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Basil: A Brief Summary of Potential Health
Benefits
Keith W. Singletary, PhD
Basil is an aromatic plant that encompasses scores of
speciesofherbandshrubspeciesbelongingtothe
genus Ocimum L. (Lamiaceae). The name basil comes
from the Greek basileus or ‘‘king.’’ Common basil (Ocimum
basilicum L.) leaves have had culinary importance for cen-
turies. Several Ocimum species, collectively known as Tulsi
in India and Nepal, are used in Ayurvedic and other tradi-
tional medicine systems. Purported uses for Tulsi and other
Ocimum species include relief of stress and treatment of
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and kidney ailments, as well as
blood disorders and skin and eye diseases, to name a few.
The present report is intended to provide a brief summary
based on human studies from the scientific literature of
the potential health benefits of basil relating to alleviating
metabolic disorders, cognitive enhancement, strengthen-
ing the immune system, and oral and skin health. Nutr
Today. 2018;53(2):92Y97
There are numerous herbs and shrubs included in
the term basil, which collectively belong to the
genus Ocimum L. (Lamiaceae). The name basil
comes from the Greek basileus or ‘‘king.’’ Common basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves have had culinary im-
portance for centuries. More than 20 cultivars have been
identified with designations that include Napoletano,
Reunion, Genovese, sweet, oriental, Mexican, anise, and
purple basils, to name a few. This herb is cultivated widely
in Asia, Africa, South America, and the Mediterranean. In
foods, dried and fresh basil leaves season tomato dishes,
vegetables, fish, meat, soups, salads, and pizza. The es-
sential oils and aromatic extracts from Ocimum varieties
are also important components of dental products, phar-
maceuticals, cosmetics, and flavoring agents.
1Y4
Basil plants can differ substantially in genotype and
chemical profiles, although they may present similar
morphologies. Generally, basil essential oils can be
grouped into several chemotypes, each characterized by
their most prevalent phytochemicals. Such a group clas-
sification is monoterpenoids (eg, linalool, camphor),
phenylpropanoids (eg, eugenol, methyleugenol, estragole,
and methyl cinnamates), and sesquiterpenoids (eg, A-
caryophyllene, >-bergamotene).
5Y8
Phenolic profiles also
have been reported.
9,10
The variation in essential oil com-
position depends on region and conditions of cultiva-
tion,
11,12
species and cultivar,
13Y15
season of growth,
11,16
age or position of leaves selected,
17,18
harvesting pro-
cedures,
19,20
light exposure,
11,21,22
and methods of
extraction.
23Y26
Information about typical human intakes and bioavail-
ability of basil is limited. A Food Frequency Question-
naire completed by Norwegian adults determined intake
of fresh and dried basil to be approximately 2.2 g/mo.
27
To determine metabolites from basil, volunteers consumed
5 mL of a brewed basil beverage prepared from 500 g
basil.
28
Estragole, trans-anethole, and para-anisaldehyde
levels were then determined in plasma and urine after
consumption. The estragole concentrationinplasmasam-
ples at 8 hours following consumption was 324.7 Kg/mL or
60% of the initial amounts absorbed. Likewise, urine con-
centration of estragole at 9 hours was 59% of the initial dose
administered.
An Ocimum plant of note is holy basil, composed of
Ocimum tenuiflorum (previously Ocimum sanctum)and
sometimes Ocimum gratissimum species, also known as
Tulsi in India and Nepal, where it is used in Ayurvedic and
other traditional medicine systems. In South America, the
term altavaca refers to Ocimum used in traditional
medicines. Purported health benefits for Tulsi and other
Ocimum species include relief of stress and treatment of
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and kidney ailments, as well
as blood disorders and skin and eye diseases, to name a
few.
3,4,29
The present report is intended to provide a brief
Spices Series
92 Nutrition Today
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Volume 53, Number 2, March/April 2018
Keith W. Singletary, PhD, is professor emeritus of nutrition in the De-
partment of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the University of Illinois.
