Perspective Survey On The Impact Of Vertebrates In Agri-Horticultural Ecosystems In And Around Selected Villages Adjoining The Western-Margins Of Bannerghatta National Park

Abstract

A questionnaire survey was undertaken to record the status of vertebrates and the conflict mitigation measures
adapted in settlements adjoining the Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) in Bengaluru south taluk of Bengaluru
urban district, Karnataka. Ragi (Eleusine coracana) was found to be the most depredated crop while ornamental
flowers, ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) and chilli (Capsicum annuum) were less preferred. Increasing incidence
of crop depredation by wild animals has led to the use of several traditional mitigation measures followed by
local farmers to protect their crops. Barriers in the form of wire fence and mesh netting was the largely followed
measure (25.45 %) and toxicants/fumigants was least followed (2.5 %) indicating a preference for economic and
long term measures. Active deterrents were predominant compared to passive deterrent approaches adapted by
local farmers.Our results indicated that the level of control and mitigating threat from vertebrate pests on
respondents property was incidental and did not involve systematic mitigation measures. Owing to the success of
deterring wildlife most of the methods though traditional are still in practice widely and modern methods like
early-warning systems are not followed.

Full text

N
Save Nature to Survive
11(2): 1295-1298, 2016 (Supplement on Agronomy) www.thebioscan.com
1295
PERSPECTIVE SURPERSPECTIVE SUR
PERSPECTIVE SURPERSPECTIVE SUR
PERSPECTIVE SURVEY ON THE IMPVEY ON THE IMP
VEY ON THE IMPVEY ON THE IMP
VEY ON THE IMPAA
AA
ACT OF VERCT OF VER
CT OF VERCT OF VER
CT OF VERTEBRATEBRA
TEBRATEBRA
TEBRATES INTES IN
TES INTES IN
TES IN
AA
AA
AGRI-HORGRI-HOR
GRI-HORGRI-HOR
GRI-HORTICULTICUL
TICULTICUL
TICULTURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN AND AROUNDTURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN AND AROUND
TURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN AND AROUNDTURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN AND AROUND
TURAL ECOSYSTEMS IN AND AROUND
SELECTED VILLAGES ADJOINING THE WESTERN-MARGINS OFSELECTED VILLAGES ADJOINING THE WESTERN-MARGINS OF
SELECTED VILLAGES ADJOINING THE WESTERN-MARGINS OFSELECTED VILLAGES ADJOINING THE WESTERN-MARGINS OF
SELECTED VILLAGES ADJOINING THE WESTERN-MARGINS OF
BANNERGHABANNERGHA
BANNERGHABANNERGHA
BANNERGHATTTT
TTTT
TTA NAA NA
A NAA NA
A NATIONAL PTIONAL P
TIONAL PTIONAL P
TIONAL PARKARK
ARKARK
ARK
AMULYA PRASAD, M. JAYASHANKAR AND K. AVINASH*
A Rocha India, #13, Kaserguppe Village, Bilwardahalli (Dakle),
Bannerghatta (Post), Anekal (Taluk), Bengaluru - 060 083, Rural district, INDIA
e-mail: avinash.krishnan@arocha.org
INTRODUCTION
Crop raiding is a cause of much conflict between farmers and
wildlife throughout the world and more so along the
boundaries of protected areas (Regmi et al., 2013). About fifty
species of vertebrates are implicated in causing damage to
horticultural crops in India (Chakravarthy, 2004). Conflict
causing vertebrates including birds, mammals, or reptiles that
cause damage to agricultural crops and causing loss of human
life have been widely documented in different parts of India
with; Nilgai, Boselaphus tragocamelus (Rajpurohit and
Mohnot, 1988; Chauhan and Singh, 1990); Wild Asian
elephant, Elephas maximus (Sukumar, 1991); Rodents, birds
and wild boars (Chakravarthy, 2004; Sridhara, 2006; Chauhan
et al., 2009). Some of these species losing their natural habitat
and adapting themselves to the man-altered situation is the
main cause for human-animal conflict. Many studies have
been carried out on Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) both in
Asia and Africa, but despite the lessons learnt and the wide
range of measures and management strategies that have been
employed to mitigate HEC, the intensity of the problem is clearly
increasing (Perera, 2009). Human population pressure and
increasing human-animal conflicts has also led to the
emergence of vertebrate-pathogen-fruit orchard interactions
(Chakravarthy, 2004). The Bannerghatta National Park (BNP)
in Bangaluru south taluk of Bangaluru urban district, Karnataka,
belongs to one of the last largest remaining scrub forest of the
country, placed on the confluence of the Eastern and the
Western Ghats (Varma et al., 2009). Human settlements in
proximity with BNP are prone to human –animal conflict,
particularly human-elephant conflict (Varma et al., 2009).
