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Makara Hubs-Asia, 2017, 21(2): 70-82
DOI: 10.7454/mssh.v21i2.3502
70 December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced by Friendship-Contingent
Self-Esteem and Fear of Missing Out?
Frensen Salim*, Wahyu Rahardjo, Titah Tanaya, and Rahmah Qurani
Cyberpsychology Studies Center, Universitas Gunadarma, Depok 16424, Indonesia
*E-mail: frensensalim@gmail.com
Abstract
One social media platform that is still highly favored by most people in this day and age is Instagram. Instagram users
can present themselves in a visual form (eg, pictures and video) and text. Instagram promotes visual use, coupled with
editing features which enable Instagram users to present themselves distinctly on social media. Friendship-contingent
self-esteem is an important factor in presenting one's behavior in the context of friendly relations. However, there are
negative impacts of use of social networking sites, such as lowering self-esteem, which is mediated by the fear of losing
or fear of missing out (FoMO). This study aims to analyze the influence of friendship-contingent self-esteem and fear of
missing out on self-presentation of Instagram users. Participants of this study were 326 male and female Instagram
users spread across several provinces in Indonesia. This study uses Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to construct an
empirical model of friendship-contingent self-esteem, fear of missing out, and self-presentation which fits the data.
Results show adequate goodness of fit, however, the only variable found to influence self-presentation was only fear of
missing out. Friendship-contingent self-esteem was found to affect the fear of missing out, while friendship-contingent
self-esteem did not affect self-presentation.
Apakah Presentasi Diri Pengguna Instagram dipengaruhi oleh Friendship-Contingent Self-
Esteem dan Fear of Missing Out?
Abstrak
Salah satu media sosial yang hingga saat ini masih digemari oleh kebanyakan orang, yaitu Instagram. Di Instagram para
pengguna dapat mempresentasikan dirinya dalam bentuk visual (misal, gambar dan video) dan tulisan. Instagram sangat
mengedepankan visual dalam penggunaannya, ditambah dengan fitur-fitur edit yang ada pada Instagram membuat para
penggunanya memiliki perbedaan dalam mempresentasikan dirinya di media sosial. Friendship-contingent self-esteem
merupakan faktor penting dalam mempresentasikan diri perilaku seseorang dalam konteks hubungan persahabatan.
Namun, adapun dampak dari penggunaan situs jaringan sosial dapat menurunkan self-esteem seseorang yang dimediasi
oleh rasa takut kehilangan atau fear of missing out (FoMO). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh
friendship-contingent self-esteem dan fear of missing out terhadap self-presentation pengguna instagram. Partisipan
penelitian ini berjumlah 326 orang pria dan wanita pengguna Instagram yang tersebar di beberapa provinsi di Indonesia.
Penelitian ini menggunakan Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) untuk mengonstruksi model empiris friendship-
contingent self-esteem, fear of missing out, dan self-presentation yang fit dengan data. Hasil dari penelitian ini adalah
didapatkan goodness of fit yang baik, namun demikian setelah ditelaah lebih lanjut yang berpengaruh pada variabel self-
presentation hanya fear of missing out. Sedangkan friendship-contingent self-esteem berpengaruh terhadap fear of
missing out, dan friendship-contingent self-esteem tidak berpengaruh terhadap self-presentation.
Keywords: Self-Presentation, Friendship-Contingent Self-Esteem, Fear of Missing Out, FoMO, Instagram
Citation:
Salim, F., Rahardjo, W., Tanaya, T., & Qurani, R. (2017). Is self-presentation of Instagram users influenced by
friendship-contingent self-esteem and fear of missing out? Makara Hubs-Asia, 21(2): 70-82, DOI: 10.7454/mssh.v21i2.3502
71 Salim, et al.
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
1. Introduction
Internet use amongst Indonesian people has increased
year after year. According to a survey conducted by
APJII (Association of Indonesian Internet Service
Providers/Asosiasi Penyelenggara Jasa Internet
Indonesia), in 2016 there were 132.7 million internet
users in Indonesia from the total population of 256.2
million people. This indicates a 51.8% increase from the
number of internet users in 2014. APJII’s survey in
2014 showed that there were only 88.1 million internet
users from the total population of 252.4 million people
(Association of Indonesian Internet Service Providers,
2016).
The motives for internet use in Indonesia are mostly to
keep up to date (31.3 million people), have access to
work-related information (27.6 million), spend free time
(17.9 million), socialize (13.6 million), as well as for
education (12.2 million), entertainment (11.7 million),
and business (10.4 million). Most internet users in
Indonesia are between 25 – 34 years of age, followed by
the 10 – 24 years age group (Association of Indonesian
Internet Service Providers, 2016).
