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International Journal of Instruction April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
e-ISSN: 1308-1470 ● www.e-iji.net p-ISSN: 1694-609X
pp. 185-202
Citation: Malik, S., Abd Manaf, U. K., Ahmad, N. A., & Ismail, M. (2018). Orientation and Mobility
Training in Special Education Curriculum for Social Adjustment Problems of Visually Impaired
Children in Pakistan. International Journal of Instruction, 11(2), 185-202.
https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11213a
Received: 23/07/2017
Revision: 21/11/2017
Accepted: 26/11/2017
Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education Curriculum for
Social Adjustment Problems of Visually Impaired Children in Pakistan
Shazia Malik
Phd Scholar, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang
Selangor, Malaysia, shazia11malik@hotmail.com
Umi Kalthom Abd Manaf
Senior Lecturer, Dr., Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
Serdang Selangor, Malaysia, umizat90@upm.edu.my
Nor Aniza Ahmad
Senior Lecturer, Dr., Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
Serdang Selangor, Malaysia, anizamidie@gmail.com
Maimunah Ismail
Prof., Dr., Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang
Selangor, Malaysia, mismail379@gmail.com
The study is aimed at investigating the impact of orientation and mobility (O&M)
training as a part of the special education curriculum on the social adjustment of
visually impaired children. The population consisted of visually impaired children
between the ages of (5-15), studying at different special education institutes in
Pakistan was the assessable population for the study. A sample of 125 male and
female visually impaired children from public and private special education
institutes of Islamabad, Pakistan were conveniently selected as a sample of the
study. The study used two sub-dimensions of social adjustment, namely Self-
Personality and Pro-social behavior, to be explored in terms of their relationship
with orientation and mobility training. The results showed a significant relationship
between O&M training and social adjustment of children in terms of personality
well-being and social interaction while with the others. The variables were found
to be correlated with each other. The results were in line with most of the previous
research studies. The novelty of the study lies in selection of cultural context of
Pakistan, which is a developing country and to date international standard trainings
and social care is not provided to the visually impaired at large.
Keywords: movement performance, orientation and mobility training, visual function,
visual impairment, social adjustments, family
186 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
INTRODUCTION
Vision is a very important blessing in one's daily life, and its disability is a hindrance in
getting essential information to lead a normal life. Vision disability hinders a person to
perform the routine task of his/her day to day life. One of such problems that a blind
person faces the disability to move smoothly and independently from one place to
another. This is the major problem that a blind person goes through in their daily life
especially in new surroundings. ‘Orientation' and ‘mobility (O&M) training' teaches a
visually impaired person to move independently and confidently in the society by
utilizing certain skills and fully making use of other senses along with the help of some
equipment such as mobility practices and devices. These equipments are considered to
be organized and planned teaching system which has been used for more than 50 years
in helping blind people to settle comfortably and effectively in the society effectively
Wolwer et al., 2005).
Children learn various life leading skills by noticing exploring and examining the
surrounding using their senses, primarily the sense of sight (McAllister & Gray, 2007).
However, the blind children need to acquire certain skills to help them move around
easily. O&M enriches such concepts, abilities and skills that enhance a comfortable and
independent movement of a blind person in the society (Jacobson, 2013).'Orientation'
means the usage of senses to adjust to the environment and ‘mobility' means the quality
of coherent and natural movement. (Hill & Ponder, 1976).
Visual disability is a condition in which a blind person seems to be badly affected,
resulting in the disability to maintain balance and organization of his whole being.
Although this appears to be harmful to the affected person, the fact is that it is the
attitude of a blind person towards his own disability that makes him vulnerable towards
maintaining his personal and social balance. A study by Sarabandi and Kamali (2012),
suggested that visual impairment affects people's quality of life and reduces their social
skills. For the last ten years, the studies and researches, in the field of health and vision
highlighted on the importance of social relations, which are not well-developed in a
blind person. According to the research by Bergger&Porell (2008), the visual defects
have a substantial impact on the ability of people in everyday practice and thus they are
considered as an important cause of disability. The ‘rehabilitation goal' is the need of the
time (Eftekhar & Nojoumi, 2002). Bergger & Porell (2008), work has shown that visual
disability is a hindrance in living a practical normal life.
