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Long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on student academic performance: A meta-analysis
Abstract
Meta-analyses have shown the positive effects of strategy instruction on student performance; however, little meta-analytical research has been conducted on its long-term effects. We examined the long-term effects of 48 metacognitive strategy instruction interventions on student academic performance. The results show a very small increase of the effect at long-term compared with the posttest effects. The instruction effect at posttest increased from Hedges' g = 0.50 to 0.63 at follow-up test. Moderator analyses showed that low SES students benefited the most at long-term. Furthermore, instructions including the cognitive strategy ‘rehearsal’ had lower long-term effects compared to interventions without this component. Other specific strategies (within categories metacognitive, cognitive, management, or motivational) did not moderate the overall positive long-term effect of metacognitive strategy instructions. Particular attributes of the intervention –subject domain, measurement instrument, duration, time between posttest and follow-up test, and cooperation – neither had an impact on the follow-up effect.
... A large number of correlational and experimental studies (see Box 1) have been conducted to explore the relations between metacognition and academic achievement. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of such studies (see Box 2) reported rather substantial effects of metacognition on academic achievement compared to the size of the effects usually observed in educational research (de Boer et al., 2018;Dent and Koenka, 2016;Dignath et al., 2008;Donker et al., 2014;Ohtani and Hisasaka, 2018). Interestingly, the benefit of training metacognition is observed from primary school to higher education and in various domains such as reading, mathematics and science. ...
... This notably allows for a comparison of the benefits of different interventions, which can be particularly useful in guiding policy-makers' decisions. areas for improvement (de Boer et al., 2018;Dignath et al., 2008;Dignath and Veenman, 2021;Donker et al., 2014;Education Endowment Foundation, 2018). ...
... This is consistent with findings on the effect of family background SES on other cognitive abilities (Lawson et al., 2018) and educational attainment (OECD, 2023). Importantly, a meta-analysis combining the effects of 48 interventions conducted in many countries including the Australia, Belgium, China, England, Germany, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Singapore, Spain and the United States of America and suggest that several weeks after metacognitive interventions, low-SES students seem to benefit more from these interventions which in turn contribute to reduce the academic achievement gap with their peers from more advantaged socio-economic backgrounds (de Boer et al., 2018). Low-SES students might need more time to benefit from the metacognitive interventions because they need more time to integrate these new methods into their daily learning routines. ...
... Among the factors mentioned, instructional activities are seen as predictors of reading literacy (Brown et al., 1984). Research has indicated that metacognitive strategy instruction has long-term positive effects on students, helping them become lifelong learners (de Boer et al., 2018). Early reading processes involve three components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive strategies, and metacognitive experiences. ...
... Metacognitive strategies, also known as metacognitive skills (Efklides, 2008;Flavell, 1979;Veenman & Elshout, 1999), involve monitoring and controlling one's learning, including applying cognitive strategies to promote and regulate cognition (de Boer et al., 2018). Excellent readers employ various strategies, from previewing and predicting to questioning, imaging, seeking clarification when confused, explaining, evaluating, and summarizing (Pressley & Gaskins, 2006). ...
... What effective guidance should be provided to improve the quality of parental educational behavior? These research directions still lack further exploration (de Boer et al., 2018). In summary, exploring the pathways of how early family reading activities affect adolescent reading literacy has both theoretical and practical significance. ...
There is currently a lack of a more integrated perspective on reading literacy education. In preschool reading activities, it’s important to maximize an individual's potential for reading literacy development with limited nurturing energy. Based on self-regulated theory and metacognitive models, this study explored the pathway model of the influence of joy (interest in reading) and instruction (metacognitive strategy) on reading literacy in this context, with further investigation in different family contexts. Using PISA 2018 data, the model results showed that 1) preschool home reading activities contribute to individual student's interest in reading; 2) interest in reading, as a mediating variable, positively predicts reading literacy in preschool home reading activities; 3) reading instruction without interest in reading (purely metacognitive strategies) fails to produce a significant mediating effect; 4) there is a significant chain mediation from preschool family reading activities to interest in reading, to metacognitive reading strategies, to reading literacy; and 5) the characteristics of the pathways affecting reading literacy differ according to family backgrounds. We propose theoretical and practical recommendations based on these results.
... Given the diverse functions that visualizations can serve in mathematics learning-such as deepening understanding, making inferences, constraining interpretation, and connecting concepts (Ainsworth, 2008;Arcavi, 2003;Larkin & Simon, 1987)-we expected a positive overall effect of mathematics learning with visualizations compared to learning without visualizations. We expected that the overall effect size would fall in a range that is similar to findings reported in previous meta-analyses of specific visualizations in STEM education, visual representations in elementary mathematics, and learning strategy instruction interventions; g = 0.60 in Schroeder et al. (2018), g = 0.53 in Sokolowski (2018), and g = 0.50 in Boer et al. (2018). However, as visualizations often serve very different purposes in mathematics than in other STEM subjects, substantial differences were also expected. ...
... Based on prior research findings (Csíkos et al., 2012;Gilligan et al., 2020;Rellensmann et al., 2021), we expected positive effects of visualization interventions on visual abilities. Given that many visualizations can be used effectively in different mathematical topics (e.g., the number line can be used to learn about the order relation on the natural numbers but also to perform fraction division (Sidney et al., 2019)) and learning with visualizations can support memory retention (Arcavi, 2003), we expected positive effects on proximal and distal measures (Gilligan et al., 2020) as well as immediate and delayed testing (Boer et al., 2018;Sterner et al., 2020), with larger effects on proximal measures (Sala et al., 2019) and immediate testing. In addition, we expected larger positive effects from unstandardized tests, which can be tailored more closely to the intervention (Li & Ma, 2010). ...
... This estimate suggests that, compared with students who did not receive a visualization intervention, the mathematics outcomes of those who did receive a visualization intervention improved by about 0.5 more standard deviation units. The effect size is similar in direction and magnitude to effect sizes found in previous meta-analyses of visualizations in STEM education, g = 0.60 in Schroeder et al. (2018); visual representations in elementary mathematics, g = 0.53 in Sokolowski (2018); and learning strategy instruction interventions, g = 0.50 in Boer et al. (2018). Due to the small number of studies employed in a prior meta-analysis on learning with representations in elementary school (i.e., 13) (Sokolowski, 2018), which limited the reliability of the estimates (Hedges & Pigott, 2004), the current meta-analysis, which included 41 studies, improved the reliability of effect size estimates and broadened the scope to include learners from various age groups. ...
... Since the late 2000s, researchers produced 10 additional literature reviews and meta-analyses supporting the importance of comprehension strategy instruction and its place in the elementary curriculum. Three of the reviews examined individual strategies such a self-questioning (Joseph et al., 2016), making inferences (Elleman, 2017), and knowledge of text structure (Bohaty et al., 2015).The other seven papers focused on comprehension and metacognitive strategies generally (Berkeley et al., 2010;Davis, 2010;de Boer et al., 2018;Dignath & Büttner, 2008;Filderman et al., 2022;Okkinga et al., 2018;Sencibaugh, 2007). ...
... Several other meta-analysis examined multiple strategy instruction and they provide converging evidence that children should also be taught to summarize, predict, and clarify what they are reading (Davis, 2010). Finally, establishing a purpose for reading is a strategy that provides benefits to any suite of strategies (de Boer et al., 2018;Dignath & Büttner, 2008;Filderman et al., 2022). Strategies can be taught singly or introduced and practiced as a suite as in reciprocal reaching (Palinscar & Brown, 1984), collaborative strategic reading (Vaughn et al., 2011), or transactional strategy instruction (Brown et al., 1996). ...
... There is evidence that the nature of strategy instruction should change with the age and experience of the students (de Boer et al., 2018;Dignath & Büttner, 2008). Students in the mid-elementary grades should slowly build up a repertoire of comprehension strategies. ...
In the face of arguments that knowledge is the key to reading comprehension, we examined the evidence for comprehension strategies instruction. Since the National Reading Panel Report, a number of researchers have reaffirmed the value of including comprehension strategy instruction in the elementary and middle school curriculum. The latest reviews and meta‐analyses indicate that teaching comprehension strategies improves children's and adolescents’ reading comprehension. We outline what strategies should be taught, when, how, and how much. Differentiation of instruction is vital because students who struggle to comprehend benefit more from comprehension strategy instruction than students who are already expert readers.
... We found that the previous reviews are of various quality and no review meets the requirement of a standardized systematic review (Higgins et al., 2022) and none were pre-registered. Only one review (de Boer et al., 2018) provided information about long-term effects, however, it was not solely focused on strategy instruction. The majority of the reviews do not differentiate between teacher-delivered interventions in the classroom and external implementation of the intervention (e.g., by trained research staff outside of the classroom). ...
