckman Procrastination Scale, PASS = Procrastination Assessment Scale-Student, GPS = General Procrastination Scale, AIP = Adult Inventory of
Procrastination, API = Aitken Procrastination Inventory. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM
402
Gender. We performed metaregression to evaluate gender as a moderator.
The result (QModel = 2.289, p > .05) indicated that gender was not a significant
moderator in the correlation between procrastination and perfectionistic strivings,
but the result (QModel = 4.964, p < .05) indicated that gender was a significant
moderator in the correlation between procrastination and perfectionistic concerns.
Perfectionism measures. We included the FMPS, HMPS, and APS-R scores
in the meta-analysis. As shown in Table 1, subgrouping results (Qb = 23.966, df =
2, p < .001; Qb = 83.282, df = 2, p < .001) suggested that the three perfectionism
measures yielded results showing a significant effect of the measure in the
relationship between procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism. The
correlation between procrastination and perfectionistic strivings as measured by
the HMPS was significantly higher than when either of the other two measures
was used, whereas the correlation between procrastination and perfectionistic
concerns as measured by the APS-R was significantly higher than when either of
the two other measures was used.
Procrastination measures. We included five procrastination measures in the
meta-analysis: Adult Inventory of Procrastination (McCown & Johnson, 1989),
Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API; Aitken, 1982), General Procrastination
Scale (Lay, 1986), Procrastination Assessment Scale-Student (PASS; Solomon
& Rothblum, 1984), and Tuckman Procrastination Scale (TPS; Tuckman, 1991).
As shown in Table 1, subgrouping results (Qb = 23.966, df = 2, p < .001; Qb
= 83.282, df = 2, p < .001) suggested that the actual procrastination measure
used significantly affected the correlation between procrastination and multidi-
mensional perfectionism. According to the 95% CI results, only one correlation
with the PASS was significant in the group of indicators of perfectionistic
strivings, whereas four measures resulted in significant correlations in the group
of indicators of perfectionistic concerns, with only the correlation with the API
being nonsignificant. In particular, when the TPS was used, the correlation
between procrastination and perfectionistic concerns was significantly higher
than when any of the other measures were used.
Mediation Analysis
A mediation model was proposed to examine self-efficacy as a mediator, using
the pooled correlation matrices from every relevant study (see Figure 1). In Stage
1, we calculated model fit statistics to test the homogeneity of the correlation
matrices. As the value of fit indices (2 = 7.158, df = 3, CFI = .984, RMSEA =
.076) suggested a rejection of the heterogeneity hypothesis, we conducted the
analysis with a fixed-effects TSSEM. In Stage 2, we compared a set of alternative
models. The results indicated that the mediation model demonstrated the best fit
(2 = 0.00, df = 0, CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = .00). Sobel, Aroian, and Goodman tests
were conducted to test the significance of the indirect effect from self-oriented
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM 403
perfectionism to procrastination through self-efficacy, and the results were
statistically significant (Sobel test = -7.694, p < .01; Aroian test = -7.681, p < .01;
Goodman test = -7.707, p < .01).
Self-oriented perfectionism Procrastination
Self-efficacy
.362 -.515
-.015
Figure 1. Path model of the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between pro-
crastination and self-oriented perfectionism. N = 483.
Discussion
Our findings about the relationship between procrastination and multidi-
mensional perfectionism are not consistent with two previous meta-analyses
(i.e., Steel, 2007; Van Eerde, 2003). The main reason for this is the application
of the methodology. Namely, we assessed the strength of the correlation
between perfectionism and procrastination from a multidimensional perspective.
In contrast, Van Eerde (2003) regarded perfectionism as a unidimensional
construct, and Steel (2007), by combining self-consciousness, evaluation anxiety,
social perfectionism, and fear of failure into one variable, may have distorted
the perfectionism–procrastination relationship. However, Ozer et al.’s (2014)
findings that personal standards of perfectionism were negatively correlated with
procrastination, whereas the perfectionistic concerns indicator of doubts about
actions was positively correlated with procrastination, are consistent with our
findings in the meta-analysis.
