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Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
Relationship between Time
Management and Job Performance
Empirical Study in Malaysia Privet
University
Abdullah N. Abduljabbr1, a, Omar Rabeea
Mahdi2, b and Mahmoud Khalid Almsafir3, c
a,b,cGraduate Business School, College of Graduate
Studies, Tenaga Nasional University (UNITEN) Jalan Ikram-
Uniten, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
abdullah.alkhateeb48@gmail.com,
omaralmfraji80@yahoo.com, mahmoud@uniten.edu.my
Article Info
Received: 2nd October 2012
Accepted: 25th November 2012
Published online: 1st December 2012
ISSN: 2231-8275
© 2013 Design for Scientific Renaissance All rights reserved
ABSTRACT
Time is the most precious resource in business and society, unlike alternative resources, like labour
and capital. However, few organizations really know how their time is important resource. This study
investigates the connection between time management and job performance. Time management helps
improve employees productivity, makes jobs easier, employees will perform tasks efficiently, helps
employees attain the necessary tasks and finally to record and guide the organizations toward
achieving its goals. This study was conducted on the bush sector which is a part of UNITEN
University Tenaga National in Malaysia. Using data from a survey questionnaire of 220 participants,
results show that there is a positive relationship between each of the time planning and time attitude
with the job performance, and inverse relationship between time wasters and job performance.
These results have theoretical implications for understanding how job performance relates to time
management. Implications of the results are thought of future analysis directions are identified.
Keywords: Factors of Time management, Employee Performance, Job Performance.
1. Introduction
Effective time management is clearly a factor in job performance (Barling, Cheung, &
Kelloway, 1996; Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Phillips, 1990), and thus can contribute to an
organization’s profitability. Engaging in time management, particularly planning behaviors,
can also contribute positively to group performance (Janicik & Bartel, 2003; Weldon, Jehn, &
Pradhan, 1991). Furthermore, poor time management has been associated with high stress
and strain (Jex & Elacqua, 1999; Lang, 1992), emotional exhaustion (Peeters & Rutte, 2005),
and health issues (Bond & Feather, 1988). Based on Claessens and Eerde (2007) time
management describes the employee’s behaviour which is about being able to produce
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
428
supportable use of the employee’s time at intervals to perform certain activities. It’s
delineated as a combination of sensitivity for time, the setting of goals, prioritizing tasks, and
observation outcomes. This definition illustrates time management as an associate example of
self-regulation enabling workers to enhance their performance, intelligence and reach career
success (De Vos & Soens, 2008). As an example, time management leads to success through
reducing stress, maintaining balance, increasing productivity and setting and creating an
endeavour to realize one’s goals. From this broadened perspective, people can see that time
management is necessary to enhance life’s dimensions (Alay & Koçak, 2002). The
researchers in this study will extend the research by exploring the relationship between time
management and job performance.
2. Literature Review
The following section provides a summary of the academic literature that is relevant to
this study. It includes a section on time management, factors of time management, job
performance, and time management and job performance.
2.1 Time Management
During the last two decades, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of
time in the organizational literature. According to Orlikowski and Yates (2002), the temporal
dimension of work has become more important because of expanding global competition and
increased demands for immediate availability of products and services. Time management as
a behaviour aims to achieve the economical use of time and should be related to certain
purposeful activities. This definition highlights that the use of time is not an aim in itself, and
cannot be pursued as a sole factor. Most targets are on some purposeful activity, like
performing a small task or a tutorial duty that is assigned in way which means an economical
use of time (Claessens & Eerde, 2007). Claessens (2004) defined time management as
behaviours that aim at achieving a cost-effective and effective use of time, and he added that
these behaviours have three major components. First component is awareness of past, present
and future according to Kaufman, Lane, and Lindquist (1991), and the recognition of one’s
time use (attitudes, cognitions of time), that help complete tasks and responsibilities that
match the limit of one's capabilities. Claessens (2004) designates this component as time
assessment behaviours. Second component is directions or tools that move toward preparing
to use time expeditiously (setting goals, coming up with tasks, prioritising, making disruption
lists, grouping tasks) according to Britton and Tesser (1991) and Macan (1994), (1996).
