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Investigation of fallow deer (Cervus dama L.) population densities by camera trap method in Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Breeding Station

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In Turkey, it has been aimed to take a number of measures to protect and breed fallow deer, which is under danger of reduction of population, even extinction. One of these measures is Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Fallow Deer Breeding Station (EFDBS). Fallow deer is protected in this area, where measures and improvements are taken to the maximum for breeding fallow deer in its natural environment. 55 out of 170 mammal species are critically endangered in Turkey, and one of these is fallow deer (Cervus dama L.). This study aims to investigate the population densities of individuals spread in the EFDBS at Antalya Düzlerçamı Wildlife Development Area with 521 ha of land using the method of camera traps. Density calculations were made using the method of individual identification based on spot distribution and antler structure of individuals. The information provided by the Jackknife Model was used to determine population densities. “CAPTURE” software was used for the analysis of the data. Based on the obtained results, maximum of 120, minimum of 96 and average of 105 fallow deer individuals were found. According to these results, fallow deer population density was 20.1/km2 in the study area.
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Turkish Journal of Forestry | Türkiye Ormancılık Dergisi
2018, 19(1): 57-62 | Research article (Araştırma makalesi)
a Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Forestry, Isparta
@ * Corresponding author (İletişim yazarı): yasinunal@sdu.edu.tr
Received (Geliş tarihi): 20.09.2017, Accepted (Kabul tarihi): 20.12.2017
Citation (Atıf): Ünal, Y., Çulhacı, H., 2018.
Investigation of fallow deer (Cervus dama L.)
population densities by camera trap method in
Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Breeding Station.
Turkish Journal of Forestry, 19(1): 57-62.
DOI: 10.18182/tjf.339042
Investigation of fallow deer (Cervus dama L.) population densities by camera
trap method in Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Breeding Station
Yasin Ünala,*, Hasan Çulhacıa
Abstract: In Turkey, it has been aimed to take a number of measures to protect and breed fallow deer, which is under danger of
reduction of population, even extinction. One of these measures is Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Fallow Deer Breeding Station
(EFDBS). Fallow deer is protected in this area, where measures and improvements are taken to the maximum for breeding fallow
deer in its natural environment. 55 out of 170 mammal species are critically endangered in Turkey, and one of these is fallow
deer (Cervus dama L.). This study aims to investigate the population densities of individuals spread in the EFDBS at Antalya
Düzlerçamı Wildlife Development Area with 521 ha of land using the method of camera traps. Density calculations were made
using the method of individual identification based on spot distribution and antler structure of individuals. The information
provided by the Jackknife Model was used to determine population densities. “CAPTURE” software was used for the analysis of
the data. Based on the obtained results, maximum of 120, minimum of 96 and average of 105 fallow deer individuals were found.
According to these results, fallow deer population density was 20.1/km2 in the study area.
Keyword: Fallow deer (Cervus dama), Camera trap, Capture-recapture, Wildlife inventory
Antalya Düzlerçamı Eşenadası Alageyik Üretim İstasyonu’nda fotokapan
yöntemiyle alageyik (Cervus dama L.) popülasyon yoğunluklarının araştırılması
Özet: Ülkemizde, nesli bu denli azalma hatta yok olma seviyesine gerileyen alageyik için bir takım koruma ve üretme tedbirleri
alınmak istenmiştir. Bunlardan bir tanesi, Antalya Düzlerçamı Yaban Hayatı Geliştirme Sahasında kurulan Eşenadası Alageyik
Üretme İstasyonu’dur. Alageyikler bu alanda koruma altında olup, doğal ortamında üremesine yönelik maksimum önlemlerin ve
iyileştirmelerin yapıldığı bir alandır. Ülkemizde yaşadığı saptanan 170 memeli türden 55’inin nesli önemli ölçüde tükenme