Despite the nonsignificant correlation that Steel (2007) reported between
perfectionism and procrastination, the TMT (Steel & König, 2006) can provide
an explanation for our findings. As individuals with high perfectionistic
strivings set themselves high standards, put a high value on their tasks, and
have expectations of great results, they tend to finish tasks on time (Bong et
al., 2014). In contrast, individuals with high perfectionistic concerns worry
about their mistakes, have doubts regarding their actions, have feelings of
discrepancy between expectations and results, avoid disapproval by others, and
excessively fear failure, may be more prone to delaying tasks. Our results provide
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM
404
evidence that the TMT can account for the link between perfectionism and
procrastination.
We found that gender was a significant moderator in the relationship between
procrastination and perfectionistic concerns. Male participants with high perfec-
tionistic concerns were more likely than women to procrastinate, although the
influence of gender was very weak. Each measure of perfection and procras-
tination moderated the correlation between perfectionism and procrastination.
Although the different measures were designed to evaluate the same variable, the
conceptualizations were not same. For example, the APS-R does not conceptually
map on to the HMPS or the FMPS. Therefore, each measure moderated the
correlation between perfectionism and procrastination to a different degree.
Our results indicated that self-efficacy plays a mediating role in the relationship
between procrastination and self-oriented perfectionism. Expectancy theory,
which is a fundamental theory in TMT, is very similar to self-efficacy theory
(Bandura & Locke, 2003; Steel & König, 2006; Vancouver, Thompson, &
Williams, 2001). High self-oriented perfectionism individuals tend to set
themselves high standards and expect a lot from themselves, which may result
in them having the self-confidence to complete tasks on time (Seo, 2008). In
other words, they have high self-efficacy, which is less likely to be found in
procrastinators. Our findings augment the evidence supporting the theoretical
framework for TMT.
Our results support the mediation model proposed by Seo (2008), who explored
self-efficacy as a mediator in the relationship between academic procrastination
and self-oriented perfectionism. In the mediation model in our meta-analysis, not
only was self-oriented perfectionism an indicator of perfectionistic strivings, but
also of other indicators such as high standards. We excluded Seo’s study from
our meta-analysis because there were insufficient data to calculate the correlation
coefficient. As Seo separated self-oriented perfectionism into two parcels,
academic procrastination into two areas, and self-efficacy into three dimensions,
this would have led to a very large inflation of effect sizes. Specifically, Seo
reported four correlations between self-oriented perfectionism and academic
procrastination and 12 correlation matrices of perfectionism, procrastination,
and self-efficacy. As we tested only two correlation matrices for mediation
in our meta-analysis, such a large inflation could not have been accepted. We
were unable to test indicators of perfectionistic strivings other than self-oriented
perfectionism in the mediation model, because there were insufficient data
according to the criteria for inclusion in our meta-analysis.
Previous researchers have identified explanatory factors other than the
mediating role of self-efficacy. For example, in the education domain, several
potential mediators of perfectionism and academic procrastination, such as
psychological capital, test anxiety, and achievement motivation, have been
PROCRASTINATION AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERFECTIONISM 405
identified (Hashemi & Latifian, 2014; Hicks & Yao, 2015; Tian & Deng, 2011).
Chen (2014) also found that coping has a significant mediating role in the
perfectionism–procrastination relationship.
As, to our knowledge, ours was the first review of the relationship between
procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism, our meta-analysis has
played an important role in filling a gap in the literature. However, despite the
mediators that we identified in our meta-analysis, we believe that there are still
many factors that have not been identified. Therefore, more studies are needed
in which researchers shed light on the mechanisms underlying the relationship
between perfectionism and procrastination by identifying additional factors in
this relationship.
There are two limitations in this study. First, we examined multidimensional
perfectionism, in which perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns were
higher-order dimensions. As we selected the indicators of these two dimensions,
some other indicators of perfectionism were lost. We acknowledge that different
measurements have been adopted in other studies. Second, only a relatively
small number of studies have been conducted in which the mediation model
has been tested. Specifically, correlations were reported among self-oriented
perfectionism, procrastination, and self-efficacy in only two studies. Therefore,
the results of our mediation model may be reversed in future findings.
In conclusion, we provided evidence in our meta-analysis to suggest that per-
fectionistic strivings are negatively linked to procrastination, and, in contrast,
the link between perfectionistic concerns and procrastination is positive. In
addition, gender, perfectionism measures, and procrastination measures are
moderators in the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination. The
results of our mediation model are consistent with previous ones, indicating that
self-efficacy plays a mediating role in the relationship between procrastination
and self-oriented perfectionism.
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