Claessens (2004) named this component as coming up with behaviours. Third component is
providing a structure for managing time and self-monitoring, that allows for an efficient
performing of tasks and limiting the interruptions by others such as Fox and Dwyer (1995)
and Zijlstra, Roe, Leonora and Krediet (1999). Claessens (2004) titled this component as
observation of behaviours.
McCay (1959) developed a concept for a time-management training program, which is
still being used. Critical elements are: giving insight into time-consuming activities, changing
time expenditure, and increasing workday efficiency by teaching people how to make a daily
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
429
planning, how to prioritise tasks, and how to handle unexpected tasks. On the other hand,
Huang and Zhang (2001) illustrated the concept of time management as a kind of
temperament attribute which makes it possible to be reflected as a means of utilizing and
managing ones’ time. Many books and articles were written to convey these and similar ideas
to managers, promising them a greater effectiveness while using less time (Blanchard &
Johnson, 1983). Over the years the focus of time management publications and training
courses has shifted from managers as the major target group to a broad audience of working
people. The term “time management” is actually misleading. Strictly speaking, time cannot
be managed, because it is an inaccessible factor. Only the way a person deals with time can
be influenced (Claessens & Eerde, 2007). Time management can be viewed as a way of
monitoring and controlling time (Eilam & Aharon, 2003). In this regard, it would be more
appropriate to speak about self-management with regard to the performance of multiple tasks
within a certain time period. But in the literature, the term self-management has a different
meaning. It refers to monitoring and regulating oneself, but without any specific reference to
techniques for monitoring time use. Therefore, we will stick to the use of the term time
management in the present paper.
The increasing salience of time is reflected in theoretical as well as practical publications.
A number of authors discussed the need for better incorporating time in theoretical models
and research designs (George & Jones, 2000; Wright, 2002). Others focused on the ways in
which people in organizations manage their time, and on ways in which these efforts can be
improved (Macan, 1994). There are three main models of time management, The Britton and
Glynn's (1989), Huang and Zhang's (2001) and Macan's (1994) model of time management.
Britton and Glynn (1989) visualize time management in terms of three elements: macros,
medium and small levels. The macro level refers to the choice and prioritization of goals,
mid-level tasks involving the creation of goals and sub-targets and the small level that
consists of design and implementation. Macan's (1994) model of time management consists
of four components, that are seen to regulate the setting of time goals, priorities, mechanisms
of time management and organization preference. Huang and Zhang's (2001) model of time
management consists of three dimensions of mental structure and multiple levels; which
include the three dimensions of behaviour, time management, and the sense of the value of
time, which incorporates two levels: the social value of time- orientation and time-oriented
individual value. On the other hand, within the second dimension, the sense of managing over
time which consists of setting goals, Planning, prioritization, and allocation of time and
feedback. The dimension, within the sense effectiveness of time contains two levels: the
effectiveness of your time management and effective time management behaviours.
2.1.1 Factors of Time Management
There are three factors of time management developed by Britton and Glynn (1989) to
assess time management practices are time planning, time attitudes and time wasters.
Time Planning
The Initial issue was named as time planning, and as a result it seems to embrace a range
of items that are related to planning in the short term (either at intervals of the day or within
the week) and within the long term (Alay & Koçak, 2002). As Barling et al. (1996) opined,
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
430
time planning is linked to job performance under the conditions of high motivation. However,
alternative study shows that time planning use as a one issue to measure grade point average,
scholastic took a look at freshman and sophomore under-graduates in scientific discipline
category (Britton & Tesser, 1991). On the other hand, Jekale and Tsega (2008) shown that
time planning is crucial for the construction of the development and classified it under four
types which are bar graph, network diagram, resources unnatural project programing and time
planning under uncertainty.
Time Attitudes
The Second issue is time attitudes, is very attitudinal in nature (Alay & Koçak,
2002).Time attitudes in agreement with Claessens (2004) connected within the assessment of
tasks that are being performed. And as mentioned before in the same study by Britton and
Tesser (1991), their study used time attitude to gauge the possibility of undergraduate
students. Alay and Koçak (2002) in their study use time attitudes to conduct responsibility
and validity of the time management for collegians. Based on Calabresi and Cohen (1968)
time attitude reflects basic options of individual temperament. Additionally, the current study
connected time attitude as one issue of time management with job performance.