tehdidi altında olup, bunların en önemlilerinden bir tanesi alageyik (Cervus dama L.)’dir. Bu araştırmada, fotokapan yöntemi ile
521 ha alana sahip Antalya Düzlerçamı Yaban Hayatı Geliştirme Sahasında bulunan Eşenadası Alageyik Üretme İstasyonu
içerisinde yayılış gösteren bireylerin popülasyon yoğunluklarının araştırılması hedeflenmiştir. Yoğunluk hesaplamaları, bireylerin
benek dizilişinden ve boynuz yapısından birey tespiti yöntemi kullanılarak yapılmıştır. Verilerin analizi için “Capture” bilgisayar
programından faydalanılmıştır. Populasyon yoğunluğunun belirlenmesi için Jackknife Model verileri dikkate alınmıştır. Elde
edilen sonuçlara göre maksimum 120 birey, minimum 96 ve ortalama 105 Alageyik tespit edilmiştir. Elde edilen bu sonuçlara
göre çalışma alanında alageyik populasyon yoğunluğu 20,1/km2 dir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Alageyik (Cervus dama), Fotokapan, Capture-recapture, Yaban hayati envanteri
1. Introduction
It is known that fallow deer population is 8.000 in
Germany, 62.000 in the United Kingdom, 18.000 in
Hungary, 12.500 in Romany, 11.600 in France and 250,000
in total in Europe, between 15,000 and 35,000 in New
Zealand and 28,350 in Canada, while it is about 450,000 in
the world (Heidemann, 1976; Ueckermann and Hansen,
1994; Kaçar, 2002). Despite the fact that the native land is
Turkey, the last natural fallow deer population in the world
is known to be Antalya-Düzlerçami. The fallow deer is
categorized as LC (Least Concern) in the world, as it is
spread around the world, and the species is not under the
threat of extinction in the near future (IUCN, 2016).
However, in Turkey in the last century, it has been seen that
fallow deer populations are increasingly in danger of
reduction or even extinction especially due to illegal
hunting, increase in urbanization parallel to the human
population, dense forestry, and agriculture activities, grazing
of domestic animals such as goats and sheep, and
deterioration of endangered environments of human
pressures in fallow deer fields (Heidemann, 1976; Saribaşak
et al., 2005; Chapman and Chapman, 1997). Although it is
not categorized in any way in terms of our country, taking
into account that the species is the most endangered
mammal species, it would be a correct approach to treat it as
a CR (Critically Endangered) status (Sevgi et al., 2013).
In the scientific research, inventory method with
camera-trap gives more positive results in speckled species
such as fallow deer. Trolle and Kerry (2003), Connolly
(2007), Meek et al. (2012) and Keuling et al. (2012)
reported that camera-traps were produced primarily to
monitor wildlife populations and Mengüloğlu (2010)
reported that camera-trapping is particularly useful for
Turkish Journal of Forestry 2018, 19(1): 57-62
58
identifying striped or spotted species on an individual basis.
The method of camera trapping is especially beneficial in
identifying wild mammals, as well as determining activity
patterns (Soyumert, 2010; Foster and Harmsen, 2012; Can,
2008; Griffiths and Schaik, 1993). Both random-opportunist
and systematic methods are used in wildlife studies to
collect information regarding wild animal populations with
camera trap method. Method of systematic is the work done
by establishing certain distance between each camera trap
(Harmsen et al., 2011).
The capture-recapture method is a frequently used
method in determining population sizes and densities by
using biological parameters of populations (Chao et al.,
2001; Karanth and Nichols, 1998; Marker et al., 2008;
Wang and Macdonald, 2009). This method provides reliable
scientific and comprehensive results in studies on enclosed
wild animal populations (Chao, 2001). The software
Capture is frequently used to estimate the maximum,
minimum and average population sizes of fallow deer
(Rexstad and Burnham, 1991; Silver et al., 2004). This
program is often used in predicting the population size,
starting from the frequency of capture and recapture of
camera traps in study areas. This method reveals the
minimum, maximum and average sizes of the population by
allowing comparison of different statistical methods and
their combinations (Silver et al., 2004).