Hence, a questionnaire survey was undertaken to record
farmers preception concerning vertebrate depredation and
their management in four settlements adjoining the BNP. This
study was designed to generate basic information about
incidence rate of wildlife (vertebrates) in selected four
settlements and the percentage of crop damage by wild animals
in agricultural fields. With this background the paper deals
with the survey on the types of crops cultivated and crop
damage by wild animals on agriculture crops in the selected
settlements.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Survey area
Four settlements viz., Taralu village, Taralu estate, Gopalpura
and Tatiguppe situated in close proximity (2-3 km) from the
BNP boundary lying on the western margins of the protected
area were surveyed during the present study. Proximity to
BNP and continuously altering landscape of the settlements
to satisfy the growing livelihood needs of the local community
were reasons for their inclusion in this survey. All the selected
areas practice agri-horticulture all through the year causing
levels of habitat modifications and changes.
Questionnaire survey
ABSTRACT
A questionnaire survey was undertaken to record the status of vertebrates and the conflict mitigation measures
adapted in settlements adjoining the Bannerghatta National Park (BNP) in Bengaluru south taluk of Bengaluru
urban district, Karnataka. Ragi (Eleusine coracana) was found to be the most depredated crop while ornamental
flowers, ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) and chilli (Capsicum annuum) were less preferred. Increasing incidence
of crop depredation by wild animals has led to the use of several traditional mitigation measures followed by
local farmers to protect their crops. Barriers in the form of wire fence and mesh netting was the largely followed
measure (25.45 %) and toxicants/fumigants was least followed (2.5 %) indicating a preference for economic and
long term measures. Active deterrents were predominant compared to passive deterrent approaches adapted by
local farmers.Our results indicated that the level of control and mitigating threat from vertebrate pests on
respondents property was incidental and did not involve systematic mitigation measures. Owing to the success of
deterring wildlife most of the methods though traditional are still in practice widely and modern methods like
early-warning systems are not followed.
KEYWORDS
Bannerghatta
vertebrates
conflict
deterrents
Received on :
18.01.2016
Accepted on :
20.05.2016
*Corresponding
author

1296
Questionnaire survey were conducted in rabi 2013 for farmers
(n=77) ie. 30, 17, 10 and 20 farmers each from Taralu village,
Taralu estate, Gopalpura and Tatiguppe respectively, whose
farms adjoining BNP. Information pertaining to crop diversity,
vertebrate menacing in the area and management measures
undertaken were sought from the interviewees. During the
20-30 minute interviews, respondents were asked a series of
questions pertaining to farmer’s socio-economic status, details
of their farming strategies and their experiences of crop damage
by wild animals were recorded.The demographic data from
the random sampling approach encompassed 40% of
respondents belonging to the age class (40-60 years) followed
by 30-40 years (27 %), 15-30 years (18%) and senior citizens
of the age group 60-80 years comprising 5%. Majority of the
farmers surveyed were small land holders, 0.5-5 acre (79.55%),
5-10 acres (11.36%) and 10-15 acre (2.27%). Observational
method to record the crops cultivated (Table 1) and crop
damage was noted inspecting the cultivated lands in and
around the settlements. Using a free listing method the list of
vertebrate fauna inflicting crop damage and in conflict with
human was generated. The aforesaid methods were devised
consulting similar works undertaken in different countries
experiencing crop raiding by vertebrates (Regmi et al., 2013)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Crop cultivation and damage
Of the 77 interviewees only 53 were involved in crop
cultivation, among whom 62.26% cultivate crops for both
household consumption and as market goods, 22.64%
farmers responded that they cultivated for household
consumption only and 15.09% respondents cultivate crops
for selling them as market goods. The study areas manifest
rich crop diversity dominated by ragi (Eleusine coracana) and
maize (Zea mays) followed by coconut plantation (Cocos
nucifera) (Fig. 1), cereals and millets (4 species), fruit crops (4)
AMULYA PRASAD
et al.,
and other horticultural crops, most of which are found to be
depredated by vertebrates. The severity of crop depredation
was maximum in Gopalpura followed by Tatiguppe, Taralu
village and Taralu estate (Fig. 1). Based on the percent opinion
ragi (70%) was the most depredated crop among cereals and
millets, sapota (42.11%) among fruit crops, red gram (20%)
among pulses and oil seeds, mulberry (10%) among cash
crops, coconut (57. 89%) among plantation crops and flat
beans (30%) among vegetables.