Other social networking platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, Path, BBM, Line, WhatsApp, etc. have become
a necessity for Indonesian adolescents. The emergence
of diverse social media signifies the progress of
unconstrained communication, limited by neither space
nor time. From the wide range of social media sites used
by the Indonesian society, there is one in particular that
has been popular with most Indonesians since its
inception up until the present day, which is Instagram.
The results of APJII’s survey in 2016 show that
Instagram is the second most used social media
application after Facebook, with 71.6 million people
(54%) using Facebook and 19.9 million people (15%)
using Instagram (Association of Indonesian Internet
Service Providers, 2016).
Facebook and Instagram are the most frequently used
social media applications to present oneself online in
various forms (Djafarova & Trofimenko, 2017). This
research focuses only on Instagram users, because
Instagram is such a popular platform used by teenagers
and adults, who are the researcher’s targets. Instagram is
not only accessible through Android and iOS based
devices, but can also be accessed through web browsers.
Instagram was formally launched on October 6th 2010
by Kevin Systrom and his partner Mike Kireger
(Aditya, 2013). On Instagram, users can present
themselves visually (such as through pictures and
videos) as well as through text. However, visual
presentation is most dominant on Instagram as it is not
possible to upload a post without a picture. Instagram
users do not only communicate with pictures and text;
“hashtags” and “emoticons” are also frequently used,
and users can search for certain pictures using hashtags
(Nilsson, 2016).
There are more than 22 million Instagram users in
Indonesia and this number will continue to rise (Fajrina,
2016). There are a wide variety of services available on
Instagram, such as posting day-to-day activities in the
form of photos and videos, using InstaStory and
Instagram Live, using editing features such as adding
the location of your photo, finding friends and tagging
them in your posts, commenting on friends’ posts,
chatting, and using direct messages. Instagram users can
also set their accounts to private, so that those who want
to view their posts need to send a request first.
According to Wendt (2014), Instagram gained
popularity due to its design which motivates users to
like and comment on posts which enables them to
communicate with the creator of the posts.
With the increasing popularity of visual based social
media, which in this context is Instagram, users
undertake various efforts to improve their appearance in
their posts. The use of filters, along with using
particular angles and attractive styles, are several
examples of efforts to improve appearance of Instagram
photos (Nilsson, 2016). This has also increased the
number of selfie uploads among Instagram users. Young
adults have grown accustomed to this platform, and thus
consider that posing and uploading these pictures to
Instagram is “normal” (Wendt, 2014). The sheer amount
of selfie uploads on Instagram is related to user
narcissism and self-esteem (Pineiro, 2016).
Pineiro (2016) explains that individuals have different
levels of self-esteem and self-perception. Self-esteem is
defined as an individual’s overall evaluation on himself
or herself (Lee, Moore, Park, & Park 2012). This study
does not analyze self-esteem in general, but will focus
on friendship-contingent self-esteem, which is a form of
self-esteem which relies on relationships with peers.
Studies on friendship-contingent self-esteem have been
conducted previously by Pettijohn II, LaPiene, Pettijohn
and Horting (2012). This study concerned the relationship
between intensity of Facebook usage, friendship-
contingent self-esteem, and personality, and the study
was conducted on 200 undergraduate students in public
universities in Ohio and South Carolina. Their results
showed that there was a positive and significant
relationship between Facebook usage and friendship-
contingent self-esteem, while there was no significant
relationship between the intensity of Facebook usage
and personality. This is because individuals feel that one
main source of positive self-esteem is the quality of
personal relationships, which is often expressed on
social media activities. The intensity of social media use
amongst individuals with high friendship-contingent
self-esteem is apparent through these individuals’
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced 72!
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
emotional attachment to social media, and thus these
individuals use social media for many activities
(Pettijohn II, LaPiene, Pettijohn, & Horting, 2012).
Friendship-contingent self-esteem is an important factor
in self-presentation behavior in the context of personal
relationships. Thus, if an individual’s self-esteem is
highly contingent on the quality of their personal
relationships, he/she may be more motivated to engage
in positive self-presentation that takes into account
others’ positive perceptions towards them (Pineiro,
2016). Friendship-contingent self-esteem depends on
one’s assessment of values, as well as on the well-being
of their personal relationships; if individual perceives
that their relationship is not going well, they may feel
bad about themselves, and the same applies in reverse
(Cambron, Acitelli, & Steinberg, 2010).
Self-esteem that stems from attachment to friends tends
to push individuals to present themselves online in
relation to their personal relationships. That being said,
online self-presentation can also show one’s relation
with people other than their friends (Overup, Brunson,
& Acitelli, 2015).
Individuals require stimulation from their environment
to feel valuable and to develop the feeling that there are
competent. Stimulation in the form of feedback can
push individuals to continually present a positive image
of themselves in increasing intensity, to show to this
individual’s acquaintances that that he/she is a positive
figure. The more dependent an individual is on other
people’s responses towards their self-presentation, the
more intense their display of positive self-presentation
online will be (Sun & Wu, 2012).