2. Material and method
2.1. Material
Antalya Düzlerçamı Wildlife Development Area is the
only area in Turkey where the fallow deer live naturally
(Anonymous, 2013). Düzlerçamı WDA was declared as a
land of 28,972 ha area in 2005. The area is divided by the
road between Antalya and Korkuteli. It was determined that
the fallow deer lived in numerous regions in Turkey, based
on drawings and remains from the period of Hittites, as well
as fossils found in various places such as Van, south of the
Salt Lake, and the Marmara Region (Ducos, 1988). The
fallow deer, known to had lived in the Marmara, Aegean
and Mediterranean Regions naturally in the 19th century,
remained only in the Antalya-Düzlerçamı region today in
small numbers due to illegal hunting and disruption of their
habitat (Figure 1). Turan (1966) determined that fallow deer
were living in Antalya-Düzlerçamı and Manavgat Regions
and led to the departure of Düzlerçamı region as Wildlife
Conservation Area and establishment of a fallow deer
breeding stations in it. In 1974, the first station in operation
was inadequate in terms of the number of animals it hosted,
fallow deer were transported to the EFDBS in 2003 in the
natural environment and in wider and more favorable
conditions (Figure 2).
The study area is located 25 km west of Antalya, within
the borders of Antalya Regional Directorate of Forestry,
Antalya Central Administration, Düzlerçamı Forest
Administration Management. It is surrounded by the Güver
Cliff Canyon, Yukarı Karaman residential area and
Korkuteli Road in the east; Termessos National Park
following Korkuteli Road, Yeşilkayrak and Akkaya in the
north, Gürkavak, Mecene Canyon and Kozdağ in the west;
and residential areas of Doyran, Aşağı Karaman and
Antalya in the south. The area provides to fallow deer for
suitable habitat with its rich flora, water resources and
geographical structure.
Figure 1. Düzlerçamı Wildlife Development Area and
Eşenadası Fallow Deer Breeding Station
Figure 2. Distribution of the fallow deer in Turkey in the past (Red) and today (Yellow)
Turkish Journal of Forestry 2018, 19(1): 57-62
59
In the study, we used 16 Cuddeback Attack Model: 1149
camera traps to determine for deer number, Canon EOS
600D to take photographs for fallow deer habitat and
Magellan Trioton 400D to measure for each plot’s altitude,
coordinates of sampling plots.
2.2. Method
Preliminary studies were carried out to determine tracks
and sings of the fallow deer in the region before the camera
traps were set in the area. As a result of these studies, fallow
deer footprints and feces were observed. During the camera
trap study, 16 Cuddeback Attack IR 5MP passive camera
trap were used. Field studies were carried out in two periods
between 2014 and 2015 in pre-determined camera trap
stations set in intervals of 400 m (Figure 3). The data
obtained from the camera traps that were set across each
other were transferred to the electronic center, stored and
the office work was done to calculate the density (Figure 4).
Population density was determined by dividing the
estimated population size by the effectively sampled area,
and variance was calculated as described by Karanth and
Nichols (1998). The information collected by camera traps
set across each other was transferred to electronic
environment, stored, and used to calculate density. Total 80
camera trap stations were distributed in the region in a
certain systematic and across each other.
2.3. Identification of individuals
Microsoft Paint was used as an alternative method for
individuals’ identification. The images obtained from
camera traps were analyzed in detail, image data in each
plot suitable for identification were divided into plots and
years, and stored. The most important characteristics
distinguishing fallow deer from other deer are the white
spots on their bodies and their prong-shaped antlers. Except
for the winter months, all fallow deer have spots.
Considering these morphological features of fallow deer,
female individuals were identified using the distributions of
their spots, while male individuals were identified in the
same way except for the winter months and using their
antler structure in winter months. In the following stage,
with these data, individuals were identified starting with the
first two plot areas, considering antler structure and spot
distribution. Against the possibility of different individuals
having similar spot distributions and antler structures, the
images were transferred to the Microsoft Paint software.
Here, spot distributions and antler structures were compared
by drawing in the software and different individuals were
numbered (Figure 5a, 5b, 6a, 6b).
Individual identification of fallow deer in the area was
achieved using the capture-recapture method based on the
morphological characteristics of the deer. Our analyses were
carried out based on the data obtained by camera traps. The
data obtained from the camera traps that were set across
each other were transferred to the electronic center and
stored and the office work was done to calculate the density
(Table 1).