... Several of the previous reviews were conducted without any statistical analysis or standardized meta-analytic methods (Finlayson & McCrudden, 2020;See & Gorard, 2020). Previous reviews also mixed reading and writing outcomes in the same analysis which makes the evidence hard to interpret (de Boer et al., 2018;Graham et al., 2018;Plonsky, 2011). ...
... The majority of the conducted reviews we found in this area did not use any Risk of Bias tools and had more in common with a scoping review rather than a meta-analysis (Gillespie & Graham, 2014;de Boer et al., 2018;Donker et al., 2014). A summary of descriptives related to these eight reviews can be found in Table 1 and length or word count McKeown et al., 2018;Torrance et al., 2007;Gillespie & Graham, 2014;Chalk et al., 2005;Collins et al., 2021;Ennis, 2016;Graham & Harris, 2005;Klein et al., 2021;Sundeen, 2007). ...
This is the protocol for a Campbell systematic review. The objectives are as follows. This review aims to investigate the effectiveness of all types of teacher‐delivered classroom‐based strategy instruction aimed at students in the general population (all students) including struggling students (with or at‐risk of academic difficulties) in ages 12–19 for increasing writing performance. The majority of previous reviews scoped all outcomes presented in the primary studies. This review will solely focus on covering three most common outcomes: story quality, story elements and word count/length.
... Among all kinds of learning strategies such as cognitive and management strategies, metacognitive strategies play an important role in successful learning and problem solving. They involve higher-order skills including employment of metacognition such as planning, monitoring and reflecting (de Boer et al., 2018). Research has evidenced that students' use of metacognitive strategies can enhance their critical thinking (Ku & Ho, 2010), and problem solving (Blackford et al., 2023). ...
... Metacognitive strategies can be defined as methods that one uses to facilitate and regulate one's own cognition to achieve certain goals such as task completion, which involves monitoring and controlling one's own learning (de Boer et al., 2018). Various types of metacognitive strategies have been identified by research in different subject areas of education. ...
... Various types of metacognitive strategies have been identified by research in different subject areas of education. A review study identified three main kinds of metacognitive strategies in educational research, namely, strategies for planning and prediction, for monitoring and control, and for evaluation and reflection (de Boer et al., 2018). The three types correspond to the three main metacognitive regulation categories commonly indicated in the metacognition literature (Schraw & Moshman, 1995). ...
Background
Data visualizations transform data into visual representations such as graphs, diagrams, charts and so forth, and enable inquiries and decision-making in many professional fields, as well as in public and economic areas. How students’ data visualization literacy (DVL), including constructing, comprehending, and utilizing adequate data visualizations, can be developed is gaining increasing attention in STEM education. As fundamental steps, the purpose of this study was to understand common student difficulties and useful strategies during the process of constructing data visualization so that suggestions and principles can be made for the design of curricula and interventions to develop students’ DVL.
Methods
This study engaged 57 college and high school students in constructing data visualizations relating to the topic of air quality for a decision-making task. The students’ difficulties and strategies demonstrated during the process of data visualization were analyzed using multiple collected data sources including the students’ think-aloud transcripts, retrospective interview transcripts, and process videos that captured their actions with the data visualization tool. Qualitative coding was conducted to identify the students’ difficulties and strategies. Epistemic network analysis (ENA) was employed to generate network models revealing how the difficulties and strategies co-occurred, and how the college and high school students differed.
Results
Six types of student difficulties and seven types of strategies were identified. The strategies were further categorized into non-, basic- and high-level metavisual strategies. About three-quarters of the participants employed basic or high-level metavisual strategies to overcome the technological and content difficulties. The high school students demonstrated a greater need to develop content knowledge and representation skills, whereas the college students needed more support to know how to simplify data to construct the best data visualizations.
Conclusions and implications
The study specified metacognition needed for data visualization, which builds on and extends the cognitive model of drawing construction (CMDC) and theoretical perspectives of metavisualization. The results have implications for developing students’ data visualization literacy in STEM education by considering the difficulties and trajectories of metacognitive strategy development, and by addressing the different patterns and needs demonstrated by the college and high school students.
... Similarly, SRL has been defined as a process that requires learners to determine their learning pace themselves, and plan their learning process individually (Zumbrunn et al., 2011). The process of learning can be facilitated through SRL as the goal is to gain knowledge about better decision-making processes for operational, tactical, and strategic procedures (de Boer et al., 2018). Although key terms related to selfregulation are used interchangeably within the self-regulation literature i.e., self-control or self-management, all these conceptions address the extent to which behaviour is controlled by the self (McCrae & Lockenhoff, 2010). ...
... Individuals need to cultivate a positive outlook on self-knowledge, self-confidence, perseverance, and lifelong learning (Zumbrunn et al., 2011). They also need SRL skills, including effective organization, time and effort management, knowing when and how to seek help, and collaborating with peers (de Boer et al., 2018). Besides learning how to learn, possessing SRL skills is crucial for becoming critical thinkers, creative and constructive problem solvers, and information-literate individuals (Humrickhouse, 2021). ...
The purpose of this study is to investigate the development of pre-service English language teachers’ self-regulated learning (SRL), foreign/second language (L2) speaking performance, and course achievement by examining the impact of students’ self-made videos as a pre-class activity with a flipped classroom (FC) approach, the content of which is delivered in a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). The present research also seeks to find out, through qualitative methods, how pre-service teachers use and perceive their self-made videos to improve their self-regulation. It investigates the effect of self-made videos by comparing the SRL, L2 speaking and course achievement scores of two classrooms using the MOOC-based FC Model in a freshmen year ELT undergraduate program at a state university in Turkey: one (experimental group) implementing self-made videos and the other (control group) doesn’t. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods research design was used to collect data through pre- and post-tests of self-regulated online learning questionnaire (SOL-Q), speaking test and course achievement scores, along with semi-structured and focus group interviews. The findings revealed that student-generated videos as a pre-class activity had a significantly positive effect on students’ self-regulated learning, L2 speaking performance and course achievement in a MOOC-based FC model. The study offers an innovative pedagogical framework, in which classroom instruction, MOOCs, self-control and video-based active learning assume a special status for a more learner-centred and autonomous way of language learning.
... Numerous studies have shown the positive e!ects on learning of metacognitively regulating cognitive strategies (e.g., de Boer et al., 2018;Leopold & Leutner, 2015) and motivational strategies (e.g., Boekaerts, 2011;Daumiller & Dresel, 2019;Efklides, 2011;Schwinger et al., 2009). Concerning resource management strategies, researchers have so far tended to focus on the metacognitive regulation of time management strategies (e.g., Burrus et al., 2013;Trentepohl et al., 2022), but other resource management strategies (e.g., investing mental e!ort) are also crucial for learning . ...
... The direct training approach has shown success in previous studies conducted by Schuster et al. (2018Schuster et al. ( , 2020Schuster et al. ( , 2023 and Stebner et al. (2015Stebner et al. ( , 2022. The training approach is grounded in the empirical evidence that relating metacognitive regulation to cognitive learning strategies is particularly beneficial for learning (de Boer et al., 2018;Leopold& Leutner, 2015). The specific cognitive learning strategy that was taught to the students was a three-step strategy of conducting experiments in science, consisting of (1) formulating a hypothesis, (2) testing the hypothesis through an experiment in which only one variable is varied (Klahr & Dunbar, 1988), and (3) drawing a conclusion. ...
Training of self-regulated learning is most effective if it supports learning strategies in combination with metacognitive regulation, and learners can transfer their acquired metacognitive regulation skills to different tasks that require the use of the same learning strategy (near transfer). However, whether learners can transfer metacognitive regulation skills acquired in combination with a specific learning strategy to the regulation of a different learning strategy (far transfer) is still under debate. While there is empirical evidence that learners can transfer metacognitive regulation between different learning strategies of the same type (e.g., from one cognitive learning strategy to another), whether transfer also occurs between learning strategies of different types is an open question. Here, we conducted an experimental field study with 5th and 6th grade students (N = 777). Students were cluster-randomized and assigned to one of three groups: two experimental groups receiving different training on the metacognitive regulation of a cognitive learning strategy and one control group receiving no training. After training, students worked on two different tasks; after each task, we measured their metacognitive regulation of a resource management strategy, that is, investing mental effort. Results (based on data from 368 students due to pandemic conditions) indicated far metacognitive regulation transfer: After training, students in the training groups were better able to metacognitively regulate their mental effort than students in the control group. Although effect sizes were small, our results support the hypothesis of far transfer of metacognitive regulation.
... However, it's noteworthy that much of this research has predominantly focused on older children and young adults, with limited emphasis on preschool children. Despite this, de Boer et al. (2018) contend that metacognitive knowledge and skills manifest early in the developmental journey of young children. Nonetheless, mastering these skills demands a nuanced approach involving explicit teacher instruction, scaffolding, and modelling. ...