One’s online self-presentation relates to the positive
perception they hope for as a form of affirmation from
others. Support or affirmation from other people makes
individuals feel valuable. As a consequence, when
individuals feel valuable by obtaining affirmation from
other people, they then continue to present themselves
online in increasing intensity, particularly in a positive
way (Yang & Brown, 2016).
Individuals can feel valuable as a result of affirmation in
the context of friendship. This feeling of affirmation
may materialize in the number of friends they have on
their social media accounts. The more friends one has
on social media, the longer one spends on social media,
and the more frequently they upload pictures of
themselves as a form of online self-presentation (Moon,
Lee, Lee, Choi & Sung, 2016).
The targeted audience of self-presentation of most
people is people that they know, or people who know
them. Users hope for a positive response from these
people that can boost their self-esteem. Therefore, when
users feel appreciated through obtaining positive
responses of other users, the more intense their online
self-presentation will become (Kim & Baek, 2016).
In some particular conditions in which individuals are
geographically separated from the important people in
their lives, dependence on friends increases. Social
media becomes an avenue to bridge relationships with
people across different times and places, and becomes a
form of social support for the individuals. In these
conditions, there is a high “fear of missing out”, because
high levels of dependence of other individuals are
considered important on social media (Hetz, Dawson, &
Cullen, 2015).
A study conducted by Buglass, Binder, Betts and
Underwood (2016) found that the effects of using social
networking sites and the decrease of self-esteem was
mediated by Fear of Missing Out (FoMO). Fear of
Missing Out is defined as the feeling of discomfort or
even the feeling of loss that results from knowing what
one’s friends are doing, and feeling that those friends
have it better than them (Abel, Buff, & Burr, 2016). The
phenomena of fear of missing out is a situation that
results from lack of self-regulation and psychological
satisfaction. Following this line of thought, low levels of
satisfaction towards basic needs may relate to Fear of
Missing Out.
The FoMO phenomena can help explain excessive use
of social media amongst adolescents. FoMO affects the
use of social media from the perspective of social
relations, in which meaningful experiences are
considered to be those related to personal relationships,
or the perception that advantageous and satisfying social
relations should be maintained. Individuals who have
trouble maintaining positive social relations tend to
have high Fear of Missing Out, which heightens rather
excessively when using social media to interact with
other people. Maladaptive behavior on social media can
be better understood when Fear of Missing Out is put
into context (Alt, 2016).
Various works of literature about adult millennials aged
18-34 years old show that 70% of adult millennials
acknowledge that they relate to Fear of Missing Out (the
highest percentage of any generation). Similarly, 36%
of adult millennials said that they experienced Fear of
Missing Out on moderate or frequent basis. Most
importantly, 46% of adult millennials said that their
Fear of Missing out had been exacerbated by social
media use (JWT Intelligence, 2012).
The higher an individual’s Fear of Missing Out, the
more immersed the individual will be in social media
activities, including in online self-presentation (Alt,
2015). Social media makes individuals present
themselves online, build communications, as well as
73 Salim, et al.
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
form and maintain relationships with other people
(Clark & Roberts, 2010; Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe,
2007).
Not only does Fear of Missing Out help explain the
excessive use of social media amongst individuals, it
also helps explain addiction to social media. This is
strengthened further by the factor of personality which
can influence levels of Fear of Missing Out (Blackwell,
Leaman, Tramposch, Osborne, & Liss, 2017).
Fear of Missing Out is also used to mediate the effect of
certain personality characteristics (emotional problems)
on social media involvement (Przybylski, Murayama,
DeHaan, & Gladwell, 2013). Individuals have the
tendency to become more anxious, easily angered, and
can feel either temporarily superior or inferior when
looking at social media (JWT Intelligence, 2012). With
constant and ongoing updates on social media between
friends, it is nearly impossible for individuals to not
know what others are doing and saying at every moment.
The number of friends a user has on social media will
influence how frequently they present themselves
positively online. A large number of friends on social
media is considered to be a form of social affirmation
towards the individual. Individuals tend to strive to keep
presenting themselves positively online in order to
maintain and add to the number of friends they have on
social media (Kim & Lee, 2011). Therefore, Fear of
Missing Out can explain the deep and excessive
involvement of individuals in all social media activities,
including the activity of online self-presentation.
Deep involvement in social media, influenced by Fear
of Missing Out, is often done through a smartphone.
This is understandable as smartphones can perform
many tasks on social media in an intense and fast manner
(Oberst, Wegmann, Stodt, Brand, & Chamarro, 2017).
The use of smartphones has become an essential part of
global lifestyles. The widespread use of smartphones
has triggered maladaptive behavior in relation to
individuals’ relations to the technology they use. Fear of
Missing Out is considered a factor that pushes
individuals to display excessive behavior in the use of
smartphones (Elhai, Levine, Dvorak, & Hall, 2016).