Time Wasters
Alay and Koçak (2002) mentioned that time is wasted as a result of poor time utilization
habits and an inefficient use of private time. For example, sales personnel are acutely aware
that some 'customers' are not real customers. In addition, developing ways that helps them get
rid of 'time-wasters' to improve themselves in their work (Clark, 1983). According to
Chioma and Ekpete (2011) time wasters associated with attitudes, behaviours, and habits
exhibited by educators, researchers, directors, and students.
2.2 Job performance
Individual performance is of high relevance for organizations and individuals alike.
Showing high performance when accomplishing tasks results in satisfaction, feelings of self-
efficacy and mastery (Sonnentag, Volmer, & Spychala, 2008). Moreover, high performing
individuals get promoted, awarded and honoured. Career opportunities for individuals who
perform well are much better than those of moderate or low performing individuals (Van
Scotter, Motowidlo, & Cross, 2000). Van Scotter, Motowidlo and Cross (2000) point out that
job performance must be distinguished from effectiveness and from productivity or
efficiency. Effectiveness refers to the evaluations of the results of performance (i.e., financial
value of sales). In comparison, productivity is the ratio of effectiveness to the cost of
attaining the outcome. For example, the ratio of hours of work (input) in relation to products
assembled (outcome) describes productivity. A great deal of attention has been paid to the
distinction between task and contextual performance. There are three basic differences
between task and contextual performance (Motowildo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997): 1)
contextual performance activities are comparable for almost all jobs, whereas task
performance is job specific; 2) task performance is predicted mainly by ability, whereas
contextual performance is mainly predicted by motivation and personality; 3) task
performance is in role behavior and part of the formal job description, whereas contextual
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
431
performance is extra role behavior and discretionary (not enforceable), and often not
rewarded by formal reward systems or directly or indirectly considered by the management.
Like task and contextual performance, adaptive performance also appears to be a
multidimensional construct, through handling emergencies or crisis situations, handling work
stress, solving problems creatively and etc. (Pulakos, Schmitt, & Dorsey, 2002). These
performance types differ with respect to their antecedents and consequences and can be
conceptually and empirically separated. A variety of measures of job performance has been
used over the past decades. For example, rating scales, tests of job knowledge, hands-on job
samples, and archival records have been used to assess job performance. From these
measurement options, performance ratings (e.g. peer ratings and supervisor ratings) are the
most frequent way of measuring job performance (Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996).
Measurement of performance is central as important organizational decisions are based on
individual performance.
2.3 Time Management and Job Performance
Despite a large literature lauding the benefits of time management behaviors in general
and for sales performance in particular, the available literature suggests some controversy
regarding whether the expected benefits of time management are realized in practice (Barling
et al., 1996). Empirical findings suggest that positive time management practices are
associated with self-evaluations of academic performance (Macan et al., 1990), objective
grade point average (Britton & Tesser, 1991), job satisfaction (Landy, Rastegary, Thayer, &
Colvin, 1991), and self-perceived organizational performance (Lim & Seers, 1993).
However, there are also data suggesting that time management behaviors may have little
effect on objectively measured job performance (Macan, 1994). One explanation for these
inconsistent findings is the focus on the main predictive effects of time management
behaviors. Previous investigations have consistently assessed the direct or indirect effects of
time management on job performance (Macan, 1994). In contrast, we suggest that factors of
time management may interact with job performance (Britton & Glynn, 1989). This
hypothesis is consistent with the notion that job performance is a multiplicative function of
both skill level and motivation (Pinder, 1984). Engaging in time management behaviors may
be viewed as an individual difference in skills and is unlikely to be reflected in a direct
increase in performance for all individuals. Rather, increasing time management behaviors is
likely to enhance the effectiveness of motivated employees and have little consequence for
employees who are not motivated to perform. Our hypothesis is also consistent with (Macan,
1994) suggestion that engaging in time management behaviors may be beneficial to the
job performance of certain types of people. Schriber and Gutek (1987) found a serious
relationship between overall job performance and time management. They declared that
management of time is important to social control performance. The current study was
designed to test this hypothesized interaction of time management and job performance.