... Nonetheless, mastering these skills demands a nuanced approach involving explicit teacher instruction, scaffolding, and modelling. Compellingly, various meta-analyses provide substantial evidence corroborating a robust correlation between metacognitive strategies and children's academic achievements (de Boer et al., 2018). ...
Listening comprehension is an essential skill for effective learning and communication in today’s digital era. Research indicates that early exposure to listening activities significantly influences the development of these skills, particularly in preschool-aged children, given their rapidly evolving cognitive and linguistic capacities. This qualitative study investigates the efficacy of employing metacognitive strategies within storytelling sessions to enhance listening comprehension among preschoolers in Kepong, Malaysia. Data collection involved a combination of interview, checklist and anecdotal observations across three storytelling sessions, capturing the engagement of six participating children. The study was structured in two phases: Phase 1 encompassed the collection of baseline data regarding teaching methodologies and encountered challenges, while Phase 2 focused on the implementation of tailored metacognitive strategies to assess English listening comprehension skills among the children. The findings reveal that the integration of metacognitive techniques positively impacts preschoolers’ listening comprehension abilities. This research contributes to the existing literature by offering insights into the specific application of metacognition within storytelling contexts, highlighting its potential to foster enhanced comprehension skills among young learners. By addressing this gap in the literature, this study underscores the significance of metacognitive approaches in early childhood education, particularly within multicultural settings such as those found in Kepong, Malaysia.
... It is important to note that not all PD programs are education interventions by default [84]. For a PD program to become an education intervention, it must have a purposeful education and research design, evidence-based activities, targeted areas of improvement, and empirical data that can support the effect of the PD program [85]. A recent meta-analysis on effective education intervention targeting children's SRL and metacognition indicates that contrary to popular beliefs, teacher-administered education interventions yielded a larger effect than researcher-led ones [86]. ...
... First, although the SRL framework reflects the iterative, trial-and-error nature of scientific discovery, there is very limited research on the application of SRL and metacognition in science learning during early childhood [13,30]. The relation between metacognition and learning is well established among older children and adult learners [85,87], but more research is needed to investigate how to use science activities to foster young children's metacognition and SRL [30]. The second empirical gap is the lack of research on the features of effective teachers' PD programs designed to support teachers' and children's metacognition and SRL [9]. ...
The two goals of this study are to examine the impact of an early childhood teacher’s metacognition-driven, place-based science teaching professional development (PD) intervention and to explore the association between science teaching and environment quality and children’s self-regulated learning. A total of 110 children (Mage = 60 months) and 20 teachers from preschools and kindergartens in rural regions of Idaho, U.S., participated in this mixed-methods study between August 2022 and May 2023. Children’s and teachers’ pre-test and post-test data were collected using validated observation tools, surveys, and reflection journals. The results from repeated measures ANOVA and linear mixed regression show that there were statistically significant increases in children’s self-regulated learning scores and teachers’ science teaching efficacy and metacognitive knowledge, but not metacognitive regulation skill scores post-PD. Thematic analysis revealed evidence about children’s learning interests and inquiry skills, and that science activities supported children’s learning in other subjects and developmental domains (e.g., literacy, mathematics, and social-emotional skills). Our results indicate the potential for supporting young children’s self-regulated learning by training teachers to implement a developmentally appropriate, hands-on science curriculum that focuses on reflective thinking and a holistic understanding of science concepts and process skills.
... Taken together, our findings suggest that metacognition could be a promising lever to reduce educational inequalities from the earliest age. Consistent with this assumption, interventions in school-aged children promoting their metacognition and self-regulated learning-which is a broader framework frequently associated with metacognition including metacognitive as well as motivational and cognitive aspects 44-46 -have been shown to benefit their academic performance [47][48][49] . Implementing such interventions to reduce educational inequalities is supported by studies suggesting that students from low SES background tend to benefit more from the interventions but only after a delay 47 . ...
... Consistent with this assumption, interventions in school-aged children promoting their metacognition and self-regulated learning-which is a broader framework frequently associated with metacognition including metacognitive as well as motivational and cognitive aspects 44-46 -have been shown to benefit their academic performance [47][48][49] . Implementing such interventions to reduce educational inequalities is supported by studies suggesting that students from low SES background tend to benefit more from the interventions but only after a delay 47 . ...
The effect of family socioeconomic status (SES) on academic achievement in literacy and numeracy has been extensively studied with educational inequalities already witnessed in preschoolers. This is presumably explained by the effect of family SES on cognitive and socioemotional abilities associated with academic achievement. Metacognition which refers to knowledge and regulation skills involving reflexivity about one's own cognitive processes is one of these abilities. However, most of the studies investigating the association between metacognition and academic achievement have focused on school-aged students and studies with younger students are only emerging. Meanwhile, the association between family SES and metacognition abilities has surprisingly received little attention regardless of participants’ age. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between family SES, metacognition, language and mathematical abilities in preschoolers aged 5 to 6. We provide the first evidence that the effect of family SES on preschoolers’ language and mathematical abilities is mediated by the effect of family SES on their metacognitive abilities. The implications for future research, education and policies aiming at reducing educational inequalities are discussed.
... Other recent meta-analyses have also supported this relation (de Boer et al., 2018;. ...
... Although participants did not have the option to ask for help during the associative learning task, this effect may reveal the use of other regulatory strategies (Undorf et al., 2021). These results suggest that using MS could serve as an "equalizer", giving students with low self-monitoring skills an alternative to improve their learning (De Boer et al., 2018;Donker et al., 2014). Thus, effective and less effective learners differ both in the accuracy of their own metacognitive judgements and in their use of strategies. ...
Metacognition is the human capacity to monitor and control our own psychological activity. This capacity is fundamental for several processes that involve the individual being aware of this activity, e.g., learning. Building on a substantial body of theory, metacognition is recognized as one of the main components of learning and a key predictor of academic performance. Despite its acknowledged significance, the literature in the area has yet to explore the specific aspects of metacognition that explain all these relationships. Metacognition is not a unidimensional construct but rather a construct with three facets: knowledge about our own cognitive processes (metacognitive knowledge, MK), real-time monitoring and reflection on these processes (metacognitive experiences, ME), and the regulatory strategies we use to control them (metacognitive skills, MS). In light of empirical evidence highlighting the differences between these facets and their differential role over other processes, the relevance of investigating the individual and collective roles of the facets of metacognition in the learning process becomes apparent. To address this gap, we conducted two original studies. Our first study explores how MK, ME, and MS influence associative learning and academic performance in a sample of undergraduate students. The results show that, while academic performance is related to all facets, associative learning only depends on the quality of the individual's ME. A mediated effect of MK on learning through ME and a moderating effect of the use of MS on the relationship between ME and learning are also observed. Our second study investigates the impact of MK and ME on problem-solving skills within a collaborative context. While the results did not corroborate the main objective of the study, valuable insights were gained regarding the influence of ME on the use of collaborative strategies in the classroom. In summary, our studies affirm the idea that the facets of metacognition play different roles in the learning process and offer valuable information into their relationships within educational contexts.
... These findings align with Panadero and Järvelä (2022), who highlight selfregulation's importance in problem-solving and academic success. However, slightly lower scores in Implementing suggest that while students plan and evaluate effectively, they may struggle with executing their strategies, a challenge noted by de Boer et al. (2021). Educators can address this by providing scaffolded support, such as guided instructions or collaborative learning tasks. ...
Self-regulation in science learning is a critical factor influencing academic success among students. This study investigates the mediating effect of self-confidence on the relationship between metacognitive awareness and self-regulation in science learning among 235 junior high school students. A descriptive-correlational research design was employed, utilizing stratified random sampling to select participants. Data were collected through validated questionnaires measuring metacognitive awareness, self-regulation, and self-confidence, and were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation, and mediation analysis. The findings indicated that students exhibited very high levels of metacognitive awareness (M = 4.47, SD = 0.184), self-regulation (M = 4.46, SD = 0.231), and self-confidence (M = 4.53, SD = 0.202). Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed significant positive relationships between metacognitive awareness and self-regulation (r = 0.660, p < 0.001), metacognitive awareness and self-confidence (r = 0.577, p < 0.001), and self-confidence and self-regulation (r = 0.511, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis showed that self-confidence partially mediated the relationship between metacognitive awareness and self-regulation, with an indirect effect estimate of 0.141 (SE = 0.045, p = 0.002) and a mediation percentage of 17.0%. These results suggest that while metacognitive awareness has a direct impact on self-regulation, self-confidence enhances this relationship by serving as a partial mediator. The study highlights the need for educational interventions that integrate metacognitive training with confidence-building strategies to promote self-regulated learning in science. Future research may explore the effectiveness of specific instructional methods in strengthening these constructs.