Instagram prioritizes the visual nature of its platform
and provides a range of editing features that enables its
users to present themselves online in different ways.
Self-presentation is a form of communication that can
facilitate the maintenance of relationships (Baumeister,
1982). Other than that, online self-presentation is a form
of behavior that shows how individual wishes to
present themselves, and is a part of individuals’
attachment to social media (Alt, 2015; Sanderson,
2008).
The impression that an individual present online relates
to the social attachments that the individual wishes to
feel within their community (Sanderson, 2008). Self-
presentation aims to communicate one’s self-image, but
on the other hand, self-presentation also aims to
communicate information about how the individual
views relationships and partners. Other than that, it can
also affect how partners feel about themselves (Overup,
2012).
According to Overup (2012), every Instagram user has
different ways of presenting themselves based on who is
viewing their Instagram content. When presenting
themselves to strangers, users tend to self-enhance,
when information is available and identifiable (Giacalone
& Rosenfeld, 1986), and when information about
themselves is indisputable (Schlenker & Leary, 1982).
In different situations, users may use different strategies
in presenting themselves to strangers, such as to “suck
up to” (such as through flattery, giving conforming
opinions, offering help, giving gifts), or offering prayers
(for instance, through emphasizing limitations, power-
lessness and dependence) (Schlenker, & Leary, 1982). In
general, every person presents themselves to strangers in
the way thought to be most advantageous to themselves
(Schlenker & Leary, 1982), especially when predicting
future interactions with their social media audience
(Danheiser & Graziano, 1982).
It is different when individuals present themselves to
their own friends on social media. Tice, Butler,
Muraven, and Stillwell (1995) found in their study that
users tend to present themselves more simply with their
friends in comparison to with strangers, and even when
a stranger is present, the individuals are still more likely
to present themselves more simply.
Tice et al. (1995) assume that these differences in self-
presentation stem from the fact that friends have more
information about the individual. Therefore, simple self-
presentation is intended to avoid projecting an image
that their friends know is untrue. If they do not do this,
they risk being rejected by their friends and damaging
their relationships.
In short, individuals are involved in multiple forms of
self-presentation towards their friends and to strangers.
The expectations of friends are considered more
important to individuals compared to the desire to
impress strangers and future friends that the individual
may interact with, even though the latter is uncertain.
From the elaboration above, it can be concluded that the
relationship between friendship-contingent self-esteem
and self-presentation is mediated by Fear of Missing
Out.
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced 74
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
Figure 1. Theoretical Model
The hypotheses of this study are as follows:
H1: To test the theoretical model of the effect of
friendship-contingent self-esteem and fear of
missing out on self-presentation
H2: Friendship-contingent self-esteem influences self-
presentation.
H3: Friendship-contingent self-esteem influences fear
of missing out
H4: Fear of missing out influences self-presentation
The theoretical model is shown in Figure 1.
2. Methods
This study involved 326 people living in various
provinces in Indonesia, which are Aceh, North
Sumatera, West Sumatera, South Sumatera, Lampung,
Banten, Jakarta, West Java, Central Java, Jogjakarta,
East Java, and Bali. From these respondents, 85 people
were male (26.1%) and the remaining 241 were female
(73.9%). The age of the respondents ranged from 17 to
30 years of age (M = 21.44; SD = 2.12), classified into
the under 20s group (n = 46; 14/1%) and the 21-30
group (n = 280, 85.9%). The employment status of the
respondents ranged from students (n = 19; 5.8%),
university students (n = 256; 78.5%), employed (n = 48;
14.7%), and unemployed (n =3; 0.9%). The majority of
frequency of Instagram use was 30-60 minutes (n = 140;
42%), over 60 minutes (n = 107; 32.8%) and less than
30 minutes (n=79; 24.2%). Answering and collecting
the questionnaires was voluntary through an online link
using a Google Form questionnaire, distributed through
messages and social media.
Friendship-contingent self-esteem. Friendship-contingent
self-esteem is dependence on judgement of other people
and the wellbeing of personal relationships. If
individual feels that their friendship is not high-quality
or is not prospective, this individual will feel bad about
themselves (Cambron et al., 2010). The friendship-
contingent self-esteem scale used in this study is the
Friendship-Contingent Self-Esteem scale adapted from
Cambron et al. (2010), which consists of 8 items and is
unidimensional, and thus the model takes the form of
observed variables. This instrument was translated to
Bahasa Indonesia. One exemplary item from this scale
is, “My overall feelings about myself are heavily
influenced by how much my friends like me”. There
were 5 response options: Very Inaccurate, Inaccurate,
Neutral, Accurate, and Very Accurate. No items were
found to be dissatisfactory in the item discrimination
power test. Furthermore, the reliability of the scale was
tested using Alpha Cronbach and produced a result of
0.824.