From 2001 to 2004, he was the director of the Functional Foods for Health
Program, an interdisciplinary program between the Chicago and Urbana-
Champaign campuses of the University of Illinois. Dr Singletary received
bachelor and master’s degrees in microbiology from Michigan State Uni-
versity and his doctor of philosophy degree in nutritional sciences from the
University of Illinois. Dr Singletary’s primary research interests are in molec-
ular carcinogenesis and cancer chemoprevention, specifically identifying and
determining the mechanism of action of phytochemicals in fruits, vegeta-
bles, and spices as cancer-protective agents. He has been recognized with
the Senior Faculty Award for Excellence in Research by the College of
Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences at the University of
Illinois. Dr Singletary currently resides in Florida.
Funding for the preparation of this article was provided by McCormick
and Co.
The author has no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Correspondence: Keith W. Singletary, PhD (kws@illinois.edu).
Copyright *2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
DOI: 10.1097/NT.0000000000000267
Copyright © 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
summary of the potential health benefits of basil as iden-
tified from published scientific investigations involving
humans and to identify areas for additional research.
METHODS
A search of the PubMed database identified more than 100
relevant reports published prior to 2017. Search terms in-
cluded Ocimum, basil, altavaca, and Tulsi. Full reports of
English-language publications and English-language ab-
stracts of foreign-language articles from peer-reviewed
journals were the primary sources of information. Al-
though the quality of human studies varied consider-
ably, all published human investigations identified were
included in this discussion, so that the totality and diversity
of information can be evaluated, and issues for future re-
search can be identified.
Human Studies
As a component of Ayurvedic medicine for several millenia,
Tulsi was extensively studied in humans, especially in India.
A recent comprehensive review
29
of human trials systemat-
ically evaluated the efficacy of Tulsi in the treatment of
metabolic disorders, in modulation of the immune system,
and in improving neurocognition. For this published review,
the term Tulsi included both the O tenuiflorum (Osanctum)
and O gratissimum species. The current, brief summary
highlights select findings on topics covered by this com-
prehensive review and also adds newer information not
included for these Tulsi topics. In addition, biological actions
in humans of other Ocimum species are presented in the
current summary.
Metabolic Disorders
Seventeen Tulsi trials, conducted between 1964 and 2016,
were selected for the referenced, critical review publica-
tion.
29
The study populations numbered between 3 and
100. The form of Tulsi leaves administered varied con-
siderably (whole plant, powdered leaves, juice, and water
and ethanol extracts), as did the dose (300 mg/d to 6 g/d)
and frequency. Taken together, these studies observed
significant decreases in fasting and postprandial blood
glucose, improved lipid profiles, and lower blood pres-
sure in diabetic and obese participants. Those trials with
longer duration of intervention (12Y13 weeks) tended to
report more substantial beneficial changes. Where mea-
sured, hemoglobin A1C (HbA
1c
) and body mass index
(BMI) of obese participants were reduced. Only 1 ran-
domized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was among
the studies evaluated, and this trial observed an improve-
ment in lipid profiles for 6 of 22 participants. No adverse
events were reported in any trial.
In a separate study of a different Ocimum species, seeds of
Ocimum canum (or OamericanumL.), also known as
hairy basil, were given to nonYinsulin-dependent (n = 14)
and insulin-dependent (n = 2) Thai patients with dia-
betes.
30
Thirty grams of dried seeds was consumed after
meals in divided doses for 1 month. Compared with
baseline values, the blood glucose concentration curves
determined from the oral glucose tolerance test were
significantly suppressed after 1 month of treatment. These
seeds provided approximately 24 g/d dietary fiber, which
the authors suggested contributed to the lowering of
postprandial glucose levels and long-term improvement
in glucose tolerance in both the nonYinsulin-dependent
and insulin-dependent patients with diabetes.
In another trial
31
with Ocanum, effects on body compo-
sition and metabolic parameters in obese and overweight
subjects were examined. Obese patients (n = 5) were
instructed to decrease total energy intake to achieve 20%,
30%, and 50% of total caloric intake as protein, fat, and
carbohydrate, respectively. After 4 weeks, individuals were
provided basil seed extract (4 g/d swollen in water) for
12 weeks. Compared with baseline values, there were
significant but small decreases of 2.3% and 2.4% for weight
and BMI, respectively. No changes in serum lipid and
blood glucose levels and in body fat were observed. No
adverse effects were detected, and hematologic, renal,
and electrolyte parameters were normal.