... Therefore, in the process of learning, the level of metacognitive development of students has an important impact on the effect of learning. Therefore, it is particularly important for teachers to develop students' metacognitive level in the teaching process [16][17]. ...
The rapid development of information technology promotes the popularization of computer-assisted teaching in colleges and universities, and the diversification of information access brings challenges to students’ learning, so the metacognitive learning strategy has received more and more attention. In order to explore the influence of metacognitive strategies on students’ learning effectiveness, this paper selects first-year students majoring in Business English in a university as the research object, develops and distributes the Questionnaire on the Application of Metacognitive Strategies, sets up experimental and control classes to carry out the practice of applying metacognitive strategies in computer-assisted teaching and processes the data with correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. The total metacognitive score of the experimental class was as high as 141.83 after the practice, which showed a significant difference compared with the pre-test (P=0.007<0.01). Compared to the pre-practice period, the scores of the questionnaire questions for the three sub-strategies of planning strategy, monitoring strategy, and evaluation strategy increased by an average of 0.952, 1.614, and 1.444, respectively.The implementation of metacognitive strategies has a significant impact on students’ learning effectiveness.
... Despite the importance of SRL for academic success (de Boer, Donker, Kostons, & van der Werf, 2018;Robson, Allen, & Howard, 2020), some students use ineffective strategies (McDaniel & Einstein, 2020), have low levels of SK, and struggle to combine SRL skills effectively (Karlen, 2016a). In addition, students' characteristics, such as socio-economic status (SES), gender, and individual beliefs, are associated with individual differences in SK (Bai & Wang, 2023;Händel, Artelt, & Weinert, 2013;Karlen, Merki, & Ramseier, 2014). ...
For successful self-regulated learning (SRL), students need a repertoire of strategies and knowledge about how and when to use these strategies effectively. This strategy knowledge (SK) is essential for academic achievement but varies depending on student characteristics. Using the digital tool CleveR, SK tests about cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, time management, management of the learning environment, self-control, and motivation regulation were employed to capture individual differences in SK. This longitudinal study involved N t1= 595 / N t2= 408 lower secondary school students. Analyses revealed acceptable reliability and item fit values (Rasch analysis) of the SK tests. Except for self-control, higher SK scores were associated with gender (favouring females), higher SES, and a growth mindset, showing similar associations regardless of the SRL component. For academic achievement, SK of cognitive strategies and SK of time management were especially important pre-dictors. Overall, the digital SK tests contribute to assessing individual differences in students' SK. Educational relevance: Accomplished self-regulated learners know various strategies to plan, monitor, and regulate their learning. They possess strategy knowledge (SK), which informs them how and when to use strategies efficiently. Using a newly developed digital tool, which included SK tests, we assessed students' SK regarding six SRL (sub)components (e.g., motivation regulation, time management). The results revealed that male gender, low socioeconomic status, and a fixed mindset are risk factors for poor SK. SK predicted academic achievement, SK of cognitive strategies and time management were particularly relevant. The developed tests can help teachers assess SK and support students at their current level.
... Moreover, the research (d) had to compare an experimental group that was exposed under the blended learning approach against a control group under the conventional teaching approach. The subjects of the study (e) had to consist primary, secondary, and/or tertiary school students with at least ten students per group to ensure that the effect size Cohen's d would be normally distributed (Hedges & Olkin, 1985;de Boer et al., 2018). Finally, the studies (f) had to provide posttest and/or delayed test measures that include mean and standard deviation/standard error, t-test value, or F-test value. ...
Blended learning has become the new standard in education that combines both face-to-face and online- based instructions. As this learning approach emerged as a prominent trend in both K to 12 and higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic, its relative usefulness to different learning outcomes must be revisited. The current meta-analysis focuses on studies that answer a gap on the post-test effects of blended learning approach on students’ metacognition and academic achievement in science in comparison to the conventional teaching approach. It includes eligible studies with a total of 25 experiments and 25 effect sizes. The literature is reviewed through different electronic databases to access relevant studies within a ten-year period. The study focused mainly on secondary and tertiary students with 1359 respondents under metacognition and 1082 under academic achievement. The results show that blended learning approach has a small effect size on students’ metacognition (Hedges’ g = 0.25) and a large effect size on academic achievement (Hedges’ g = 0.94). Rosenthal’s fail-safe N also shows large number of unpublished studies with zero mean effect that would be required to make the obtained overall effect statistically nonsignificant. Thus, blended learning approach may help facilitate educational continuity amidst potentially disruptive crises.
... Learning strategies are of great importance for an effective learning process (de Boer et al., 2018;Murayama et al., 2013). The importance of learning strategies, especially steering, control and understanding strategies in the learning process, is well documented in the scientific literature (see Section 2.3). ...
The study on which the article is based investigates which learning strategies multilingual pupils use when using a multimedia and multilingual media offer in geography lessons and how these influence their subject-related learning success. By way of introduction, the potential of multilingualism for geography lessons is presented theoretically and with reference to neurobiology. A multimedia and multilingual learning platform was developed for the study and trialled in geography lessons. The pupils’ usage strategies were recorded using screen recordings and sound-thinking protocols and mapped in a differentiated way in a model. The most common usage strategies that can be observed include “reversion”, i.e., processing the same information medium first in one language and then again in another, the use of reading strategies, multilingual notetaking, the use of image and map information, bundling information and structured summarising. These utilisation strategies show a positive influence on learning outcomes.
... Although educators have many opportunities to develop student SRL strategies in the classroom (de Boer et al., 2018;Azevedo et al., 2008), they infrequently implement these fundamental learning skills (Dignath and Büttner, 2018). There is a misalignment between teacher SRL beliefs, knowledge, and practice (Spruce and Bol, 2015). ...
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is associated with adaptable, critical, lifelong thinking skills. Teachers are essential to promoting SRL in learners, yet infrequently teach these learning strategies in classrooms. We addressed three research questions: (1) How do K–5 teachers implement SRL in their teaching?, (2) How is the use of SRL strategies linked to their self-efficacy or confidence in teaching?, and (3) How do teachers differ in their use of SRL depending on school type (public vs. private)? Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 primary in-service teachers, sampled equally from one public and one private school, to explore their SRL practices. They frequently utilized SRL in implicit ways. Further themes included setting goals based on student needs, monitoring student progress, and thereby adapting instruction. Teachers were largely confident about incorporating SRL into their instruction. Public school participants relied on time management and tracked student progress in more summative ways than their private school counterparts.
... Metacognition refers to the knowledge (i.e., knowledge about cognitive processes, one's own strengths and weaknesses in learnings) and the ability to regulate one's own cognition (i.e., planning such as setting goals and selecting the most appropriate strategies, monitoring of the ongoing activity, and self-evaluation) relying on a metaperspective on one's own mental processes (Flavell et al., 2002;Zohar & Barzilai, 2013). Metacognitive knowledge and skills are considered as predictors of academic outcomes with empirical studies accounting for relations with academic achievement throughout development (de Boer et al., 2018;Ohtani & Hisasaka, 2018;Stephanou & Mpiontini, 2017). Although few studies have explored the relationship between metacognition and SES, findings suggest that students from higher SES backgrounds exhibit greater metacognitive awareness and use metacognitive strategies more frequently (Akyol et al., 2010;Callan et al., 2016). ...
Background: SES is a well-established predictor of academic achievement. However, not all students perform according to their SES-background and the predominantly variable-oriented body of research has neglected the investigation of constellations of SES and academic achievement differing from the commonly reported corre-lational links. Aims: This study adopted a person-centered approach to identify different SES-achievement patterns and to compare them in terms of individual psychological characteristics. Sample: Data were collected from an SES-diverse sample of 171 French ninth-graders (M age = 14.40 years). Method: We applied latent profile analysis (LPA) to (a) identify the various profiles when considering SES and academic achievement in a national standardized exam, and (b) investigate differences between the profiles regarding individual student characteristics (i.e., school well-being, academic self-concept, text anxiety, executive functions, and metacognition). Results: LPA revealed 4 profiles: Group 1 ('resilient achievers', 19.9% of the sample) was characterized by below-average SES but above-average achievement, Group 2 ('expected high achievers', 42.1%) by above-average SES and achievement, Group 3 ('expected low achievers', 12.9%) by below-average SES and achievement, and Group 4 ('underachievers', 25.1%) by above-average SES and below-average achievement. 'Resilient achievers' displayed higher school happiness, better working memory and metacognitive knowledge than 'underachievers', and higher academic self-concept than 'underachievers' and 'expected low achievers'. Conclusions: Overall, these results suggest that academic resilience of low-SES students is related to socio-emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive resources that should be fostered in all students to promote academic achievement.