Fear of Missing Out (FoMO). Fear of Missing Out is a
feeling of discomfort which makes an individual feel
left out, with the knowledge that their friends have
something that the individual does not, or that their
friends have something more meaningful than them
(Abel et al., 2016).
The Fear of Missing Out scale used in this study was
adapted from Przybylski et al. (2013), which consists of
10 items and is unidimensional, and thus the model
takes the form of observed variables. This instrument
was translated to Bahasa Indonesia. One example from
the scale is, “I get worried when I find out my friends
are having fun without me”. There were 5 response
options: Very Inaccurate, Inaccurate, Neutral, Accurate,
and Very Accurate. One item was found to be
dissatisfactory in the item discrimination power test.
The reliability of the scale was tested using Alpha
Cronbach and produced a result of 0.796.
Self-presentation. Self-presentation is a different form
of communication that can facilitate the maintenance of
relationships (Baumeister & Schlenker in Overup,
2012). Self-presentation itself is the act of conveying a
picture or presentation of oneself, including conveying
information about how the individual perceives
relationships and partners, and may influence how
partners feel about themselves (Overup, 2012).
The scale used in this study is the scale for Self-
Presentation Tactics in Social Media adapted and
modified from Huang (2014), which consists of 4
dimensions, which are self-promotion, ingratiation,
manipulation, and damage control, and has 12 items. In
this model, self-presentation is a latent variable. This
instrument was translated to Bahasa Indonesia. One
example item from the scale is, “I share my daily or
travel photos on which I look good with friends in social
media”. There were 5 response options: Very
Inaccurate, Inaccurate, Neutral, Accurate, and Very
Accurate. After conducting the item discrimination
power test, two items were found to be dissatisfactory in
the self-promotion dimension. Furthermore, the scale
produced an Alpha Cronbach value of 0.837.
After conducting the item discrimination power test and
reliability test through Alpha Cronbach, the next step
was to test the reliability of the instrument using the
Average Variance Extracted (AVE) method. This was
75 Salim, et al.
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
necessary because the method of testing reliability
considered more accurate for constellated variables is
the AVE method. Widhiarso (2012) explains that the
value of AVE should be a minimum of 0.5, which
indicates that the latent constructs are measuring the
intended information, and not something else. However,
all three variables produced an AVE score of under 0.5;
friendship-contingent self-esteem scored 0.499, Fear of
Missing Out scored 0.388, and self-presentation scored
0.469. Therefore, the instrument used was unable to
optimally explain the variables in this study.
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to
analyse data in this study, using AMOS.
3. Results
The model was tested in several steps. First, the
accuracy of the model was tested, and next the accuracy
of each of the parameters was tested. The theoretical
model in the conceptual framework would be
characterized as “fit” if it is supported by empirical data.
The first step was conducted to discover the goodness of
fit of the model.
The first empirical model in Figure 2 did not have
goodness of fit because of the high Chi-Square score
(76.458, p > 0.05). The modification indices require that
several elements needed to be converted to covariance
form, in order for the model to fit a smaller Chi-Square
value. Those elements were from the dimension of
ingratiation to friendship-contingent self-esteem, from
the dimension of self-promotion to ingratiation, and
from the dimension of ingratiation to manipulation.
After the modification indices were used in Table 1 in
accordance with the requirements, the second empirical
model was then tested. The second empirical model had
goodness of fit with a Chi-Square value of 5.722 (p >
0.05). That being said, the problem of this model was
the presence of covariance between constructs, as
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. First Empirical Model
Figure 3. Second Empirical Model
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced 76
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
Based on Figure 3 and Table 2, the dimensions of self-
promotion and ingratiation in the self-presentation
variable had a loading factor below 0.5 (self-promotion
= 0.251 and ingratiation = 0.414), and thus self-
promotion and ingratiation are both dimensions
considered to not support the self-presentation variable.
Figure 3 also shows that the self-promotion and
ingratiation dimensions have the smallest loading
factors and need to be converted to covariance form
with different constructs, which are friendship-contingent
self-esteem and Fear of Missing Out. Correlation
analysis results between parameters required of the
modification indices are shown in Table 3.
On the other hand, the loading factor for the other self-
presentation dimensions (manipulation and damage
control) were relatively better, and thus could be
maintained. However, the dimensions of self-promotion
and ingratiation had to be dropped.
After the researcher reduced the self-promotion and
ingratiation dimensions on the self-presentation variable
and revised the model, the model had goodness of fit.
After obtaining a new, fit model, as displayed in Figure
4 and Table 4, Chi-Square results for the model were
significant, showing 0.112 with a probability value of
0.738 (p > 0.05). This significant probability Chi-Square
value (p > 0.05) signifies that there was no difference
between the data and the mode. This shows that
friendship-contingent self-esteem and Fear of Missing
Out had impacts on self-presentation.