For the visually impaired learners, O&M is considered as an essential part of the
Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) Hatlen, 1996). Visually impaired learners will
receive a set of planned and coherent instruction to follow from their instructor in order
to learn effective O&M skills (Lohmeier, Blankenship, & Hatlen, 2009). These skills
have proven to be useful for them to be accessible in any social environment in an
independent and effective manner (Pavey, Douglas, McLinden, & McCall, 2003). Thus,
it serves the purpose of facilitating the educational, vocational, social, and recreational
opportunities for the visually impaired children (McDonnall, 2011; Riley, 2000; Wolffe
& Kelly, 2011).
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 187
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
Under the unusual physical condition, the visually impaired people have to face many
challenges in acquiring and performing the normal skills. It is due to their lack of ability
to comprehend visual cues, facial expressions, feedback, and the ability to determine the
location of people and other clues and patterns related to sight, therefore, their social
abilities fail to develop and flourish according to the norms of the society (MacCuspie,
1996). The research conducted in the past, without ineffective O&M have shown that
the visually impaired or blind people have practically failed to acquire essential social
tactics and thus failed to cope with challenging situations in their social life. This
inability may prove to be harmful in their future life.
Teaching of blind children is much more important in Pakistan because the education
system, the society, social approach, communal behavior and socioeconomic conditions
of families do not provide any support for such disability (Ahmed, Khan, & Nasem,
2011). The education system can be helpful to the healthy student rather than of a
disable one. The present curriculum and course of studies practiced in Pakistan
education system, which does not provide any concern to the disability, it is the whole of
student experiences, which can only be understood by healthy and normal students and
also followed by their educational system.
In Pakistan, 11.6 million individuals are visually impaired or externally incapacitated.
Of this number, 2.3 million are thoroughly visually impaired. One hundred and thirty
thousand individuals go blind from cataract every year. The cataract is the most widely
recognized reason for preventable visual deficiency – around 70%. Cataract is an eye
disease which causes for visual impairment. In cataract, the eye lens becomes opaque
and vision becomes cloudiness of lens, which prevents the passage of rays of light onto
eye retina (Yelamarthi, et al. 2010). Life expectancy has enhanced in developing nations
like Pakistan, through various programs, donations and help of non-government sector
(Islamabad Society for Prevention of Blindness).
In Pakistan, Government and Non-governmental bodies are playing their effective role
through different institutes and training programs for enabling visually impaired children
to come into power with the rest. In the same context, still an updated system, on the
patterns of developed countries does not prevail in the country. Though efforts have
been made towards an overall system to support disabled people, there is a deficit in
terms of in-depth research, conducted specifically on the social adjustment problems of
visually impaired people (Shazadi, 1992; Jadoon et al., 2006). In light of the limited
literature and research in the context of Pakistan, it is imperative to understand the
reaction and output of visually impaired children to different training, curriculum and
different programs imparted in their institutes and other forums. These results would
enable the policy makers to take appropriate steps for the betterment of visually
impaired children in the country.
The education system for the blind is of vital importance and should not be ignored
(Ahmed, Khan, & Nasem, 2011). As in social adjustment is such a continuous process
through which a child, who by any means owns any disability, strives hard to adjust in
his/her family through the moral and functional support of elders and siblings. Although
this curriculum for blind is available in Pakistan but following the curriculum of sighted
188 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
children, it is not fully developed (Khan & Behlol, 2014). With the passage of time, as
the awareness level has raised high, Pakistan is stepping ahead in this matter and the
government is taking essential steps to ensure the support of visually impaired children
in the adjustment in their family as well as in the society. The aim of this research is to
study and evaluate the current education system regarding special education of visually
impaired children and explore challenges in the family system as well the moral and
functional support of the family members to them.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Orientation and mobility have been recognized by numerous researchers in the field of
visual impairments. As a significant skill area for youngsters with visual impairment to
gain their free independent movement (Hatlen, 1996; Hazekamp & Huebner, 1989;
Huebner, Merk-Adam, Stryker, & Wolffe, 2004; Lowenfeld, 1964). In consideration to
social collaboration abilities, free living aptitudes, compensatory aptitudes, amusement
and relaxation abilities, profession training, the utilization of assistive innovation, visual
proficiency aptitudes, also, self-determination, introduction and versatility are
particularly recognized in the National Agenda for the education of children with visual
impairments, including those with various other disabilities but would focus on
blindness (Huebner et al.,2004) as a vital component of the extended main subject for
learners with visual disabilities. All things considered, experts perceive that it ought to
be given the same consideration as the subject capabilities are contained in the general
training educational program (Hatlen, 1996). The improvement of introduction and
portability abilities for persons with visual disabilities has been connected with a few
advantages, including scholastic execution (Lowenfeld, 1964), access to occupational,
expanded incorporation into the group, and access to informal organizations (DeMario
& Caruso, 2001).