... Educational research paradigms A systematic effort to implement metacognitive awareness training into ADHD treatment has been documented within educational research, where the role of metacognition in self-regulated learning has demonstrated value for improving educational outcomes [35,36], especially in promoting far transfer [34,38]. One of the first such training programs was developed in 2013 by Garcia-Madruga et al. [49] to target reading comprehension in a small sample of 8-9-year-olds (15 in experimental condition and 16 in control). ...
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder that is prevalent in children and adults, with significant impact on life outcomes. Common treatment strategies include a combination of pharmacological and psychosocial interventions which have recognized limits to their effectiveness. Consequently, there exists interest in additional non-pharmacological interventions. In the current minireview we aim to complement existing surveys by focusing on a complementary approach, namely rooted in metacognition or the training of awareness. We review programs that incorporate metacognitive training of awareness in skill-training, psychosocial interventions, and mindfulness, and discuss existing assessments of metacognitive ability in ADHD. Existing data suggest that metacognitive approaches have potential in supporting symptom management in ADHD, with gains in objective assessments in near and far transfer tasks in educational research and high satisfaction from parents. Further research is warranted in assessment of the relative contribution of metacognitive elements relative to other treatment components, objective assessments of outcomes in psychosocial interventions, and efficacy in adult interventions.
... Students who lack metacognitive knowledge do not understand when or why to use these strategies (Pintrich, 2002). It is, therefore, essential that learning strategies are not simply taught as procedures to be followed, but that students are taught when to use specific strategies (De Boer et al., 2018). Students also need to be taught management strategies (political literacy skills) on how to create the optimal conditions to support their learning. ...
In this chapter we argue the importance of a self-regulatory assessment and feedback(SRAF) approach in moving assessment and feedback practice forward in higher education,which includes the essential associated need to support academics’ and students’ skillsdevelopment in this area. A focus such as this is especially poignant given the relative lack of work in this area with few guidelines on how to develop SRAF in higher education. Using a research-informed approach, pragmatic frameworks and tools are provided to enable you to adapt the approach recommended to your own institutional context(s) drawing on the latest research in this area.
... It is generally accepted that learning metacognitive knowledge and strategies is very effective from an academic point of view (De Boer et al., 2018). Therefore, some Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Many recent studies support the idea that creativity is partially or totally “domain-general.” Certain individuals may exhibit greater creativity than the average, whatever the domain. More precisely, certain general factors (e.g., genetic factors, creative personality) could significantly impact creativity. This systematic review aims to evaluate this latter assertion. All empirical papers using at least two creative performance tasks in two domains were selected (n = 36). Results show that some participants succeed in creative tasks in several different domains, but only in experiments where specific prior knowledge is not controlled and tasks are artificial. Furthermore, certain studies conflate the function, which is domain-general, with its functioning, which may not necessarily be domain-general. For these reasons, the results appear less robust (no control for confounding factors) and less representative (creative tasks are not academically, socially, or professionally realistic). Therefore, it seems premature to recommend the integration of general creative skills into school or training programs, as well as the selection of students or employees with a presumed “creative profile.”
... We know that using metacognition in education benefits learning. 44,45 It can reduce the time for learning by about 8 months and has durable effects. We also know that when you consider metacognition as a predictor of functioning often the association with cognition disappears or becomes very small. ...
Objective We have known that cognitive difficulties are related to functional outcomes in schizophrenia for many years. However, we have only paid attention to potential treatments relatively recently, so implementation has been slow.Methods This is a narrative review describing the development of cognitive remediation treatments to improve cognitive skills and their effects on functioning. It also reviews the types of cognitive remediation with some evidence on their effects.Results Models of treatment have now been clarified and have led to a landmark paper by cognitive remediation experts around the world on the ingredients of cognitive remediation to produce the most benefit. This expert judgement on good clinical practice was justified by a large meta-analysis that supported the extra benefit of the four ingredients: an active therapist, massed practice of cognitive skills, the teaching of cognitive strategies and additional rehabilitation to transfer skills to real life.Conclusion Although there is evidence of efficacy and of the beneficial therapy ingredients there is little implementation of cognitive remediation, so the establishment of cognitive remediation into mental health services needs an implementation pathway.
... It is widely acknowledged that cooperative learning has positive effects on students' academic achievement (e.g., [28]). However, meta-analyses show mixed results regarding its effectiveness in SRL training [10,30]. Dignath et al. [10] attribute these inconsistent findings to students' unfamiliarity with cooperative learning and insufficient instruction on effective cooperative learning. ...
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a crucial competence in our rapidly changing society, yet its systematic promotion in the classroom remains limited. Addressing this gap, this study reports on a teacher-led intervention to promote SRL within reading tasks among 5th and 6th grade students. Although some interventions have been implemented to promote SRL, little attention has been paid to promoting SRL in primary schools. Building on a previous SRL intervention, the current study added cooperative learning among students and parental involvement, two aspects that are assumed to add value when fostering SRL. A randomized controlled field trial was designed to evaluate the effect of an intervention using pre-test, post-test and follow-up measures. A total of 757 students from 40 classes participated in the study. The data were analyzed using a multilevel approach. This study revealed no significant difference in SRL or reading comprehension outcomes in the post-test and the follow-up test between students of the experimental and control group. Further investigations showed that several aspects of treatment integrity had a significant impact on SRL outcome. This study encourages future SRL and reading intervention studies to assess and analyze the multiple aspects of treatment integrity.
... Previous studies have indicated that metacognitive instructions facilitate learners' effective use of learning strategies, enhance learning outcomes, and cultivate their potential to become more accomplished language learners (de Boer et al., 2018;Ku & Ho, 2010;Xu, 2023;Zhang, 2010). As scholars have advocated, metacognitive instruction necessitates the interplay of various factors, encompassing the teacher, learner, and tasks (Sato, 2023;Sato & Loewen, 2018). ...
There has been substantial research on the effects of metacognitive instruction on improving L2 learners’ language skills. However, little is known about the impact of such instruction on improving the effectiveness of L2 students’ collaborative writing. To fill this research gap, we conducted a quasi-experimental study to investigate how such an instructional programme would help Chinese EFL learners’ writing development through collaborative writing. A total of 62 post-graduate students from a university in central China were randomly allocated to either an experimental group receiving three weeks of collaborative writing interventions with metacognitive instruction for writing collaboratively, or a control group that was taught via a genre-based approach. Pre-test, immediate post-test, and delayed post-tests were administered with both groups at the onset, immediately after, and six weeks after the interventions to compare their change in writing production, specifically in lexical complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Results revealed that the metacognitive instruction and collaborative writing interventions helped improve participants’ writing performance in lexical variation, accuracy, and fluency. However, no significant effects were observed in lexical density and lexical sophistication. We discuss the results for their pedagogical and theoretical implications.
... Direct promotion is done through interaction with students. Multiple meta-analyses show that training SRL strategies leads to improved academic performance (de Boer et al., 2018;Donker et al., 2014;Ergen & Kanadali, 2017), SRL strategy use, and motivation (Dignath & Büttner, 2008). ...
With the rise of secondary alternative schools in the Netherlands, such as Montessori and Dalton, research into its effectiveness has become crucial. Alternative schools' greater focus on autonomy and independence may better equip students with the self-regulated learning (SRL) skills essential for higher education. The aim of this study is to investigate the transition of secondary (alternative) education to higher education. More specifically, former Dalton (N = 184), Montessori (N = 150), and regular (N = 8614) secondary education students are compared on the perceived fit between secondary education and higher education, for example in regard to learning to work together and work alone, and SRL skills in a bootstrapped hierarchical regression. Results show that former Dalton students rate the fit of their secondary education to their higher education significantly better than students who attended regular education. No other significant differences were found when comparing Mon-tessori and regular education students regarding fit, or when comparing both Montessori and Dalton to regular education regarding the SRL skills of students. Alternative explanations regarding the differences between alternative and regular educations are discussed.
... The construct of school engagement has garnered much attention both because it predicts school achievement (Ladd and Dinella, 2009;Wang and Eccles, 2012) and because it acts as a protective factor against school dropout and behavioral problems (Li and Lerner, 2011;Wang and Fredricks, 2014). Metacognition is a much-debated construct whose usefulness has been widely discussed (Boer et al., 2018;Marulis et al., 2020). Metacognition can be considered a predictor of engagement since it compensates for students' lack of interest or self-control . ...