Table 1. Covariance based on Modification Indices for
First Empirical Model
M.I.
Par Change
e2
<-->
e1
6.655
0.569
e5
<-->
e2
9.352
-0.288
e3
<-->
SE
26.314
2.776
e3
<-->
e2
25.340
0.552
Table 2. Regression Weights Standardized between
Variables
Standardized
Coefficients
Fomo
<---
SE
0.593
SP
<---
SE
0.049
SP
<---
Fomo
0.221
Ing
<---
SP
0.414
Manip
<---
SP
0.840
DC
<---
SP
0.788
SPro
<---
SP
0.251
Table 3. Correlations based on Modification Indices
Estimation
SE
<-->
e3
0.315
e1
<-->
e2
0.109
e2
<-->
e3
0.269
e2
<-->
e5
0.160
!
Figure 4. Third Empirical Model
Table 4. Results of Test on Third Empirical Model
Goodness of Fit Coefficient
Test Result Value
Confidence level
Explanation
Chi-Square
p-value
0.112
0.738
df = 1 ;
level of sig 5% = <3.84
>0.05
Model is satisfactory
GFI
1.000
>0.90
Model is satisfactory
TLI
1.016
>0.90
Model is satisfactory
CFI
1.000
>0.90
Model is satisfactory
AGFI
0.998
>0.90
Model is satisfactory
RMSEA
0.000
<0.01
Model is good
77 Salim, et al.
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
Table 5. Description of Regression Weights between Variables, Especially for Significance
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
S.E.
C.R.
P
Fomo
<---
SE
0.681
0.593
0.051
13.270
***
SP
<---
SE
0.021
0.055
0.028
0.742
0.458
SP
<---
Fomo
0.066
0.199
0.028
2.397
0.017
Manip
<---
SP
1.133
0.909
0.282
4.012
***
DC
<---
SP
1.000
0.723
Table 6. Empirical and Hypothetical Averages for All Variables
Variable
Empirical
Average
Hypothetical
Average
Empirical
Standard
Deviation
Hypothetical
Standard
Deviation
Category
Friendship-Contingent Self-
Esteem
29.31
24
4.61
5.33
Moderate
Fear of Missing Out
26.25
27
5.30
6.00
Moderate
Self-Presentation
22.52
30
5.94
6.67
Low
Looking at the results, it is evident that not all
relationships between variables showed significant
effects. The effect of friendship-contingent self-esteem
towards self-presentation was found to be insignificant.
On the contrary, significant effects were found between
(1) friendship-contingent self-esteem on Fear of Missing
Out, and (2) Fear of Missing Out on self-presentation.
Therefore, Hypotheses 1, 3 and 4 are supported, while
Hypothesis 2 is not supported. Concrete explanations
are displayed in Table 5 and Table 6.
In general, friendship-contingent self-esteem participants
were categorized as moderate. Similarly, Fear of Missing
Out participants were also categorized as moderate, while
self-presentation participants were categorized as low.
4. Discussion
Friendship-contingent self-esteem did not influence the
self-presentation of Instagram users. Results show a
0.055 coefficient and p-value of 0.458. This indicates
that self-esteem that stems from friendship does not
affect self-presentation on Instagram. The self-esteem of
an individual who depends on friendships is not related
to the way they present themselves to their friends on
social media. According to Overup et al. (2015),
specific forms of self-esteem do not have specific
effects on online self-presentation. Self-esteem in
general is considered to be a stronger influencing factor
on online self-presentation. Cambron et al. (2010)
explain that specific forms of self-esteem such as
friendship-contingent self-esteem influence self-esteem
in general. Friendship-contingent self-esteem can
predict the instability of general self-esteem. This may
explain why the impact of friendship-contingent self-
esteem is not as strong as self-esteem in general, even
though general self-esteem relies on specific forms of it,
like friendship-contingent self-esteem. Self-esteem in
general has a strong influence on the online self-
presentation of individuals (Djafarova & Trofimenko,
2017).
The results of this study are in line with research done
by Kramer and Winter (2008) regarding the relationship
between self-esteem and self-presentation on StudiVZ
users. Their results showed that there was no significant
relationship between self-esteem and self-presentation.
Self-presentation was unrelated to use of StudiVZ and
certain profile styles (Kramer & Winter, 2008).
The self-esteem of individuals does not rely on how
intensely they feel about their relationships on
Instagram and neither is it reliant on the quality of
relationships with friends. It is not problematic for
individuals to interact with their friends on social media
without conveying a certain impression that they make
on themselves. Thus, user uploads on Instagram do not
affect the relationships of the user.
Through having a wide range of relationships, new
types of audiences are created for the self-presentation
of users on their profiles. This is evident from the fact
that previously small friendship groups that interacted
through meeting face-to-face and experiencing things
together have now expanded to larger and more abstract
groups. They are abstract in the sense that the members
of these groups may be commercial entities, like
members of bands or friends obtained through exclusive
links and offline links (Manago, Graham, Greenfield, &
Salimkhan, 2008).