Children with low vision are frequently disregarded and are thought to require less
exceptional and less continuous direct guidance. Which are identified with their
handicap particular needs than children who are blind. And to write inside in the field of
visual debilitation regularly concentrates on the needs and formative levels of children
who are visually impaired. Except for exploration identified with proficiency
furthermore, access to the earth, data,particularly identified with the status of children
with low vision and their instructional needs are terribly underreported. Although
instructional assets are identified by the association of children with visual impairment
with the introduction and portability. The little research is accessible on the level of
introduction and versatility aptitudes illustrated by children with visual impairment or
the particular O&M preparing needs of children with low vision (Corn & Wall, 2002).
The Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Curriculum
The regular O&M syllabi include various techniques related to mobility skills. These
techniques are guiding technique, long cane technique, traveling tactics, searching for
destination and using public transport (Hill & Ponder, 1976; LaGrow, 2010; Neal et al.,
2004).This training includes use of various important devices such as optical devices,
familiarization aids,technical movement devices electronic travel aids, and global
positioning systems (Bozeman & McCulley, 2010; Smith & Penrod, 2010; Wall
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 189
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
Emerson & Corn, 2006) .Children with low vision must be trained to utilize their
kinesthetic sense fully, and blind children should be taught about how to get settle in the
different environment making use of their other senses (Wall Emerson & Corn, 2006).
Past researchers have proven that blind children were not provided with enough practice
to polish their language skills which causes a breakdown in their social communication
as their vocabulary is more related to their past experiences than to the current situation
(Webster & Roe, 1998). Moreover, such children have lower understanding and practice
of their language capabilities. As a result, they are more prone to use physical gestures
to communicate rather than using practical language, thus causing a negative correlation
to their disability and school grades (Frame, 2000).
The aim of O&M training is to enable visually disable children to live and travel
independently in their environments. The target of an O&M instructor is to provide a set
of instructions followed by practical environment and experience to develop the skills
and concepts (Fazzi & Naimy, 2010). However, the eligibility of the services is
developed in the O&M curriculum of visually impaired children, a review of O&M
curriculum is needed. As a result, an action of prevention of certain measures must be
done as early as possible (Huebner et al., 2004; Pogrund & Fazzi, 2002). The initial
training tactics of O&M skills started with the ability of independent movement in space
by visually impaired children (Huebner et al., 2004; Pogrund&Fazzi, 2002). The major
focus of this training is on the special concepts as well as O&M skills such as perceptual
skills, environmental knowledge, sensory development, motor development, mobility
skills and decisive techniques (Bozeman &McCulley, 2010; Neal et al., 2004; Wall
Emerson & Corn, 2006).
Assistance of family, school, and community
The assistance and support of the family, school, and community plays a vital role in the
development of O&M skills among the blind children (Fazzi & Naimy, 2010). It is the
responsibility of an O&M instructor to teach the family members in school and general
members of the society about the essentialities of the O&M training. To accomplish this
task, an instructor must develop and implement certain training measures for the mass
(Fazzi & Naimy, 2010; Griffin-Shirley et al., 2000). The major target of the in-service
training need to explain the role of the O&M instructor, the aims of the program and the
role of the people required to assist in this program, including teachers and their
administration that can result in smooth development of the O&M training program. The
community traveling lessons may include the training of the general public and mass
related to the society, to facilitate the blind children.