Figure 3. Camera trap stations
Figure 4. Opposing camera traps (plot 4-8)
Figure 5a. Male individual No: 9
Table 1. Capture-Recapture calculation
𝒙
𝒚 𝑿
𝑻𝒚
𝒙 . 𝐗
X number of individuals captured and marked in the first sampling
y number of individuals independently captured in the second
sampling
x number of previously marked and recaptured individuals
T total size of population (total number of individuals)
Estimated population size
Turkish Journal of Forestry 2018, 19(1): 57-62
60
Figure 5b. Male individual No: 50
Figure 6a. Female individual No: 2
Figure 6b. Female individual No: 31
The Capture population size estimation software was
used to determine the maximum, minimum and average
population size, as well as population density (Rexstad and
Burnham 1991; Soria-Diaz and Monroy-Vilchis, 2015;
González-Pérez, 2003; Ortega et al., 2011). In order to
estimate population size, capture-recapture information was
entered (Silver et al., 2004), and the data obtained from
population estimation methods of Jackknife-M(h) (Silver et
al., 2004) and Removal-M(bh) were utilized. While the
resulting values ended up very close to each other,
*Jackknife Population Density Values*, recommended by
Orekici-Temel et al. (2012) and reported to have better
results, were used.
3. Results
A total of 8,120 camera trap days was reached in 80 plot
areas for 203 days. Totally 1232 images and videos were
obtained in 2014 and 2105. Respectively 527 and 464 wild
animals’ images and videos were determined in these
stations (Table 2).
As a result of the study, 19 females and 33 males in
2014, 14 females and 14 males in 2015 totally 80 fallow
deer were determined and identified. 15 fallow deer were
recaptured in the study (Table 3).
Confidence interval in Jackknife-M(h) population size
and density detection was found as 95%, and SE was found
as 6.25. Table 4 shows the minimum, maximum and
average population size values and density values.
Based on the obtained results, a maximum of 120,
minimum of 96 and average of 105 fallow deer individuals
were identified. Additionally, the number of individuals
found in our studies in 2014 and 2015 were based only on
adult individuals and fawns were not taken into account.
About 20 fawns were found in the data obtained using
camera traps and Capture-Recapture method provided us
with the total number of adults and fawns as 105 + 20 =
125. According to these results, fallow deer population
density was 20.1 / km2 in the study area.
Table 2. Analysis of camera trap images
Total camera
trap station
Number of
images
Number of empty
camera trap images
Total number of wild animal images
obtained from camera traps
Number of fallow
deer images (=D)
A
B
B*100/A
(A-B)= C
C*100/A
D
D*100/C
40
654
127
19.4%
527
80.5%
500
94.8 %
40
578
114
19.7%
464
80.3%
408
87.9 %
80
1232
241
19.5%
991
80.4%
908
90.8 %
Table 3. Fallow deer captures and recaptures by study site, with estimated capture probability (average p-hat) per sampling
occasion under the jackknife model of variable probability of capture (M(h)).
Total Capture
- Recapture
Individuals /
year
Individuals
recaptured
Individual fallow deer census
Average
p-hat
2014
2015
Male
Male Rate
%
Female
Female
rate %
Population
size
80
52
28
15
33
58.75
19
41.25
97 (± 22)
0.51
Turkish Journal of Forestry 2018, 19(1): 57-62
61
Table 4 Results of fallow deer density estimates using the Jackknife and Removal population model M(h) and variable
probability removal estimator in which capture probabilities vary
Jackknife-M(h) Model
Density average
(km2)
Removal-M(bh) model
Density (km2)
SE
Min.
Max.
Average
SE
Min.
Max
Average
6.25
96
120
105
20.1
7.48
97
126
108
20.7
Population Density (95% confidence interval)
4. Discussion
This study was conducted in the EFDBS, Antalya
Düzlerçamı WDA by the department of Wildlife Ecology
and Management at the Faculty of Forestry, Süleyman
Demirel University. In this context, this study will provide
sufficient resources on literature and methodology to the
other similar studies. It was carried out to determine the
population size and density of the fallow deer populations in
the study area. Some similar studies (Arslangündoğdu, et
al., 2010; Saribaşak, et. al., 2005) had been carried out to
determine the population size and density of the fallow deer
population in the study area, but this is the first study in
Turkey which used the camera trap method to determine the
population of fallow deer. The camera trap study and set up
of the stations were achieved after finding the general
distribution of the fallow deer in the area.