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced 78
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
These findings contradict research by Gonzales and
Hancock (2011), who explained that the editing features
on social media enable individuals to optimize their
self-presentation, which can increase their self-esteem.
This may imply that individuals might not feel the need
to project themselves in certain ways on Instagram.
These findings are also not in line with findings from
Cambron et al. (2010) who explained that friendship-
contingent self-esteem is a factor that influences how
individuals present themselves in personal relationships.
Fear of Missing Out was found to have a significant
impact on the self-presentation of Instagram users, with
a coefficient of 0.199 and p-value of 089.017. This
means that there is a positive significant effect of the
fear variable (Fear of Missing Out) on self-presentation
on Instagram. Fear of Missing Out relates to the
duration of social media use. The higher one’s Fear of
Missing Out, the more immersed the individual will be
in social media activities, including self-presentation.
These individuals need more time on social media,
engaging in self-presentation activities such as updating
one’s status, uploading photos, location, etc. (Alt, 2015;
Baker, Krieger, & LeRoy, 2016).
Fear of Missing Out helps explain individuals’
immersive and even excessive use of social media,
including self-presentation. This heavy use of social
media, influenced by Fear of Missing Out, is usually
done on smartphones. This is understandable as
smartphones are able to perform many social media
activities quickly and with heavy usage (Oberst et al.,
2017).
These results are in line with findings from Kim and
Lee (2011), who explain that the amount of friends an
individual has on social media will push them to
increase their positive self-presentation. Having a large
number of friends on social media is perceived as a
form of social affirmation. Individuals tend to strive to
present themselves online in a positive light, in order to
gain and maintain friends on social media. The main
motive to present oneself on Internet sites is to convey a
certain image that the individual finds desirable.
Papacharissi (2002) states that personal homepages on
the Internet (which in this case refers to Instagram
profiles), in accordance with Goffman’s approach to
self-presentation, can be used by individuals to control
what they present online so as to shape a certain image
that they convey to others. They present an image which
they believe is in line with trends, feeling that this is the
way for them to form relationships with other people,
and also as a tool to develop social skills and deepen
social ties (Przybylski et al., 2013).
One’s online presentation enables them to change the
aspects of their appearance, including their likes and
dislikes, tastes, sense of humor, popularity, and other
aspects of interaction that are impossible to change
offline (Manago et al., 2008).
In line with Hkheadline’s (2011) research regarding the
self-presentation of Facebook users, it was found that
Facebook users shape their image by adjusting their
profiles, including their description, photos, connections
with friends, and joining groups with similar people on
Facebook. People can observe their Facebook posts to
portray a positive image, while information from other
users that might convey a negative or undesirable image
can be hidden (Hkheadline, 2011).
Friendship-contingent self-esteem was found to be
significantly impactful towards Fear of Missing Out of
Instagram users, with a coefficient of 0.593 and p-value
of 0.000. This signifies a positive significant effect of
friendship-contingent self-esteem on the fear variable
(Fear of Missing Out) on Instagram. People with
positive self-esteem tend to self-enhance, particularly in
public situations with the aim of being accepted by
one’s surroundings (Baumeister, 1982; Baumeister,
Tice, & Hutton, 1989; Britt, Doherty, & Schlenker,
1997; Schutz & Tice, 1997), which in this case refers to
situational involvement in social media. This kind of
goal can be categorized as Fear of Missing Out, because
in order to be accepted by their social media friends
(especially Instagram friends), they use editing features
to enhance their pictures and selfies, such as through the
use of filters and hashtags to make their uploaded
photos appear desirable to other users (Wendt, 2014).
Psychological symptoms can become strong predictors
of Fear of Missing Out, such that when one’s self-
esteem is very reliant on personal relationships, negative
tendencies will grow. These individuals become unable
to see themselves as valuable without the presence and
influence of friends they deem important. This negative
tendency amongst individuals with friendship-contingent
self-esteem is what pushes them to eventually develop
Fear of Missing Out (Wegmann, Oberst, Stodt, & Brand,
2017).
The desire to have and to be had, including the desire to
be with people deemed important is a factor that
strongly influences Fear of Missing Out. Similarly,
friendship-contingent self-esteem sometimes influences
individuals to have a high desire to have and to be had.
The better this need is fulfilled, the more positive the
individual’s self-esteem becomes. This means that
individuals with high friendship-contingent self-esteem
also have high Fear of Missing Out (Beyens, Frison, &
Eggermont, 2016).
79 Salim, et al.
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
In situations where individuals are geographically
separated from people they deem important, individuals
become even more dependent on social media. Social
media becomes an avenue to overcome barriers of time
and space to maintain relationships, and thus becomes a
form of social support. These conditions cause high
levels of Fear of Missing Out, due to dependence
towards relationships they deem important on social
media (Hetz et al, 2015).