The O&M instructional process will not accomplish its targets fully, if the family
members, peers, educationist, administration and other related people are not properly
involved and educated. A regular interaction with the parents and management of the
school is essential to improve family support (Fazzi & Naimy, 2010). In addition, the
instructors can also develop and implement such activities for family members and
siblings to accomplish at home for facilitating the continuity of teaching. (Crone,
Scannell, & Cordeau, 2005; Fazzi & Petersmeyer, 2001). These activities should be fun-
based and educational as well to be implemented in daily living.
190 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
The helpful gestures, collaboration, and initiator, appraisal and encouragement from
families are essential in this kind of behavior (Kleiner, translated by Mohammad Khani,
2007). A research conducted in Tehran by Biabangard (2005) related to the comparison
of social skill among female blind, deaf and normal high school students clearly states
that those normal students have significantly better social skills than blind and deaf
students, whereas, blind students have better social skills than deaf students. Slaby &
Gaura (2003) proved that social skills are closely associated with social adjustment.
They explain that the social skills are the qualities that enable one to interact with people
in the society effectively, within a social environment, clearly following the rules of
society. There are various causes of low level of social skills of deaf and blind people,
as compared to healthy people of society. The study does not include that the blind
people being varied in their approach, so it can be concluded that blind people are not
always related to variability. Force (1991) called the society as a cause of inconsistency
of blind and deaf people (Biabangard, 2005).
Rosenblum (1998) explored the best friendships of blind young people, although their
visual disability can be a hindrance in their smooth relation. The Youth with visual
impairments reported a smaller number of best friends than their best friends themselves
while 30% of the best friends of adolescents with visual impairments also had
disabilities (Rosenblum, 1998). The research of Lifshitz et al. (2007), showed that
adolescents with visual impairments spent less fun time with their friends than the
normal people. Also, Kroksmarkand Nordell (2001) stated that youth with low vision
did not have much leisure activity, which were also more passive (e.g. Watching
television and doing homework). Social adjustment is the procedure of acclimation to
campus or school life is an impartial stage in the developmental procedure of the
individual and speaks to moving from reliance to the association (McBroon, 1997).
Joining the college gives an awesome chance to self-advancement, support in recreation
exercises and direction toward occupation after graduation. This procedure incorporates
a few segments: making companions, consideration in school life and long range
informal communications and networking. These segments or components are extremely
requesting and oblige speculation of time and vitality. Gerdes & Mallinckrodt (1994)
propose that social change of understudies may be as critical as scholastic variables in
foreseeing determining. Numerous abilities that are fundamental for social association
are given visual prompts. Loss of sight impacts the capacity to perceive individuals or
social circumstances (French, 1999). The absence of visual input makes it difficult to
perceive activities and feelings of the other and at some point intervention or
understanding is obliged (Rosenblum, 1997). The visual need may bring about a
shortfall being developed of social attitudes and social dismissal (George & Duquette,
2006).
According to the Visual functioning model by Corn (1983), that the model of visual
functioning is characterized visual impairment debilitation from an educational -
rehabilitative point of view, which alludes particularly to the useful capacity to perform
visual undertakings that are presupposed amid learning. Corn (1983) proposed a three-
dimensional hypothetical model by which a man's low vision working is not just dictated
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 191
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
by the level of the disability additionally by different variables as identity, environment
and so forth. The visual functioning model is an instrument for looking at and assessing
the working level of a man with a vision of 6/6. It gives data on the diverse elements that
impact the working level. Additionally, it is conceivable to construct a rehabilitative
attitude by utilizing the model since it permits discovering options with a specific end
goal to augment the singular's working. The measurements are: 1. Visual capacities -
Physiological parts of vision. 2. Put away and accessible singularity - Past encounters
and accessible capacities the individual users respond to new posts or for innovative
attempts. 3. Ecological signals - The visual attributions of articles (for persons who have
vision remaining). Utilizing the model can give an efficient approach to find segments
which can adjust for the visual weakness. By dealing with one of the segments of one
measurement of the model, experts can evoke better execution on different
measurements as well, for instance: working with the person on mental foundations can
bring about better working and upgrade the whole visual working (Tinto, 1975).