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
432
3. Methodology and Research Design
An organization that is ready to improve its time management would be ready to improve
job performance. Previous analysis has shown that organizations with a decent time
management would be ready to improve the duty performance (Heller & Hindle, 1998;
Schriber & Gutek, 1987). The study was conducted employing a procedural theme as shown
in Fig.1, wherever it demonstrates the connection between time management and job
performance. The intellectual foundation emerges from the ideas conferred within the
literature (Alay & Koçak, 2002; Britton & Glynn, 1989; Macan et al., 1990; Macan, 1994,
1996). In line with the view suggested in the literature, the study formulated the research
hypotheses as below.
H1: There's a significant relationship between Time Management and Job Performance.
H1a: There's a significant relationship between Time planning and Job performance.
H1b: There's a significant relationship between Time attitudes and Job performance.
H1c: There's a significant relationship between Time wasters and Job performance.
Fig. 1: the Proposed Model of Study
3.1
Questionnaire Design
The data for this study were collected via survey. Most of the measuring things within the
questionnaire were supported by previous studies (Babin & Boles, 1996; Barling et al., 1996).
Content validity was ensured through an intensive literature review of printed material in
tutorial and practical journals, and by discussion with many specialists in this field. The
questionnaire was comprised of 4 parts: personal data of the respondents (part I); time
management (part II); and regarding job performance (part III). This study adopted associate
degree existing five-point Likert scale, where ‘one’ portrayed “strongly disagree” and ‘five’
portrayed “strongly agree”.
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3.2 Data Collection
The study was conduct in UNITEN University Tenaga National to spot the connection
between time management towards job performance. 220 respondents participated in the
survey. Obviously, participation within the study in voluntary and therefore the participants
have the right to withdraw at any time. They are able to decline to answer any question they
are not comfortable with. The participants are informed that their responses would be
anonymous and confidential with the promise to have a look at the analysis results upon their
request. The entire questionnaire was distributed and collected directly by using a survey
strategy “self-administered questionnaire”. The survey was distributed directly to the 250
managers, directors, and employees, and a total of 230 questionnaires were returned or (92
percent). 10 of the 230 returned questionnaires were discarded because of incomplete
information. There were 220 usable responses in total, for an overall response rate of 88%.
Research analytical methods included exploratory factor analysis, reliability and validity. The
analyses made use of SPSS (version 18) program for Windows to carry out the dissipative
statistical analysis.
4. Findings
4.1 Descriptive analysis
The respondents that took part in this paper consist of both males and females. UNITEN
University employees amount to ninety eight (61.3%) females and sixty one (38.1%) males.
this could reveal the characteristics of work at the university. Additionally, 26.3% were within
the ages of 31-35 years which amounts to the highest percentage, and five persons or 6% were
within the cluster of 41-45 years; that is that the lowest. This means that the majority of the
respondents who participated in this survey were middle aged personnel. In term of race, there
was an almost equal distribution among the 3 major races in Malaysia except alternative
races, Malay 90%, Indian 4.4%, and Chinese 3.1%, and et al 2.5%. This shows that the study
is completed equally among the 3 races in Malaysia. In addition, in terms of education, the
highest level to the lowest of the respondents possess a degree 27.5%, diploma 26.3%, and
secondary school 23.8%, master 16.3%, and PhD holders 5.6%. All of this refers a positive
qualifications and skill provided by the respondents. As For the nationalities, most
respondents are Malaysian which amounts to 97.5% and therefore the lowest is non-
Malaysian at 2.5%. Additionally, the type of employment, permanent workers are that the
highest at 73.8% and therefore, the lowest are the temporarily staff at 5.6%. As for the
employment cluster, 10% are managers head of departments/executives are 37.5%, non-
executive and operators 46.9%. For the last measure of descriptive analysis are years of work
within the current university, the overwhelming majority of the respondents have been
working in their university for 10 years and they amount to 33.8% for, 26.3% for 2-5 years,
20.6%, for 6-9 years, and 19.4% for less than 2 years.
4.2 Reliability Analysis
Reliability was tested for each variable of time management and job performance. To
measure the consistency of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha was used as a measure of reliability.
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
434
After factor loading was carried out, most of the variables showed an acceptable range of
reliability where the results score for time planning and time attitudes are .70, for time
wasters are .91, for job performance are.86 each with a ranged from .70 to .91. Basically,
reliability coefficients of 0.7 or more are considered adequate for social studies (Hair et al.,
2006).