This article presents a cross-sectional study that explores the association between artistic swimming and school engagement in a sample of 500 Italian adolescents. The study aimed to examine whether the practice of artistic swimming would foster strategic metacognitive skills. These skills, in turn, were hypothesized to positively influence school engagement and reduce recreational technology use, which could pose a risk to school engagement. The findings revealed that the relationship between artistic swimming and scholastic engagement, encompassing both cognitive and behavioral aspects, was entirely mediated by metacognitive strategies and reduced recreational technology usage. Moreover, students engaged in artistic swimming exhibited significantly higher levels of metacognitive strategies and scholastic engagement compared to their counterparts involved in other sports. The article also addresses the limitations inherent in the cross-sectional design and suggests potential avenues for future research.
... One conceivable explanation is that, with age, children gradually acquire metacognitive strategies that help them to remain on track and pursue and attain academic goals beyond what their socioeconomic background alone would have set them up for. A meta-analytic review evaluating the long-term effects of interventions to teach students learning strategies supports this idea by indicating greater long-term benefits of strategy instructions for students with low SES 66 . Once data from additional timepoints becomes available, it will be interesting to examine whether the lack of relationship between SES and time is confirmed further down the developmental line as the ABCD participants transition from childhood further into adolescence. ...
Coming from a disadvantaged background can have negative impact on an individual’s educational trajectory. Some people however seem unaffected and cope well with the demands and challenges posed by school education, despite growing up in adverse conditions, a phenomenon termed academic resilience . While it is uncertain which underlying factors make some people more likely to circumvent unfavorable odds than others, both socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive ability have robustly been linked to school performance. The objective of the present work is to investigate if individual cognitive abilities and SES interact in their effect on grades. For this purpose, we analyzed SES, cognitive, and school performance data from 5001 participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Ordinal logistic regression models suggest similar patterns of associations between three SES measures (parental education, income-to-needs ratio, and neighborhood deprivation) and grades at two timepoints, with no evidence for interaction effects between SES and time. Parental education and income-to-needs ratio were associated with grades at both timepoints, irrespective of whether cognitive abilities were modeled or not. Neighborhood deprivation, in contrast, was only a statistically significant predictor of reported grades when cognitive abilities were not factored in. Cognitive abilities interacted with parental education level, meaning that they could be a safeguard against effects of SES on school performance.
... Moreover, the literature emphasizes the significance of metacognition in problem-solving and sense-making in mathematics, with studies demonstrating the long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on student academic performance and indicating substantial improvements in mathematics performance among learners (Boer et al., 2018;Schoenfeld, 2016;Schneider & Artelt, 2010;Wang et al., 2022). Additionally, the interplay between metacognitive teaching-learning (MTL), mathematical prior knowledge (MPK), and their effects on mathematical, logical thinking ability, and self-regulated learning further highlights the positive impact of metacognitive strategies on mathematical abilities (Aminah et al., 2018). ...
In the ever-evolving field of mathematics education, metacognitive strategies have emerged as vital components in enhancing teaching practices and student learning outcomes. This comprehensive literature review synthesizes over five decades of research and theoretical insights to explore the multidimensional impact of metacognitive strategies on mathematics teaching. The paper encompasses various aspects, including historical perspectives, theoretical foundations, pedagogical considerations, special populations, challenges, and future directions. Emphasis is placed on understanding how metacognitive strategies foster problem-solving abilities, mathematical reasoning, independent learning, and positive attitudes while considering various socio-cultural, gender, and age factors. The review also delves into an international perspective, offering a comparative analysis across different educational systems and disciplines. Additionally, it highlights the contemporary challenges and ethical considerations that arise in implementing these strategies, alongside a reflection on emerging trends and innovations. The findings of this review underscore the pivotal role of metacognition in shaping effective mathematics teaching practices and call for continued research, policy support, and educator training to adapt to the changing educational landscape. This work is an essential reference for researchers, educators, policymakers, and scholars seeking an exhaustive understanding of the multifaceted relationship between metacognitive strategies and mathematics teaching practices.
... Moreover, the literature emphasizes the significance of metacognition in problem-solving and sense-making in mathematics, with studies demonstrating the long-term effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on student academic performance and indicating substantial improvements in mathematics performance among learners (Boer et al., 2018;Schoenfeld, 2016;Schneider & Artelt, 2010;Wang et al., 2022). Additionally, the interplay between metacognitive teaching-learning (MTL), mathematical prior knowledge (MPK), and their effects on mathematical, logical thinking ability, and self-regulated learning further highlights the positive impact of metacognitive strategies on mathematical abilities (Aminah et al., 2018). ...
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has emerged as a pedagogical approach gaining considerable attention in mathematics education. This literature review aims to explore and synthesize the existing body of research on PBL in mathematics, examining its theoretical underpinnings, historical evolution, and cognitive benefits. The review delves into the design and implementation of PBL tasks, considering the roles of teachers and students and assessment strategies. Additionally, it investigates the impact of PBL on students' motivation, engagement, and attitudes toward mathematics, with a specific focus on promoting equity and inclusivity. A comparative analysis between PBL and traditional instruction methods in mathematics is presented to highlight advantages and limitations. The review identifies gaps in the literature and recommends future research directions and best practices for educators and policymakers based on the findings. Through this review, it becomes evident that PBL holds significant potential to transform mathematics education, nurturing students' problem-solving abilities and fostering a positive learning environment. As educators and stakeholders strive to enhance mathematics instruction, this review offers valuable insights and a call to action to further explore the merits and challenges of PBL in pursuing improved mathematics learning outcomes.
... Children who acquire ToM earlier are able to use more metacognitive strategies and skills during reading, such as comprehension monitoring (Kirby & Savage, 2008), metamemory (Lecce et al., 2014), and meta-linguistic comprehension (Yuill, 2009), which in turn contribute to the development of later higher-order comprehension skills, such as self-monitoring and repair strategies, thereby improving reading comprehension (Oakhill & Cain, 2012). When texts are more difficult and require complex processing, reading any type of text requires metacognitive strategies to regulate the entire reading process (de Boer et al., 2018;Donker et al., 2014). Therefore, this metacognitive pathway may be applicable to both narrative comprehension and expository comprehension. ...
This study aimed to examine the unique longitudinal role of theory of mind (ToM) on reading comprehension among primary school children, while controlling for other influencing factors. It also examined how this impact varies by grade, text genre, and processing level. A sample of 430 Chinese children in Grades 2, 4, and 6 was observed over a period of 6 months. For each grade, longitudinal hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the unique contribution of ToM to reading comprehension across different text genres and processing levels. By controlling for variables such as reading frequency, decoding, vocabulary, nonverbal intelligence, listening comprehension, and executive function, ToM cannot predict the overall reading comprehension of children in Grade 2, but can predict it of children in Grades 4 and 6. For specific text genres, ToM predicted narrative comprehension in both Grades 4 and 6 and expository comprehension only in Grade 6. For specific processing levels, ToM predicted advanced comprehension in Grades 4 and 6 and basic comprehension only in Grade 6. Furthermore, ToM predicted advanced narrative and expository comprehension in Grades 4 and 6, and basic expository comprehension in Grade 6. These findings highlight the important role of ToM in reading comprehension development, particularly in the middle and upper stages of primary school. These results lay the foundation for further research on exploring the underlying mechanisms of the impact of ToM on reading comprehension and provide a social-cognitive perspective to enhance the development of reading comprehension.
El propósito de este estudio describe las competencias metacognitivas que los docentes aplican en la enseñanza del español en contextos universitarios. Se utilizó un diseño documental cualitativo, descriptivo y transversal, basado en el análisis de artículos, revisiones sistemáticas y trabajos empíricos, mediante una codificación temática que seleccionó fuentes académicas relevantes publicadas entre los años 2012 y 2022, analizadas siguiendo los criterios cualitativos establecidos por Grossehme, y Taylor & Bogdan, para interpretar información en contextos específicos. El resultado principal demostró que la implementación de las competencias metacognitivas en los procesos educativos tiene un impacto positivo en la comprensión y el rendimiento académico a largo plazo. La principal conclusión demostró que la integración de las competencias metacognitivas mejora la comprensión y el rendimiento de los estudiantes a largo plazo y su capacidad de aprendizaje autónomo, recomendándose la implementación de programas de formación docente que incluyan módulos dedicados al conocimiento y aplicación de las estrategias metacognitivas, enfocándose en fortalecer el conocimiento general y el metaconocimiento estratégico, particularmente en relación con el aprendizaje de orden superior.