The world is producing a high prevalence of visual blindness and differentiating
between a quality of social life of blind children in various cultures and traditions, this
research study is very important in figuring out the relationship between the social
adjustment of visually impaired children. The study is focusing on two parts of social
adjustment, one being the personality and the other is Pro-social behavior. This study
holds its uniqueness in the context of Pakistan, as limited work has been done on these
dimensions. With O&M training on the social adjustment of visually impaired children
in detail can have a positive impact on their independenet movement. In the light of
previous researches, the quality of life is dependent on many factors, including
independence and movement of visually impaired children, and has a significant impact
on social skills (Leyser&Heinze, 2001).
Theoretical Framework:
Figure 1
Theoretical Framework of the study
Research Hypotheses:
H1: Orientation and mobility training in special education curriculum has a positive
impact on social adjustment problems of visually impaired children.
H1A: Orientation and mobility training in special education curriculum has a positive
impact on the Self-Personality of visually impaired children.
H1B: Orientation and mobility training in special education curriculum has a positive
impact on the Pro-Social Behavior of visually impaired children with their families.
Research Problem:
The problem under investigation for the current research paper was to study the impact
and relationship of Orientation and Mobility Training as a part of the curriculum in
Self-Personality
Orientation & Mobility
Training
Pro-Social Behaviour
192 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
special education institutes on social adjustment problems of visually impaired children
between ages of (5-15) in Pakistan's context.
METHOD
This paper introduces the outline of a randomized controlled trial that will assess the
impacts and plausibility of an institutionalized O&M-preparing in the utilization of the
recognizable curriculum by the more seasoned grown-up with low vision in Islamabad,
Pakistan. Qualified O&M masters must lead O&M evaluations for all understudies with
visual impedances, incorporating those with extra inabilities. O&M appraisal ought to
be led to beginning a recognizable proof of a visual impedance or without earlier O&M
evaluation (Fazzi & Naimy, 2010; Wall Emerson & Corn, 2006).
This research study was focused on visually impaired children studying in special
education schools. The study was done in the cultural context of Pakistan, where
significant research on this subject is not around. Researchers have the options either to
conduct a qualitative research or quantitative research, depending on the nature of the
study. The research study undertaken was quantitative in nature as the results and final
findings were based on data collected from respondents through questionnaires. The
data collection was based on the response of 125 children irrespective of gender in
special education schools in Islamabad and Rawalpindi. The known approximate
population with disability of visually impaired students would be selected as target
population with sample size between (190-210). The sample was chosen on the basis of
Statistical Table devised by Krejcie & Morgan, (1970).
To measure the perception and feedback of visually impaired children, a questionnaire
with two sub-scales and consisting of 51 items-scales was developed, through the
standardized procedure. In the first part, the instrument measured the impact on
"Orientation & Mobility Training" imparted in special education institutes had 11 items-
scales. The questionnaire was adapted from Teaching Age-Appropriate Purposeful
Skills (TAPS). The questionnaire was used as a survey instrument by the U.S.
Department of Education, Institute of Education Services, National Center for Special
Education Research, National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), student’s
school program survey, 2002. In the second part, it measured the impact of O&M
training on the social adjustment of visually impaired children. The second part had two
sub-parts, one for Self-Personality having 20 items-scales, adapted from the self-
reporting questionnaire constructed for World Health Organization (WHO) Study on
Strategies for extending mental health care in 1980. The same research instrument was
used in a research study “Psychological and social adjustment to blindness:
Understanding from two groups of blind people in Ilorin, Nigeria” (Tunde-Ayinmode et.
al, 2011). The second was for Pro-Social Behavior with 20 items-scales as well. The
item-scales for Pro-Social behavior was adapted from Sociometric and Friendship
Questionnaire (SFQ), used in the research study “Investigation of the Construct Validity
of the Teenage Inventory of Social Skills of O&M: A ConvergentMultivariate
Approach” (Inderbitzen, Heidi, Garbin & Calvin, 1992). The descriptive analysis is
defined with a table with description of scales such as age, gender, level of education,
time spent in institute, time of institute, OMC, SPC, and PSC.