The high-fiber seeds of O basilicum were also investi-
gated for effects on anthropometric measures in patients
with nonalcoholic fatty liver.
32
For this randomized,
parallel, single-blind trial, patients (n = 18) consumed
10 g/d of seeds for 12 weeks. Compared with controls,
no significant effect of seed consumption was seen for BMI,
percent body fat, and lean body mass. The authors attrib-
uted this lack of effect to the lower dose of seeds given to
the subjects.
Neurocognition
Four clinical trials evaluating the effect of Tulsi on
neurocognition were selected for the published sys-
tematic review.
29
Twoofthe4trialswererandomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled designs. The form of
Tulsi provided included ethanolic extracts, whole plant,
or leaves, and doses varied from 300 mg/d to 6 g/d. All
trials were similar in outcomes, observing some degree
of positive changes, with benefits that included reduced
stress,anxiety,sexualproblems,anddepression,aswell
as enhanced working memory and cognitive attention.
No adverse events were reported.
A separate inhalation trial examined the impacts of basil (O
basilicum) or peppermint essential oils on mental work.
33
Adult volunteers were evaluated, in a single experimental
run, for changes in sensory perception and mental work
following use of inhalers loaded with the essential oils.
For basil, there was a positive association between inha-
lation of the essential oil and mental work, which was
accompanied by a significant increase in fingertip skin
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93
Copyright © 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
temperature and an increase in magnitude of Awaves of
the brain. The authors suggested that these responses
for basil demonstrated this fragrance’s capacity to trigger
neurophysiologic stimuli and elevate the alert state, find-
ings consistent with those reported by others.
34
Immunomodulation and Inflammation
For this topic, 5 clinical trials were selected for the critical
review.
29
Doses of ethanolic or aqueous extracts of Tulsi
leaves varied from 300 mg/d to 10 g/d, and durations of
intervention were shorter (1Y4 weeks). Beneficial immune
responses included increased natural killer and T-helper
cells in healthy adults and improved immune response to
viral infections. Patients with asthma reported enhanced
vital capacity and relief from asthmatic symptoms. Only 1
randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was
among the 5 trials evaluated, and it found higher circu-
lating levels of select cytokines and interferons among the
22 subjects. The studies reported no adverse events.
Oral Health and Healing
Seven human studies evaluated basil for its effects on
oral cavity health in patients in India and Brazil. For 1
investigation,
35
the teeth and gums of 50 adult patients
weretreatedwithanextractofO basilicum (250 mg/d)
for 3 weeks. Before and after treatment, plaque and soft
matter in the gingival area were quantitated (referred to
as a plaque index), as were changes in purulent dis-
charges and gingival bleeding and reports of adverse
effects. A significant 12% reduction in the plaque index
was reported after 3 weeks, compared with the initial
scores. The authors also observed a significant treatment-
associated reduction in the populations of several oral
bacteria, and in 80% of the patients, there was a substantial
improvement in gingival bleeding and purulent discharge.
No adverse effects were noted.
In India, a randomized, crossover, Latin squareYdesigned
study evaluated schoolchildren (n = 45) for the efficacy
of 0.2% chlorhexidine, Listerine, and 4% Tulsi extract
mouth rinses in reducing salivary Streptococcus mutans
levels.
36
All 3 rinses significantly decreased salivary S mutans
levels, with mean reductions for chlorhexidine, Listerine,
and Tulsi of 53%, 45%, and 43%, respectively, compared
with baseline values. The only adverse effect of the Tulsi
rinse was a bitter taste, which the authors attributed to the
higher 4% concentration chosen. Two other studies also
evaluated the oral health benefits of holy basil (Osanctum).
A triple-blind, randomized, parallel-design, controlled trial
(30-day duration) among medical student volunteers ex-
amined the strength of a 4% ethanolic extract of Tulsi
(prepared from dried, powdered leaves), 0.12% chlor-
hexidine, and saline (n = 36/group) in decreasing plaque
and gingival inflammation.
37
Both holy basil and chlor-
hexidine treatments significantly decreased supragingival
plaque and gingivitis, compared with saline controls, and
no significant difference in efficacy was observed between
the 2 treatment groups. Similarly, in a single-blind, ran-
domized, parallel-design study,
38
a 4-day treatment with a
water extract of holy basil was found to significantly sup-
press plaque regrowth among 30 adult volunteers, com-
pared with water controls, and showed similar clinical
efficacy to 0.2% chlorhexidine.