Abstrak Penelitian ini bertujuan memberikan alternatif penilaian autentik pada mata pelajaran Sosiologi berbasis Kurikulum Merdeka Belajar. Saat ini mata pelajaran sosiologi diidentikan dengan mata pelajaran hafalan bagi peserta didik. Untuk itu perlu diterapkannya penilaian autentik. Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam tulisan ini adalah pendekatan kualitatif dengan metode studi kepustakaan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pembelajaran mata pelajaran Sosiologi bagi peserta didik dipahami sebagai pembelajaran mata pelajaran yang tidak hanya sekedar menekankan pemahaman mengenai konsep, namun juga keterampilan dalam kreativitas hingga kemampuan beradaptasi dalam menghadapi tantangan pendidikan abad 21. Berbagai macam penerapan penilaian autentik dalam bentuk penilaian kinerja, penilaian projek, penilaian produk, penilaian portofolio dan tes uraian memberikan gambaran bahwa setiap bentuk penilaian memiliki karakteristiknya masing-masing sehingga dapat dikolaborasikan dengan setiap materi dalam mata pelajaran sosiologi. Hal ini perlu dilakukan untuk mengasah keterampilan peserta didik berdasarkan keterampilan yang dibutuhkan pada abad 21. Abstract This research aims to analyse an alternative authentic assessment in Sociology subjects based on the Merdeka Belajar Curriculum. Currently, sociology subjects are identified as rote subjects for students. For this reason, it is necessary to implement authentic assessment. This paper use qualitative approach with a literature study method. The results of the research show that learning the subject of Sociology is understood as learning a subject that not only emphasizes understanding of concepts, but also skills in creativity and the ability to adapt in facing the challenges of 21st century education. There are various kinds of applications of authentic assessment in the form of performance assessments, project assessment, product assessment, portfolio assessment and description tests provide an illustration that each form of assessment has its own characteristics so that it can be collaborated with each material in sociology subjects. This needs to be done to hone students' skills based on the skills needed in the 21st century.
The purpose of this study was to examine which early childhood (EC) teachers’ qualifications (i.e., degree, major, and teaching experience) are linked to teachers’ Metacognitive Awareness (MA) and science teaching efficacy, and to investigate the relation among EC teachers’ MA components and science teaching efficacy. A total of 153 Head Start teachers from eight U.S. states completed validated surveys that measured their science teaching efficacy and MA. Results from multilevel ANOVA and regression analysis showed that teachers with an early childhood education background were more positive about their ability to teach science, more mindful of their teaching strategies, and more likely to self-evaluate their teaching as compared to teachers without an EC education background. Also, teachers who were more aware of their teaching strategies and instructional goals, and monitored their teaching practices reported higher confidence in their ability to teach science. Our results revealed the role of MA in early science teaching efficacy and highlighted the importance of supporting EC teachers’ professional development, particularly for those whose backgrounds are not in EC.
Research objective of the study is to know the influence of metacognitive strategies to the self-efficacy and problem solving of MAN 2 Mojokerto students'. Research design used? in study was quasi experiment with technique? of data analysis in the form of analysis multiple linear regression. It is also used prerequisite tests regression which includes the normality test, multicollinearity test, and heteroscedasticity test, as well as hypothesis testing which includes the simultaneous test (F), partial test (t), and coefficient determination (R2). Based on results statistics using Two Way ANOVA SPSS then it can be concluded that metacognitive strategy has a significant influence on self- efficacy, but on the other hand it can not give significant influence? to problem solving abilities
Rehabilitation aims to increase individuals’ ability to interact with their environment. Focusing on the paediatric context, rehabilitation is likely to optimise children’s development while improving and maintaining their functioning. However, children with neurodevelopmental disabilities, such as cerebral palsy, often show low engagement in rehabilitation sessions. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a narrative-based training program in increasing in-session engagement for children with cerebral palsy undergoing rehabilitation (i.e. targeting affective, behavioural, and cognitive dimensions). The study was conducted in three cerebral palsy rehabilitation centres and followed a one-group double-pre-test, one-post-test design. Fifteen children with cerebral palsy participated in the training program twice a week over nine weeks. The program aimed to promote children’s in-session engagement in rehabilitation through a story tool grounded in a self-regulation theory. Current data revealed the key effects of implementation time in the three dimensions of in-session engagement. Post-hoc tests of within-subjects indicated significant differences between pre-test 1 versus post-test and pre-test 2 versus post-test in the three dimensions of in-session engagement. This narrative-based intervention was a helpful tool promoting in-session affective, behavioural, and cognitive engagement in rehabilitation for this sample of children with cerebral palsy.
Background and Objective: Mathematical disorder can lead to decreased processing speed and organizational planning in elementary school students. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of teaching metacognitive strategies on processing speed and organizational planning in elementary school boys with mathematical disorder. Methods and Materials: This research is applied in terms of its objective and is a quasi-experimental study with experimental and control groups, utilizing a pre-test, post-test, and a two-month follow-up design. The study population consisted of elementary school boys with mathematical disorder in Tehran. A total of 30 boys were selected using purposive sampling and randomly assigned to two equal groups. The experimental group received 8 sessions of 60 minutes each on metacognitive strategies, while the control group received no training during this period. The research instruments included the Processing Speed Test (Oswald & Roth, 1978) and the Tower of London Test (Shallice, 1982). The data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni post hoc test in SPSS software. Findings: The findings showed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of processing speed and organizational planning in elementary school boys with mathematical disorder (P < 0.001). In other words, teaching metacognitive strategies increased processing speed and organizational planning in elementary school boys with mathematical disorder, and the results were maintained at the follow-up stage (P < 0.001). Conclusion: Based on the findings of this study, metacognitive strategy training can be used to improve processing speed and organizational planning in individuals with mathematical disorder.
Socioeconomic status (SES) has been widely argued to be an important predictor of students’ learning outcomes; the corollary is that low-SES students face immense challenges in their learning. The present study employed an umbrella review, comprising a thematic review and second-order meta-analysis, of 48 reviews relating SES to student learning to critically examine this argument. Results elucidate three sets of insights on the relationship between SES and student learning. First, researchers need to expand the conceptualization of SES from being an objective, individual attribute measuring hierarchical differences in access to resources to a more comprehensive construct incorporating (a) objective and subjective evaluations of (b) individual and collective SES attributes; (c) emphasizing students’ mobilization of capital; and (d) adopting a more diverse, asset-based perspective of SES. Second, the umbrella review provides a nuanced evaluation of the influence of SES in student learning. It yields a mean SES effect size of r = .22 (deemed as large with reference to educational benchmarks, expected students’ achievement gains, and percentile points in achievement tests) but SES effects may be confounded with other demographics. Third, SES needs to be examined from an ecological perspective, given the different mediating and moderating processes pertaining to SES in student learning. The results imply that policies for improving low-SES students’ learning outcomes should comprehensively address multiple factors influencing student learning and avoid a one-size-fits-all approach, enhance disadvantaged students’ access to educational opportunities and resources, affirm the strengths that disadvantaged students bring to their learning, and address structural and systemic inequalities related to poverty, classism, and segregation.
Efficient classroom management can bolster students' motivation to attend school regularly, therefore enhancing their academic performance. This study investigated the degree to which teachers’ classroom management in terms of modeling behavior, assessment practices, and learning atmosphere. Furthermore, it investigated the relationship between teachers' ability to manage their classrooms and students' academic performance. This study employed a descriptive-correlational research methodology, which involved analyzing documents and administering a questionnaire designed by the researcher. The study was conducted with a sample size of 143 teachers from the East 2 District in the Cagayan de Oro City Division. The teachers were selected by the use of the Stratified Random Sampling approach, which involved the application of Slovin's Formula. The students' grades for the first and second quarters of the School Year 2023-2024 were also considered. Evidence suggests that teachers routinely apply classroom management techniques. The modeling behavior and learning atmosphere are extensively nurtured and given priority. Most students are at the level of Very Satisfactory in their academic performance. There exists a moderate positive correlation between the effectiveness of teachers' classroom management and the academic performance of students. Teachers can act as good role models for students in a supportive learning environment, which can help to cultivate students' motivation to attend school and improve their academic performance.
Introduction
Metacognitive self-regulation is a crucial factor that promotes students’ learning and achievement. However, the evidence regarding age differences in metacognitive skills is rather mixed, with some evidence pointing toward further refinement and development and other evidence suggesting declining levels. Academic motivation, an important antecedent of metacognitive self-regulation, has also been reported to decline steeply in adolescence. Hence, this raises the question whether there are any age-related differences in academic motivation and metacognitive self-regulation of adolescents and whether age differences in academic motivation drive decreases in metacognitive self-regulation.
Method
A large sample size of 1,027 Greek adolescents (ages 12–16, Mage = 13.95, SD = 0.78) was utilized in the present study. Multigroup measurement invariance analyses were deployed to compare the latent means of motivational factors (self-efficacy, task value, mastery, and performance goals) and metacognitive self-regulation across age groups. Cholesky decomposition was applied to test the independent contribution of motivational factors to and the indirect effects of age on metacognitive self-regulation.