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 193
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
The instrument was developed by 5-point Likert Scale. The respondents were asked to
rate the statement on a 5 point scale, distributed as Strongly Disagree (1) Disagree (2)
Not Sure (3) Agree (4) and Strongly Agree (5). The highest score on the rating scale
indicated positive impact of O&M Training and Social adjustment, whereas a lower
score on the rating scale indicated flaws in the pattern of O&M training in institutes
and also reflected a poor social adjustment, due to lack of O&M training as part of
curriculum in special education institutes.
Population & Sample
Population for the current research study included the public and private special
education institutes catering visually impaired children, all across Pakistan. Due to the
limitation of time and resources, data collection for the current research was limited to
Islamabad city based institutions of visual impairment only in Pakistan, to get much
more authentic results.
The population of Pakistan is 185,132,926 till 1st of July in 2014 (Worldometers, 2015).
The 7.7% of the whole population is visually impaired or totally blind children (ISPB,
2010). A Sample of 125 Male and Female young visually impaired students was
selected conveniently for the purposes of data collection using an instrument
(questionnaire) for the current study. The sample consisted of 91 Male and 34 female
students, between (5-15) Years of age. The sample size belonged to the different
socioeconomic background, with different educational level ranging from nursery to
secondary level. Sample was selected conveniently, convenience sampling is a type of
sampling where the first available primary data source will be used for the research
without additional requirements. In other words, this sampling method involves getting
participants wherever you can find them and typically wherever is convenient. In
convenience sampling no inclusion criteria identified prior to the selection of
subjects. All subjects are invited to participate (Saunders & Thornhill, 2012).
Data Collection
The data collection was carried out in two parts. The first part of the questionnaire was
filled by the students. In some cases, where the responding students were not able to
respond properly, but their activities were well known to their teachers, the data was
taken from their respective teachers and school management. This situation was much
more applicable in the case of children under the age of 6 years. The respondents were
contacted in their respective classrooms, where they were provided all due information
regarding the purpose of the study. The respondents were explained, all questions in
their native language as well to obtain the most realistic response against each item-
scale.
The second part of the questionnaire was filled up mostly by parents along with the
students. Parents were commissioned as the best judge to observe the social adjustment
of their children within the family and social circles. The data collection for this part of
the questionnaire, was partly done at school and partly done at homes, based on parents
availability. The confidentiality of the data and personal details were assured to all
respondents.
194 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
FINDINGS
Reliability Scale Analysis
The reliability analysis test was run for the instrument (Research Questionnaire). The
independent variable Orientation & Mobility Training (O&M) had a reliability scale of
.757. The first dependent variable had a Cronbach Alpha value of .863 and the second
dependent variable (Pro-Social Behavior) had a Cronbach Alpha value of .852. The
values of the reliability scale were very positive and values strongly suggested positive
reliability of the instrument (Questionnaire).
Descriptive Statistics
Description of Scales
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
AGE
125
1.00
4.00
2.30
.933
GENDER
125
1.00
2.00
1.2720
.44678
LEVEL OF EDUCATION
125
1.00
4.00
2.2160
.92094
TIME SPENT IN INSTITUTE
125
1.00
4.00
1.7920
.79612
TYPE OF INSTITUTE
125
1.00
2.00
1.5040
.64288
OMC
125
1.00
5.00
3.4604
.62064
SPC
125
1.00
5.00
3.4404
.58725
PSC
123
1.00
5.00
3.4159
.58794
Valid N (listwise)
123
The descriptive statistics indicate that most of the children were between the age of 7-11
as the mean of 2.30 indicates the results accordingly. Male students were more in
number than the female counterpart in the current research study. Most of the children
were in the 2nd category of level of education, which was between grade (3-5), indicating
that most parents tend to send their children at an age of 7+. The statistic revealed that
due to unknown reasons, not explored in this the time period of majority of the students
was not much or the trend to study at one institute was not on the high side. The statistic
revealed that most of the students were from public sector special education schools,
indicating either the scarcity of private setups or the non-affordability of parents in
private special education institutes. The general results of the responses to the variables
seemed to be near to agreement in the light of the mean values calculated for the
collected data.