Using O gratissimum samples, a randomized, parallel,
double-blind trial
39
evaluated the effectiveness of a mouth
rinse containing an extract of this basil species in inhibiting
de novo development of dental plaque and gingival in-
flammation, compared with a rinse containing 0.12% chlor-
hexidine digluconate (CLX). Following tooth polishing to
remove existing plaque, subjects (n = 10/group) brushed
teeth and rinsed with one of the formulations (3 times per
day) for 3 months. Compared with controls (no antiseptic
agents) at 90 days, the plaque index for basil and CLX rinses
significantly decreased by 43% and 64%, respectively. The
gingival bleeding index also significantly decreased by 63%
and 77% for the basil and CLX groups, respectively, com-
pared with controls. Taken together, these results indicate
similar efficacy of basil and CLX groups, and no adverse
effects were recorded for those using the basil rinse. In a later
clinical study by the same research group,
40
a crossover,
double-blind trial design was used to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of mouth rinses of this basil and CLX on plaque
regrowth in the absence of tooth brushing. Dental plaque
remnants were removed from subjects (n = 15), who then
rinsed twice daily with control, basil (10% vol/vol essential
oil) and CLX (0.12%) formulations for 3 days, while
abstaining from mechanical cleaning of teeth. Compared
with controls, both basil and CLX rinses significantly
inhibited de novo plaque growth, but the efficacy of the
CLX rinse was significantly better than that of the basil rinse.
For a clinical trial in India,
41
individuals with jaw (man-
dibular) fractures (n = 9) consumed 2.5 g of an alcoholic
extract of Tulsi (O sanctum) leaves (4 times per day)
during the period of jaw immobilization and healing
(4Y6 weeks). Compared with placebo controls (starch
powder, n = 9), subjects given Tulsi extract showed a
significant 32% reduction in time of immobilization.
Comparable evidence of complete clinical healing among
the 2 groups was demonstrated radiologically and by
identical bite force tensile strength results. No adverse
effects were reported.
Skin Health
Asingle-blindstudy
42
of male volunteers (n = 11) was
conducted evaluating a facial skin cream formulation
containing 3% concentrated ethanol extract of basil leaves
and flowers, compared with the base formulation without
basil. Subjects applied the 2 creams at night on separate
cheeks for 12 weeks. Biophysical measurements of skin
94 Nutrition Today
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Copyright © 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
smoothness, moisture, and wrinkle prevalence were de-
termined. Compared with the base cream, the formulation
with basil significantly enhanced moisture content, de-
creased roughness, and suppressed wrinkling. No harm-
ful effects were noted. Dermatology outpatients in India
were randomly assigned to control (n = 26) and treatment
(n = 25) groups in a single-blind controlled study.
43
The
control group was administered a standard treatment for
acne consisting of oral tetracycline (500 mg, 2 times per
day) and a facial sulfur lotion (2 times per day), and the
treatment group members were instructed to manually
crush fresh Obasilicumleaves, smear the resulting juice
onthefacialacnelesions,andleavethiscoveringover-
night until washing with mild soap the next morning. Both
groups continued these protocols for 8 weeks. The re-
sponses of the acne lesions (comedones, papules, pus-
tules, and cysts) to treatment indicated that the basil
treatment was just as effective as the standard acne drug. A
randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluated a
series of 16 O gratissimumYcontaining formulations (n =
7/formulation) on management of acnes vulgaris in uni-
versity students in Nigeria.
44,45
Test samples were pre-
pared from 1 of 4 doses of O gratissimum essential oil
along with 1 of 4 base blends and applied to the face
topically (2 times per day) for 4 weeks. Compared with
the lesion counts prior to the study, at 4 weeks the essential
oil preparations, especially at the higher doses, were sig-
nificantly more efficacious than a reference drug product
(10% benzoyl peroxide lotion) in reducing the number
of papules and pustules. Adverse effects were reported
to be minimal, with some higher doses producing skin
irritation.