A field study of 203 days, including 82 in 2014 and 121
in 2015, was carried out in the area. In these studies, camera
trap station was established and in a certain period of time,
it has been left fixed. In studies carried out in two periods, it
was obtained 3,280 camera trap days in the year 2014 and
4,840 days in the year 2015. In a similar study by Soyumert
(2010), again in Turkey to determine wild animal species by
camera traps, daily camera trap value of 4,142 was achieved
by 55 camera trap stations. Considering the obtained data,
80 different individuals (47 male, 33 female) were identified
in the field. In one of the similar studies, Mcshea et al.
(2011) used camera traps to estimate deer population
densities in Catoktin National Park (24.2 km2) and Antietam
National Park (13.5 km2). Mcshea et al. (2011) placed 20
camera traps in each area with 200 m intervals and collected
data in intervals of 2-5 days. As in various wild animal
species such as lynxes and tigers, fallow deer also have
natural signs. The most obvious of these natural signs are
the spots and antlers. Since the deer are spotted species, the
spot arrangements and the antler structures of each
individual are different from each other, allowing these
individual identification studies to be carried out easily. In
their study, Carbone et al. (2001) also reported that this
method is effective in determining the existence of the wild
species and individuals that are shy or hard to see. In this
way, the method of identification of individuals by means of
the natural signs and morphological features used in the
thesis study has been made easily. As stated by Mengüloğlu
(2010) in his studies, individuals can be identified from its
pattern or spot and suggested that this method could be
effective in individual detection studies in many types of
cats. In the light of the results of this method we used in this
thesis work and considering the previous studies and
projections, it was found that camera traps may be used in
identification of individuals and they may provide easiness
in other methods.
Based on the obtained results, a maximum of 120,
minimum of 96 and average of 105 fallow deer individuals
were found. Additionally, the number of individuals found
in our studies in 2014 and 2015 were based only on adult
individuals and fawns were not taken into account. About
20 fawns were found in the data obtained using camera traps
and Capture-Recapture method provided us with the total
number of adults and fawns as 105 + 20 = 125. According
to these results, fallow deer population density was 20.1 /
km2 in the study area. Kasper et al. (2015), in their study on
leopards in an area of 17,500 ha using the capture-recapture
method with camera traps, identified 21 individuals from
113 records based on the data collected in 2005, and
concluded a population density of 0.26 leopards per 1 km2.
If we compare the results of their study to those of our
study, it may be seen that our results are better and more
reliable.
The most frequently seen problems for camera traps
studies is the failing of some devices. Although batteries
and memory cards were suitable for usage, some camera
traps did not work in any condition. This may have been
caused by the sensor. Considering the image quality in the
camera traps, it is considered that the spots of fallow deer
passing by in close range especially in the dark reflect a lot
of light and this may have decreased image quality. It is
additionally thought that the water resources in the area are
limited and individuals experience scarcity of water in
summer months. Therefore, wet areas such as flowing ponds
should be established to satisfy the water needs of the fallow
deer.
It is not believed that the wire fences around the area can
form a protection element for the entire area. In our walks, it
was seen that the area may be entered from various points
easily and illegal hunting activities may be seen. Necessary
precautions should be taken.
Acknowledgements
The Directorate of Scientific Research Projects
Management Unit at Suleyman Demirel University, which
funded my thesis with the project no. 4122-YL1-14.
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... Among these species, fallow deer (D. dama), hyena (Hyaena hyaena), and leopard (P. pardus) are reported to be on the verge of extinction (Baskaya and Bilgili 2004;Akay et al. 2011;Avgan et al. 2016;Ünal and Çulhacı 2018;Toyran 2018). ...
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Chapter
This comprehensive species-specific chapter covers all aspects of the mammalian biology, including paleontology, physiology, genetics, reproduction and development, ecology, habitat, diet, mortality, and behavior. The economic significance and management of mammals and future challenges for research and conservation are addressed as well. The chapter includes a distribution map, a photograph of the animal, and a list of key literature.