4.3 Correlation Analysis
In this section, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient was used to determine the
relationship among the study variables. In addition, it identifies significant that opposites the
potential value of the error from first type, and it is the amount probability uncertainty value
is at significance (0.05) and (0.01) to determine the moral differences between the study
variables. The statistical results are shown in Table 1, which verifies the hypothesis, that is,
there are significant correlations between time management and job performance. The details
are as in the following.
4.3.1 Testing Hypothesis
H1a: There's a significant relationship between time planning and job performance.
As the statistical results shown in Table 2, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value of
the connection between time planning and job performance was 0.382** at a significant level
of 0.01. Thus, it’s a significant positive correlation, which implies time planning have strong
significant correlation with job performance. According to (Alay & Koçak, 2002) time
planning seems to embrace a range of items that need planning. Thus, the sub-hypothesis H1a
is verified.
H1b: There's a significant relationship between time attitudes and job performance.
As the statistical results shown in Table 2, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value of
the connection between time attitudes and job performance was 0.400** at a significance
level of level of 0.01. Thus, it's a significant positive correlation, which implies time attitudes
have strong significant correlation relationships with job performance. Thus, the sub-
hypothesis H1b is verified.
H1c: There's a significant relationship between time wasters and job performance.
As the statistical results shown in Table 2, Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient value of
the connection between time wasters and job performance was -276-** at a significant level
of 0.01. Thus, it's a significant inverse relationship correlation, which implies time wasters
have strong significant correlation relationships with job performance. According to the final
results of the analysis, the connection between time wasters and job performance increase and
therefore it is an inverse relationship. Based on Limoncelli (2005) the time wasters are any
activity that includes a low quantitative relation of profit to time spent. Thus, the sub-
hypothesis H1c is verified.
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
435
Table 2: The Correlation results between Time Management and Job Performance
Variables
Time
Planning
Time
Attitudes
Time
wasters
Job
Performance
Time Planning
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
1.000
.
220
.547**
.000
220
-.156-*
.049
220
.382**
.000
220
Time Attitudes
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.547**
.000
220
1.000
.
220
-.186-*
.018
220
.400**
.000
220
Time Wasters
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
-.156-*
.049
220
-.186-*
.018
220
1.000
.
220
-276-**
.000
220
Job
Performance
Correlation Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.382**
.000
220
.400**
.000
220
-.276-**
.000
220
1.000
.
220
**significant < 0.01, * significant< 0.05
5. Discussion
The findings on the connection among time planning, time attitude, time wasters and job
performance as shown in Table 2 indicates that there is a significant positive correlation
between each of the independent variables and job performance, whereas time wasters had
the inverse correlation with job performance among alternative variables. This means that
time wasters increase and therefore the job performance is in an inverse relationship in
comparison with time planning and time wasters. This attests to the findings of Limoncelli
(2005) a time waster is any activity that includes a low quantitative relation of profit to time
spent. Time wasters are one sensitive issue for corporations. Improving time wasters can
facilitate team work and therefore the integration of individuals and help them achieve their
goals. Findings of time management reveal a positive correlation with job performance
throughout this study. It has been unconcealed in another study conducted by Macan (1994)
that there is no relationship between time management and job performance.
6. Conclusion and Further Study
The study has investigated the connection between time management and job
performance at University Tenaga National (Uniten) in Asian nations. It had been
unconcealed that each one the independent variables conjointly and comparatively
contributed to job performance. It has been unconcealed during this study that time
management contributed mostly to workplace performance. This suggests that time
management is similar to bringing effective productivity among employees in the workplace.
Three independent variables during this study are important to human resource managers to
think about well, if effective productivity is to be increased from workers. In addition, from
this study has been shown that time management effectiveness is one among the potent
contributors to job performance. Human resource managers are held accountable to adopt a
Journal of Advanced Social Research Vol.2 No.10, December 2012, 427-438
436
good time management strategy. This may facilitate their subordinates and workers to be a lot
more productive at work. Additionally, the management of the organization should create a
condition whereby workers benefit from their time management. Human resource managers
should notice that time management is needed for any organization to succeed. Furthermore
the present study targeted a non-public university to find the connection between time
management and job performance based on factor of time management, and therefore the
sample was solely on workers and not academic staff. Future research can be more in-depth,
like taking all the non-public universities as samples, doing a research on one non-public
university, and finding the results of the relationship between time management and job
performance for a Public University; can assist the management to boost the organization
performance and productivity.
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