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 195
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
Frequency Tabulation
Age
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid
3-6
28
13.5
22.4
22.4
7-11
45
21.6
36.0
58.4
12-15
39
18.8
31.2
89.6
16 & ABOVE
13
6.3
10.4
100.0
Total
125
60.1
100.0
Missing
Sampling
83
39.9
Total
208
100.0
In the light of the statistics for the collected data, 22.4 % of the students were between
the ages of 3-6 and 36% students were between the age group of 7-11. This indicates
that the majority of parents tend to get their children admitted in early ages so, the
subject (visually impaired children) can adopt to the environment and start learning at
early ages.
Gender
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid
Male
91
43.8
72.8
72.8
Female
34
16.3
27.2
100.0
Total
125
60.1
100.0
Missing
Sampling
83
39.9
Total
208
100.0
Children consisting of 72.8 % of male and 27.2 female were part of the research study,
also reflecting a notion that female students coming to institutes with visual impairment
is far less than their male counterparts.
Education Level
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid
Nursery-Grade2
34
16.3
27.2
27.2
Grade 3-5
38
18.3
30.4
57.6
Grade 6-8
45
21.6
36.0
93.6
Grade 8-10
8
3.8
6.4
100.0
Total
125
60.1
100.0
Missing
Sampling
83
39.9
Total
208
100.0
196 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
30.4% children were studying at grade (3-5) and 36 % children were from grade 6-8 for
the sample of the current research study.
Time Spent at Institutes
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid
0-3
53
25.5
42.4
42.4
4-6
47
22.6
37.6
80.0
7-10
23
11.1
18.4
98.4
10+
2
1.0
1.6
100.0
Total
125
60.1
100.0
Missing
Sampling
83
39.9
Total
208
100.0
Majority students had passed less than 3 years in most of the institutes from which the
data were collected. The possible reasons were the age factor, as the study was done on
children less than 16 years of age and second majority of students were students of
primary level of education grades.
Type of Institute
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid
Public
68
32.7
54.4
54.4
Private
54
26.0
43.2
97.6
Total
125
60.1
100.0
Missing
System
83
39.9
Total
208
100.0
54.4 % of the children were students at public sector, educational institutes, where about
43% were studying in private setups.
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 197
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
Correlation Analysis
Variables
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V7
V8
Age
1
Gender
.018
1
Education Level
.835**
-.007
1
Time at Institute
.528**
-.044
.480**
1
Type of Institute
.139
-.200*
.169
.143
1
Orientation & Mobility Training
-.051
-.016
-.061
-.164
-.017
1
Self-Personality
-.049
.022
-.060
-.034
-.034
.564**
1
Pro-Social
-.016
-.020
-.086
-.078
-.041
.519**
.824**
1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
The correlation analysis indicated that Orientation & Mobility Training had a strong
correlation (.519**) with Pro-social variable, clearly indicating that movement and
independence had a positive relationship with the social life of children at home. The
results indicated that Orientation & Mobility Training also a strong correlation with self-
personality (.564**) for the visually impaired children. The results clearly indicated that
self-personality (Mental & Health, well-being) and Pro-social Behavior were directly
related and had a strong relationship with the independence and movement of visually
impaired children. The positive and strong correlation was seen between Self-
personality and Pro-social behavior as well through this study, indicating that positive
well-being and healthy students tend to be more social and friendly with their families.
Regression Analysis
Table 1
Summary of Regression Analysis for Orientation & Mobility Training (N=125)
Variable
B
SE (B)
Beta
t
Sig. (p)
Self-Personality
.533
.070
.564
7.566
.000
Note.
R2 = .318 & p < .05
Table 2
Summary of Regression Analysis for Orientation & Mobility Training (N=125)
Variable
B
SE (B)
Beta
t
Sig. (p)
Pro-Social Behavior
.499
.075
.519
6.671
.000
Note.
R2 = .269 & p < .05
Regression analysis were run to see the significance of relationships and the impact of
Orientation & Mobility Training on the Self-personality & Pro-Social Behavior of
visually impaired children towards their family. The regression analysis results showed a
positive relationship in both cases with values of (p =.000 & p <.05). The results were
clearly indicating a positive impact of Orientation & Mobility Training on the social
adjustment part of the visually impaired children towards their families in the light of
this research study.