Conflicting fauna
An array of vertebrates ranging from snakes, birds and
mammals were known to cause damage to crops cultivated in
the study region assuming ‘pest status’ during the present
survey. The percent wise major recordings are listed in Table
2. The wild Asian elephant, Elephas maximus was the most
serious threat followed by the wild boar, Sus scrofa while
snakes and lagomorphs posed least threat (1.47%). Crop-
raiding by wild life is observed on all crops, the high percentage
of crop damage occurred by elephants followed by wild boar,
field rats and monkeys. Unlike other vertebrates in the list
snakes (poisonous) were threat to human.
Management initiatives
Proximity to forest has rendered the villages prone to threat
from wild animals both to human and their crop lands.
Increasing incidence of crop depredation by wild animals has
led to the use of several methods by local farmers to protect
their crops (Table 3). Incidence of different vertebrates with
difference in foraging regimes (diurnal and nocturnal) and
size (rodents to elephants) has compelled farmers to adopt
diverse mitigation measures. Barriers in the form of wire fence
and mesh netting was the largely followed measure (25.45%)
and toxicants/fumigants was least followed (2.5%) indicating
a preference for economic and long term measures. Active
deterrents in the form of guarding were predominant compared
to passive different methods. Our results indicated that the
Table 1: List of crops grown in the settlements
Crop type Crops
Common name Scientific name
Cereals and millets Ragi Eleusine coracana
Maize Zea mays
Paddy Oryza sativa
Jowar Sorghum sp.
Fruit crops Mango Mangifera indica
Banana Musa sp.
Sapota Manilkara zapota
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus
Oil seeds and Pulses Red gram Cajanus cajan
Groundnut Arachis hypogaea
Cash crops Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
Mulberry Morus alba
Plantation crops Areca nut Areca catechu
Coconut Cocos nucifera
Aromatic and ornamental flowers Ornamental flowers
Vegetable crops Cucumber Cucumis sativus
Ridge gourd Luffa acutangula
Chilli Capsicum annuum
Leafy vegetables
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum
Flat beans Phaseolus vulgaris

1297
level of control and mitigating threat from vertebrate pests on
respondents property (residence/field) was incidental (when
opportunity presented itself) and did not involve systematic
mitigation measures. Owing to the success of deterring wildlife
most of the methods though traditional are still in practice
widely and modern methods like early-warning systems are
not followed.
The extent and intensity of damage may vary depending on
the cropping patterns, wildlife population density, seasonality
and behaviour, and food availability in wild habitats. During
the present survey the impact of wildlife incidence on crops
and human habitats was recorded. Wildlife incidence rate is
high on farms, gardens and agricultural fields which are
adjacent to a forest area network. The magnitude of pestilence
imparted on farm/cultivated areas were found to be more
compared to residential areas. Incidence of large mammal
penetration into Taralu village and Taralu estate has minimised
due to the presence of the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)
camp between the settlements and BNP. Besides their
pestilence leading to crop loss, elephant onslaught on farmers
guarding the fields at night is a serious concern. Perhaps
guarding the open fields they are more vulnerable for wild
animal attacks. Although poisonous snakes don’t impact crops
but threaten life during accidental encounters. Crop guarding
impacts negatively on the prospects of socio-economic life of
the affected farmers as it warrants man power. In local tradition,
elephants, monkeys and snakes are sacred animals to be
revered and protected, but as humans and animals begin to
compete for similar resources or wild animals become
nuisances, causing crop damage and injury to humans, the
traditional bond loses its relevance leading to human-animal
conflict. The Asian elephant (E. maximus) and sloth bear (M.
ursinus) are considered endangered and vulnerable species
(IUCN 3.1). Nonetheless, communities livingin close proximity
to elephants may be supportive of elephant conservation
measures if the authorities address the problems of elephant
attacks and economic losses (Bandara and Tisdell, 2003).