Safety
As reported in numerous human trials, adverse effects of
Tulsi appear to be minimal. This, along with its long his-
tory of use in Ayurvedic medicine, suggests that it has no
oral toxicity at the doses used.
1
Toxicological experiments
in animals of the essential oil and of alcoholic extracts
demonstrated no toxic effects of oral administration up to
the highest doses tested.
46,47
Some reports led to a con-
cern that excessive consumption of cultivars with high
contents of estragole could be problematic,
48,49
but ad-
verse effects are unlikely at typical levels of human con-
sumption.
28
There are reports suggesting dietary Tulsi can
affect the reproductive behavior of male rats and rab-
bits,
50,51
although the relevance of the doses examined to
human intakes is not known.
CONCLUSIONS
Portions of the basil plant, especially the leaves, and its
extracts demonstrated health benefits in a variety of clinical
settings (Table). All the species tested, O tenuiflorum/O
sanctum,O basilicum, and Ocanum, showed some level
of benefit, with the magnitude of change depending on the
end point examined and the experimental methods. The
benefits identified include improving glucose homeostasis
and lipid profiles for patients with diabetes, strengthening
TABLE Reports Some of the Purported Benefits of Ocimum Species From Human Studies
Topic Ocimum Dose
a
Potential Benefits Adverse Events Ref.
Metabolic disorders 300 mg/d to 6 g/d
(whole plant, leaves,
seeds, extracts)
Improvement in blood
glucose regulation and
lipid profiles
None
29,31,32
Memory and cognition 300 mg/d to 6 g/d
(whole plant, leaves,
extracts, essential oil)
Reduced stress
response, anxiety,
depression; improved
mental performance
None
29,33,34
Immunity and
inflammation 300 mg/d to 10 g/d
(extracts of leaves) Improved immune
responses and relief
from asthmatic
symptoms
None
29
Oral health and healing 250 mg/d, various oral
formulations (essential
oil, extracts of plant)
Decreased plaque
deposition, less gingival
inflammation and
bleeding, enhanced
healing jaw fractures
None
35Y41
Skin health 3% cream, various skin
formulations (leaves,
essential oil)
Decreased wrinkling,
improved acne
treatment
None
42Y45
a
Duration of dosing varied from 1 to 13 weeks depending on clinical trial.
Volume 53, Number 2, March/April 2018 Nutrition Today
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95
Copyright © 2018 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.
of the immune system, alleviating stress and anxiety, and
enhancing memory. Oral and skin health and healing were
reported. Comparisons of beneficial effects among Ocimum
species exhibiting different chemotypes are difficult to make
at this point. The number of clinical trials evaluating specific
health issues vary greatly among species. Only 2 studies
were reported for Ocanumin which inconsistent responses
of postprandial glucose levels to basil administration were
noted. Similarly, only 4 reports indicated benefits for O
basilicum in mental performance, treatment of acne, and
tooth health, with no effect seen for BMI and percent body
fat. In contrast, at least 34 clinical trials have been conducted
for Tulsi (Osanctum,O tenuiflorum,Ogratissimum)in
which benefits were observed toward metabolic disorders,
mental and immune health, gingival inflammation and
tooth decay, and skin health. Valid comparisons of health
benefits among these species await more reports of trials
using species other than those in Tulsi.
Despite no adverse events being detected at the doses
and durations of basil evaluated in these human in-
vestigations, any adverse effects from long-term intake
of basil and its extracts need to be carefully documented.
Although there is encouragement to include basil in the
diet to improve management of diabetes and the meta-
bolic syndrome,
52
several issues need to be more thor-
oughly addressed when assessing all these purported
health benefits. As Jamshidi and Cohen
29
have pointed
out, only a minority of the published studies can be
considered high-quality, and approximately only 13%
of the trials incorporated a double-blind approach. The
methodological concerns, as well as the widespread lack
of details about the basil cultivars, dosage form, and
chemical composition of the test samples, suggest that
there are still insufficient data to support specific recom-
mendations for use. Additional studies are needed with
larger subject populations, longer periods of intervention,
and better characterization of the effective forms and the
active dietary doses of basil. Studies should report chem-
ical composition of samples, and, in any trials using basil
for adjunct or complementary treatments, data on in-
teractions with commonly prescribed drugs should be
provided.
29
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