198 Orientation and Mobility Training in Special Education …
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
The results clearly indicated that self-personality (Mental & Health, well-being) and
Pro-social Behavior were directly related and had a strong relationship with the
independence and movement of visually impaired children. The positive and strong
correlation was seen between Self-personality and Pro-social Behavior as well through
this study, indicating that positive well-being and healthy students tend to be more social
and friendly with their families.
O&M training is a very common human services administration given by organizations
to provide rehabilitation and care for individuals with visual impedance. The aim of
training intends to keep up freedom of go by showing outwardly impeded persons, to
ambulate and arrange the surrounding environment securely and freely. It may diminish
versatility confinements and contribute absolutely to societal support and personal
satisfaction. In a maturing person, it is critical to decisively impact these areas to avert
physical, mental and social dysfunction that can prompt handicap and systematization.
Yet, confirm on the impacts of O&M preparing in more established grownups with
visual impedance is rare, especially concerning the O&M-preparing in the utilization of
a distinguishing curriculum which helps in orientation training and mobility of visually
impaired children.
Different elements encouraging a requirement for O&M evaluation may include: (a)
transitioning to another school, (b) an adjustment inhabitation, (c) a forthcoming IEP
meeting, or (d) a sudden change in visual debilitation or physical status (Wall Emerson
& Corn, 2006). Evaluations ought to incorporate perceptions of understudies performing
regular assignments in indoor and open air situations (Bina et al., 2010). The absence of
responsibility of educators of understudies with visual impairments and other programs
is clear and has all the allocators of being a basic component in the avoidance of
understudies with low vision from fitting administrations inside of this state.
Illustrations incorporate the (a) inadequate assessment of understudies' needs in O&M
aptitudes, (b) unlucky deficiency of documentation by O&M educators of understudy
advancement in O&M, (c) absence of exact information from instructional workforce
with respect to the quantity of understudies with visual hindrances on their caseloads
and their extra incapacities, (d) incorrectness from information work force in regards to
understudy demographics for those with visual weaknesses, (e) absence of particular
composed rules delineating the distinguishing proof and assessment forms for O&M, (f)
disappointment of some O&M educators to give direction without particular IEP
destinations for O&M, and (g) managers' unlimited trust in the expert judgments of
educators
In light of the discoveries of the essential exploration and with reference to literature
review, it can be rightly reasoned that Orientation and Mobility Training as a piece of
educational module has a positive effect on the social conformity, conduct, and freedom
of mobility and orientation of kids. To accomplish the most ideal results, observing and
assessment of the preparation programs in the foundations intended for seemingly
weakened kids is extremely important. Documentation of advancement of understudies
Malik, Abd Manaf, Ahmad & Ismail 199
International Journal of Instruction, April 2018 ● Vol.11, No.2
and criticism is of absolute significance too. In the same respect, the positive reaction of
the relatives, with additional thoughtfulness regarding the subject is off due significance.
The outcomes regarding a solid social conduct must be guaranteed through the mix of
endeavors put in by all partners. Also, the recognizable proof of a widespread screening
instrument to be needed by this State Department of Education could result in more
noteworthy exactness in the distinguishing proof of understudies with low vision who
need O&M direction. This instrument could help with the distinguishing proof of
understudy need in O&M in view of the consequences of assessment, as opposed to on
the unconfirmed and subjective judgments of instructors' perceptions.
Independence and autonomy are right of every child, where O & M training plays its
vital role in the provision of independence to visually impaired children. In return, their
active participation makes social room for them in the family and peers. Involvement of
parents and vocational training on such aspects is also recommended to achieve the best
results.
Future Study Directions
The current research had its limitation in terms of resources and access to facilities all
across the country. The future studies should expand the horizon of research on the same
parameters and also take a bigger sample size for future research. Future studies should
cater the discrepancies in O & M trainings imparted at different special education set-
up. Opinion view of the much wider range of respondents should be taken into account
like siblings, trainers and peer fellows to validate the findings. Last but not the least,
mediating effect of different institutions might be an interesting factor to be explored for
better policy making and induction of standard training procedures in the curriculum all
across the country.
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