Chakravarthy (2004) suggests a harmonious blend of passive
deterrent methods of crop protection and public awareness
of the role of vertebrates in orchards to promote conservation
of natural resources and sustain good quality fruit yields. Also,
passive deterrents practiced along with timely harvests and
clean cultivation, wrapping or covering of fruits, mulching the
base of fruit trees, seasonal pruning, shade regulation, animal-
proof trenches, polyculture, baiting and provisioning the
orchards with alternative foods for the vertebrates are useful
management tools. Both passive and active deterrent methods
to mitigate crop damage by wild animals has been proposed/
reported separately or in combination depending on the extent
of threat (Chauhan et al., 2009; Thuppil and Richard, 2015).
However, extreme measures like capture-translocation,
reproductive management of nilgai (Chauhan, 2011),
PERSPECTIVE SURVEY ON THE IMPACT OF VERTEBRATES IN AGRI-HORTICULTURAL ECOSYSTEMS
Table 2: Percent incidence of vertebrate fauna in the survey areas
Species IUCN 3.1 Taralu village Taralu estate Gopalpura Tatiguppe Mean
Conservation status No. % No. % No. % No. % %
Reptiles
Snakes * 0 0 1 5.88 0 0 0 0 1.47
Birds
Pavo cristatus Least Concern 0 0 2 11.76 1 10 1 5 6.69
Mammals
Sus scrofa Least Concern 9 30 9 52.94 8 80 13 65 56.99
Macaca radiata Least Concern 7 23.33 12 70.59 2 20 10 50 40.98
Elephas maximus Endangered 8 26.67 8 47.06 8 80 16 80 58.43
Axis axis Least Concern 3 10 6 35.29 5 50 3 15 27.57
Funambulus palmarum Least Concern 6 20 5 29.41 2 20 10 50 29.85
Field rodents * 4 13.33 8 47.06 6 60 10 50 42.60
Bats * 0 0 1 5.88 0 0 0 0 1.47
Melursus ursinus Vulnerable 0 0 1 5.88 0 0 1 5 2.72
Lagomorphs (hares) * 0 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 2.50
*Species unidentified hence conservation status not assigned.
Table 3: Percentage of mitigation measures followed by farmers to prevent crop damage
Management Methods Taralu Taralu Gopalpura Tatiguppe Mean
village (n=30) estate (n=17) (n=10) (n=20) (n=56)
Passive deterrent methods
Wire fence and mesh netting 20.0 11.8 40.0 30.0 25.45
Scarecrows 13.3 11.8 30.0 20.0 18.77
Toxicants/Fumigants 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 2.5
Solar fencing 0.0 29.4 20.0 0.0 12.35
Flying/flashing ribbons or plastic strips 0.0 0.0 30.0 0.0 7.5
Traps (smaller vertebrates) 0.0 5.9 0.0 0.0 1.47
Active deterrent methods that do not cause harm to wildlife
Guarding and human shouts 0.0 47.1 50.0 45.0 35.52
Fire scare 33.3 5.9 0.0 0.0 9.8
Throwing stones 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0
Scare shooting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0

1298
termination of wild boar (Chhangani and Mohnot, 2004), are
also reported and recommended.
Crop raiding represents a serious threat to the survival for
many producers and the proximity to the National Park has
and is expected to significantly increase the rate of reported
frequency of crop raiding. Development of mitigation measures
need to be strategic, logical, and economical and above all
must be legally appropriate considering the inclusion of many
conflicting animals protected under the ambit of wildlife
Protection Act. 1972. Analysing habitat degradation and
destruction of the protected areas adjacent to crop lands and
encroachment of cropping into protected areas need to be
monitored and addressed. Also, management strategies should
target biodiversity conservation without impeding socio-
economic condition of the people (Sinha et al., 2012).