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Information about large mammals in Turkey usually does not go further than species lists or annual counts of particular species such as the wild goat. Camera trapping is a very useful technique to overcome this deficiency by gathering information about species presence, numbers, habitat use and behavior. Hence, a one year long camera trap study was conducted to demonstrate the diversity, activity, distribution patterns, habitat preferences and interspecific interactions of medium and large mammals in a 148 km2 large pine woodland near Ankara. Brown bear (Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), golden jackal (Canis aureus), jungle cat (Felis chaus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Eurasian badger (Meles meles), stone marten (Martes foina), red deer (Cervus elaphus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), brown hare (Lepus europaeus), Caucasian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus) and southern whitebreasted hedgehog (Erinaceus concolor) were the 13 mammal species captured during the study. Spatial segregation was observed among canid species indicating intraguild competition and competitive exclusion. Prey-predator interactions were documented at both spatial and temporal scales between wolves, deer and wild boars. Red deer showed seasonal and sex differences in activity patterns that appeared to be influenced by wolf predation risk. The presence of two felids unknown to the local people were revealed by camera trapping, showing the utility of this technique for such secretive and rare species. However, the low encounter rates for particular species such as lynx, brown bear and jungle cat indicated the importance of the length of study. Based on various evidence, resident adult population sizes were estimated for wolf (2-5), Eurasian lynx (2-4), brown bear (0-2) and jungle cat (2-3). The study showed that lynx can exist in high densities in a relatively small area when prey species are abundant. This study area hosted a rich mammal fauna in spite of human activities such as livestock grazing, logging and hunting. A relatively intact ecosystem, high altitudinal and habitat diversity, and a positive attitude of local people are believed to be the reasons of this observed high diversity.
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Using camera traps and capture/recapture analyses we recorded the presence and abundance of cat species at Turvo State Park, in southern Brazil. Ocelot [Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758)] population density was estimated for two areas of the park, with differing management profiles. Density estimates varied from 0.14 to 0.26 indiv. km2. Another five cat species were recorded at very low frequencies, precluding more accurate analyses. We estimate 24 to 45 ocelots occur in the reserve, which is probably too small for long-term maintenance of the population, if isolated. However, if habitat integrity and connectivity between the Park and the Green Corridor of Misiones is maintained, an estimated ocelot population of 1,680 individuals should have long-term viability © 2015, Fundacao Zoobotanica do Rio Grande do Sul. All Rights Reserved.
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White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are economically important in the Americas and are also the main prey of predators such as the jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor), but human influence has led to the decline of their populations by hunting and increasing agricultural and pastoral land use. On the other hand, there is a lack of ecological knowledge on the species in central Mexico. We investigated the population density and activity pattern of white-tailed deer in the Sierra Nanchititla, Mexico, using 10 camera traps. Sampling was conducted over 18 months between 2004 and 2007. We identified deer in photographs, and the population abundance was estimated using the CAPTURE program and density by dividing the estimated abundance by the effective sampled area. The daily activity pattern was derived by using the recorded time in the photographs for each hour of the day. Population density was from 2.0 to 6.3 in the wet season and 0.8–12 individuals/km2 in the dry, showing a diurnal pattern. This study was one of the first using camera traps in Mexico, for a sampling period longer than 1 year and provided information for the development of management programs.
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In order to conserve the last autochthonous population of the European Fallow Deer, Dama dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758), the Turkish Government began a breeding programme at Düzlerçamı near Antalya in 1966. The programme began with 7 animals and the numbers con-tinuously increased until the mid-1980s, when they reached over 500 animals. However, the population then collapsed until the year 2000 and did not recover. Today it comprises less than 130 individuals. The reasons for the population collapse are not fully understood but are thought to be a combination of several factors related to increasing human pressure such as urbanisation, recreational activities, and poaching. The population is much below the carrying capacity of the area. Attempts to re-introduce Fallow Deer into other areas of Turkey have not been successful but should be further considered as an option to minimise the risk of extinction, as at present the entire gene pool of the Turkish autochthonous population is concentrated at Düzlerçamı.