Furthermore, social media can also increase one’s self
esteem, particularly self-esteem that results from the
narcissism of upholding a positive image on social
media, (Bergman, Fearrington, Davenport, & Bergman,
2011). The narcissism of self-reporting on posting
selfies on social media relates to the amount of time
spent editing photos on social networking sites (Fox &
Rooney, 2015, and by choosing certain profile pictures
that accentuate physical attractiveness or the attractive
personality of an individual (Kapidzic, 2013).
The average of the friendship-contingent self-esteem
variable participants was categorized as moderate. This
suggests that friendship-contingent self-esteem depends
on the assessment of other people and the quality of
friendships. If individual doubts the quality or prospective
sustainability of their friendships, these individuals tend
to feel bad about themselves (Cambron et al., 2010).
Positive self-esteem relates to positive will, particular
the will to portray a positive impression to one’s friends.
Individuals tend to project different versions of themselves
depending on the level of their self-esteem. People with
high self-esteem tend to self-enhance, especially in public
situations or when they receive negative feedback or
threats (Baumeister, 1982; Baumeister et al.; Britt et al.,
1997; Schutz & Tice, 1997).
Individuals with low self-esteem tend to protect
themselves in their self-presentation and downgrade
themselves in public or in threatening situations
(Baumeister, 1982; Britt et al., 1997). This is in line
with Swann’s self-verification theory (in Cambron &
Acitelli, 2010), which states that individuals are
motivated to accept interpersonal feedback that is in line
with their own self-conception; thus, for individuals
with low self-esteem, this theory predicts that they will
actually want and expect negative feedback from other
people. On top of this, people with low self-esteem tend
to only participate in online activities that boost their
self-esteem (Mehdizadeh, 2010).
The average of the Fear of Missing Out variable
participants was categorized as moderate. This suggests
that the participants who filled in our questionnaire were
moderately capable of overcoming imbalances in their
psychological needs of social media, though not perfectly.
This is also supported by the fact that most of our
participants were aged between 21 – 30 years old,
categorized as young adults. According to Vaillant (in
Papalia, Feldman, & Martorell, 2011), young adulthood
is the phase in which people adjust to their adult lives
and truly develop themselves, seek independence, get
married, have children, and form close friendships.
Therefore, young adults are at the stage where they
determine right from wrong and start forming priorities
in their lives. This process does not happen perfectly,
because as stated before, this is the stage of life where
people are adjusting with adulthood.
The average of self-presentation variable of participants
was categorized as low. This indicates that individuals
can obtain higher levels of closeness or attachment,
openness, trust, and optimism, with low levels of self-
presentation. This may be because individuals who feel
securely attached to their friends or other people might
not feel the need to influence other people’s views
towards them. Additionally, this also enables
individuals to feel comfortable with themselves and
their relationships with other people.
Harter (in Manago et al., 2008) states that individuals
who have reached adulthood have abstract concepts
about themselves, and internalize social acceptance
which transcends to how they present themselves. In
their social interactions, adults aim to reflect values of
togetherness, helping each other to consolidate their
identities as they enter adulthood (Nurmi in Manago et
al., 2008). Individuals tell stories about themselves to
other people to develop and defend themselves (McLean,
Pasupathi, & Pals, 2007).
5. Conclusions
This study found that Fear of Missing Out is an
important factor in influencing the self-presentation of
Instagram users. Based on analysis using empirical and
hypothetical averages, we found that friendship-
contingent self-esteem was moderate in participants and
Fear of Missing Out was also moderate. However, self-
presentation of the participants was low. This study
contributes to literature regarding friendship-contingent
self-esteem, fear of missing out, and self-presentation.
Apart from that, this research also contributes by giving
suggestions to communities of young adults (aged 21 –
30) to balance their social needs by joining certain
communities that can shape their self-presentation to
become more positive. Further research should be
broader in addressing all of Indonesia, with different
social and economic backgrounds and different cultures,
and thus may encounter different behavioral patterns.
In addition, further research should focus on adolescents
in specific, as this age group is usually in the phase of
Are Self-Presentation of Instagram Users Influenced 80
Makara Hubs-Asia December 2017 | Vol. 21 | No. 2
self-discovery. As Fear of Missing Out is a variable
relatively underexplored in research, further studies can
use and develop Fear of Missing Out in relation to other
variables, like personality. Fear of Missing Out is not
only helpful in explaining the excessive use of social
media, but can also help explain addiction to social
media. With the factor of personality, this can
exacerbate one’s Fear of Missing Out. Moreover,
further studies may consider using sharper and more
accurate instruments to measure the relevant constructs,
and develop research variables related to social media
use, in order to obtain more complex results.
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