Considering the delicate issue of crop raiding around protected
areas as an impeding factor for conservation efforts, measures
involving farmers, conservationists and forest department to
mitigate human-wildlife conflict needs focus.
REFERENCES
Bandara, R. and Tisdell, C. 2003. Comparison of rural and urban
attitudes to the conservation of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka: Empirical
evidence. Biological Conservation.110: 327-342.
Chakravarthy, A. K. 2004. Role of Vertebrates in Inflicting Diseases
in Fruit Orchards and their Management. Fruit and Vegetable Diseases.
Volume 1 of the series Disease Management of Fruits and
Vegetables. pp. 95-142.
Chauhan, N. P. S., Barwal, S. K. and Kumar, D. 2009. Human-Wild
Pig Conflict in Selected States in India and Mitigation Strategies. Acta
Silv. Lign. Hung. 5: 189-197.
Chauhan, N. P. S. and Singh, R. 1990. Crop damage by overabundant
populations of Nilgai and Blackbuck in Haryana (India) and its
Management. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Vertebrate Pest
Conference. pp. 218-220.
Chauhan, N. P. S. 2011. Agricultural crop depredation by nilgai
antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus) and mitigation strategies:
challenges in India. 8th European Vertebrate Pest Management
Conference. DOI: 10.5073/jka.2011.432.104. pp. 190-191.
Chhangani, A. K. and Mohnot, S. M. 2004. Crop Raiding by Wild
Boar (Sus Scrofa) in and around Aravalli, and its management in
Rajasthan, India. Tigerpaper. 31(2): 1-5.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International
Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Perera, O. B. M. A. 2009. The Human-Elephant Conflict: A Review
of Current Status and Mitigation Methods. Gajah. 30: 41-52.
Rajpurohit, L. S. and Mohnot, S. M. 1988. Field observation on
nilgai, Boselaphus tragocamelus around Jodhpur. Tiger paper. XV(3):
24-9.
Regmi, G. R., Anne-Isola Nekaris, K., Kamal, K. and Vincent, N.
2013. Crop-raiding macaques: predictions, patterns and perceptions
from Langtang National Park, Nepal. Endangered Species Research.
20: 217-226.
Sinha, S., Sharma, L. K. and Nathawat, M. S. 2012. Tigers Losing
Grounds: Impact Of Anthropogenic Occupancy on Tiger Habitat
Suitability using Integrated Geospatial-Fuzzy Techniques.The Ecoscan.
1: 259-263.
Sridhara, S. 2006. Vertebrate pests in agriculture: The Indian scenario.
(Ed.) Shakunthala Sridhara. Scientific Publishers. pp. xiii +pp. 605 .
Sukumar, R. 1991. The management of large mammals in relation to
male strategies and conflict with people. Biological Conservation.
55(1): 93-102.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(91)90007-V
Thuppil, V. and Richard, G. C. 2015. Playback of felid growls mitigates
crop-raiding by elephants Elephas maximus in southern India. Oryx.
doi:10.1017/S0030605314000635. pp. 1-7.
Varma, S., Anand, V. D.,Gopalakrishna, S. P., Avinash, K. G. and
Nishant, M. S. 2009. Ecology, Conservation and Management of the
Asian Elephant in Bannerghatta National Park, southern India. A
Rocha India/ANCF: Asian Elephant Ecology and Conservation
Reference Series No.1. A Rocha India and Asian Nature Conservation
Foundation, Bangalore.
Legends: AOF=Aromatic and Ornamental flowers
Figure 1: Crops cultivated and damage (opinion %) caused by vertebrates during the study period
Damage (opinion %)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ragi
Maize
Paddy
Jowar
Mango
Banana
Sapota
Jackfruit
Sugarcane
Mulberry
Red gram
Groundnut
Arecanut
Coconut
Flowers
Cucumber
Ridge gourd
Chilli
Leafy
vegetables
Tomato
Flat beans
Taralu village (n=30) Taralu estate (n=17) Gopalpura (n=10) Tatiguppe (n=20)
Cereals and millets Fruits Oil seeds and
pulses
Cash crops Plantation AOF Vegetables
Crop types
AMULYA PRASAD
et al.,