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Estimating game population densities is an essential part of wildlife management. Here we test two different methods of estimation in order to aid wildlife managers in developing strategies for estimating wild boar population densities. Due to the difficulties involved in distinguishing individual wild boars, methods without the need for individual recognition are required. Therefore we tested and compared two different methods: 1. distance sampling (Thomas et al 2009) with point transect counts 2. camera trap count method (Rowcliffe et al. 2008). The camera trap counts were conducted in a single study area in northern Germany. The cameras were placed randomly in a woodland. The results are compared to the local number of wild boars shot in the last years. Distance sampling with point transect counts were conducted in several hunting ground scattered over eight counties in North-Eastern Lower Saxony with support of hunters. The counting period was in spring-time in March and April with one or two counting’s per month. We collected data of group size and distance. The data are calculated with DISTANCE 6.0. Estimating wild boar density with distance sampling is a very cost-effective method, but there are difficulties to achieve enough detections of wild boar, to analyze the data. By contrast with distance sampling, estimating wild boar with camera traps is more reliable: with camera traps much higher numbers of detections of wild boar were achieved. Moreover it is also a very cost-effective method. Thus, camera trap counts seem to be one prospective method for wild boar management.
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We used camera traps in combination with capture–recapture data analysis to provide the first reliable density estimates for tigers and leopards from the high altitude and rugged terrain in Bhutan’s Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park. Fifty days of camera trapping in each of five study zones collapsed into two trapping blocks, resulted in a sampling effort of 4050 trap days. Camera trapping yielded 17 tiger photos (14 left flanked and 3 right flanked) and 48 leopard photos (25 left flanked and 23 right flanked). Using photos of these left flank, the closed heterogeneous Jackknife Model Mh was the best fit for the capture history data. A capture probability (P^) of 0.04 was obtained for both tigers and leopards, thus generating population size (N) of 8 tigers (SE=2.12) and 16 leopards (SE=2.91) with densities of 0.52 tiger 100km−2 and 1.04 leopard 100km−2. Photographic evidence indicated that tigers and leopards did not overlap in their spatial use of space. Tigers preferred less disturbed areas located further away from settlements, while leopards appeared to be more resilient to disturbances in so far as they were found nearer to human settlements. Camera trapping using a capture–recapture framework was an effective tool for assessing population sizes for tiger and leopard in low density areas such as Bhutan.
Article
Neotropical felids such as the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) are secretive, and it is difficult to estimate their populations using conventional methods such as radiotelemetry or sign surveys. We show that recognition of individual ocelots from camera-trapping photographs is possible, and we use camera-trapping results combined with closed population capture-recapture models to estimate density of ocelots in the Brazilian Pantanal. We estimated the area from which animals were camera trapped at 17.71 km2. A model with constant capture probability yielded an estimate of 10 independent ocelots in our study area, which translates to a density of 2.82 independent individuals for every 5 km2 (SE 1.00).
Article
The tiger (Panthera tigris) is an endangered, large felid whose demographic status is poorly known across its distributional range in Asia. Previously applied methods for estimating tiger abundance, using total counts based on tracks, have proved unreliable. Lack of reliable data on tiger densities not only has constrained our ability to understand the ecological factors shaping communities of large, solitary felids, but also has undermined the effective conservation of these animals In this paper, we describe the use of a field method proposed by Karanth (1995), which combines camera-trap photography, to identify individual tigers, with theoretically well-founded capture-recapture models. We developed a sampling design for camera-trapping and used the approach to estimate tiger population size and density in four representative tiger habitats in different parts of India. The field method worked well and provided data suitable for analysis using closed capture-recapture models. The results suggest the potential for applying this methodology to rigorously estimate abundances, survival rates, and other population parameters for tigers and other low-density, secretive animal species in which individuals can be identified based on natural markings. Estimated probabilities of photo-capturing tigers present in the study sites ranged from 0.75 to 1.00. Estimated densities of tigers >1 yr old ranged from 4.1 ± 1.31 to 16.8 ± 2.96 tigers/100 km2 (mean ± 1 SE). Simultaneously, we used line-transect sampling to determine that mean densities of principal tiger prey at these sites ranged from 56.1 to 63.8 ungulates/km2. Tiger densities appear to be positively associated with prey densities, except at one site influenced by tiger poaching. Our results generally support the prediction that relative abundances of large felid species may be governed primarily by the abundance and structure of their prey communities.