Results
Invariance analyses revealed scalar invariance for metacognitive self-regulation, language self-efficacy, mastery and performance goal orientations and partially scalar invariance for task value. Older adolescents scored lower on metacognitive self-regulation, mastery and performance goals, and self-efficacy. Older students scored lower on metacognitive self-regulation via indirect effects through Cholesky decomposed motivational factors.
Discussion
Self-efficacy, mastery and performance goals, and task value are similarly understood across adolescents in different age groups. Decreased mastery and performance goals and task value can lead to reduced metacognitive self-regulation in adolescents. The implications of the findings underscore the key role of making students more engaged with lessons’ content in order to promote greater academic motivation and prevent decreases in metacognitive self-regulation.
This study investigates current practices and useful methods for teaching passive voice. To find effective teaching strategies, a thorough review of the literature produced between 2018 and 2024 was undertaken. Using keywords associated with passive voice instruction, data was gathered from academic sources, and thirty pertinent papers were chosen for examination. The Experience, Generalization, Reinforcement, Application (EGRA) method, task-based learning, cooperative learning, flashcards, and web-based storytelling are just a few of the successful teaching techniques that thematic analysis identified. These strategies improve learning outcomes, comprehension, and student engagement. It was stressed that context-based learning is crucial to knowing when and how to employ passive voice. It has been discovered that technology, especially web-based storytelling, increases student engagement and recall of material. Students' memory and understanding were also enhanced by the Jigsaw method and inductive training. In general, it was discovered that teaching passive voice may be accomplished effectively using a range of teaching techniques, such as active learning and technology integration. To learn more about these strategies' long-term consequences and how they affect different student demographics, more study is required.
This meta-analysis examined the influence of attributes related to the implementation of learning strategy instruction interventions on students’ academic performance, and also examined how the attributes related to the method of testing the intervention effects affected the actual effects measured. Using metaregression, we analyzed the influence of the subject domain in which the intervention was implemented, the implementer, its duration and intensity, student cooperation, and research method aspects (including measurement instrument). Most attributes moderated the intervention effect. Using forward regression analysis, we only needed four attributes to obtain the best model, however. This analysis showed that the intervention effect was lower when a standardized test was used for evaluation instead of an unstandardized test. Interventions implemented by assistants or researchers were more effective than those implemented by teachers or using computers. Cooperation had a negative, and session duration a positive, contribution. Together, these attributes explained 63.2% of the variance in effect, which stresses the importance of emphasizing not only the instructional focus of an intervention but also its other attributes.
Our purpose for this quasi-experimental study was to evaluate the short-term and maintenance effects of the self-regulated strategy development writing instructional model by Graham and Harris with 7th-grade students in an urban, ethnically diverse Title I middle school. We compared the writing skills of our intervention students with those of students in a control school. For 5 weeks, we coached teachers at the intervention school in a strategy for persuasive writing. Teachers at the control school also taught persuasive writing but used traditional instruction. We used a pre/posttest design to measure short-term growth, and we collected a maintenance writing score 2 months after the intervention. We used gain scores from pretest to posttest and from posttest to maintenance in a hierarchical linear modeling analysis. We found no differences between the 2 groups from pretest to posttest; however, scores between posttest and maintenance showed that the self-regulated strategy development students scored significantly higher than students in the control school.
This experimental study evaluated the effectiveness of a research-based intervention, schema-based instruction (SBI), on students' proportional problem solving. SBI emphasizes the underlying mathematical structure of problems, uses schematic diagrams to represent information in the problem text, provides explicit problem-solving and metacognitive strategy instruction, and focuses on the flexible use of multiple solution strategies. Eighty-two teachers/classrooms, with a total of 1,999 7th-grade students across 50 school districts, were randomly assigned to a treatment (SBI) or control (business-as-usual) condition. An observational measure provided evidence that the SBI intervention was implemented with fidelity. Results of multilevel modeling indicated that the SBI group scored, on average, significantly higher than the control group on the posttest and retention test (9 weeks later) and also showed significantly more growth in proportional problem solving. There were no treatment effects on the Process and Applications subtest of the Group Mathematics Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation. These results demonstrate that SBI can be more effective than the control approach in improving students' proportional problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record
Prior studies have not tested whether an instructional intervention aimed at improving metacognitive skills results in changes to student metacognition, motivation, learning, and future learning in the classroom. We examined whether a 6-hr intervention designed to teach the declarative and procedural components of planning, monitoring, and evaluation could increase students’ metacognition, motivation, learning, and preparation for future learning for middle school science. Forty-six eighth-grade students were randomly assigned to either a control group, which received extensive problem-solving practice, or an experimental group, which received more limited problem-solving practice along with metacognitive instruction and training. Results revealed that those who received the metacognitive instruction and training were less biased when making metacognitive judgments, p = .03, d = 0.65, endorsed higher levels of motivation after instruction (e.g., there was a large effect on task value, p = .006, d = 0.87), performed better on a conceptual physics test, p = .03, d = 0.64, and performed better on a novel self-guided learning activity, p = .007, d = 0.87. This study demonstrates that metacognitive instruction can lead to better self-regulated learning outcomes during adolescence, a period in which students’ academic achievement and motivation often decline.
Thus far, it is unclear how students can learn most effectively from their own errors. In this study, reflections on the rationale behind self-made errors are assumed to enhance knowledge acquisition. In a field experiment with pre/post/follow-up design, the authors practiced fractions with 174 seventh- and eighth-grade students who were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: The students reflected on either the rationale behind their own errors or on the correct solution corresponding to their own errors. Students in the first condition group demonstrated a greater procedural knowledge at the posttest and at the follow-up test. Furthermore, at the follow-up test, these students demonstrated a higher conceptual knowledge. The implications for theory and school instruction are discussed.
Background:
Various investigations have revealed that the promotion of cognitive and metacognitive strategies can improve reading comprehension and that when readers receive this type of instruction, they can use monitoring processes and regulation strategies adequately. The goal of this work is to analyze the effects of strategic and metacognitive instruction on reading comprehension processes and strategies, using the "Aprender a Comprender" [Learning to Understand] program.
Method:
Instruction was carried out in the classroom by two teachers during six months. Ninety-four students participated, 49 from 5th grade and 45 from 6th grade. A pretest-intervention-posttest-follow-up design was used with a comparison group by grade.
Results:
The analysis of variance shows an impact of the intervention and its differential maintenance in each grade. The 5th-grade intervention group scored higher than the comparison group in the reading comprehension test, both at posttest and at follow-up. The 6th-grade intervention group scored higher than the comparison group in the Planning scale, both at posttest and at follow-up.
Conclusions:
Textual strategy instruction favors reading comprehension and the progressive development of planning, which is necessary for supervision and regulation, and its effects are maintained over time.
We examined the impact of a teacher-led intervention, implemented during regular classroom instruction and homework, on fourth-grade students' preference for self-regulated learning, finding main ideas in expository texts, and reading comprehension. In our quasi-experimental study with intact classrooms, (a) students (n = 266, 12 classrooms) who received regular classroom instruction (REG) were compared with (b) students (n = 268, 12 classrooms) who were taught text reduction strategies (TEXT) and (c) students (n = 229, 9 classrooms) who were introduced to text reduction strategies within the framework of a 7-step cyclical model of self-regulated learning (SRL = TEXT). Participating classrooms were semi-randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 conditions, with the restriction that teachers from one school could not be in different intervention conditions. Both in their posttest and follow-up test results (11 weeks after the intervention), SRL + TEXT students showed a stronger preference for self-regulated learning than students of the 2 other groups. The SRL + TEXT students also identified more main ideas over the course of the intervention. Positive effects on reading comprehension in a standardized test were restricted to students without migration background.
Seventy-six fifth-year students from low-socioeconomic status backgrounds participated in three different instructional conditions in an intervention study. The first combined strategy training in top-level structuring and interrelated motivational support; the second implemented the strategy training only; and the third was a control condition where no specific training in top-level structuring or motivational support was provided. Both trained groups showed substantial improvement in their reading performance, as indicated by two different reading tests administered before and after the 6-week intervention. The control group did not show any significant improvement on these tests. Students in the combined instructional condition made most progress in reading, indicating additional value in combining both explicitly performance-linked motivational support and strategy instruction in promoting reading.
Background:
Metacognition and working memory (WM) have been found associated with success in reading comprehension, but no studies have examined their combined effect on the training of reading comprehension. Another open question concerns the role of listening comprehension: In particular, it is not clear whether training to improve reading comprehension must necessarily be based on processing written material or whether, as suggested in a recent study by Clarke et al. (2010, Psychol. Sci., 21, 1106), a programme based on verbal language could also be effective.
Aims:
The study examined the feasibility of improving text comprehension in school children by comparing the efficacy of two training programmes, both involving metacognition and WM, but one based on listening comprehension, the other on reading comprehension.
Participants:
The study involved a sample of 159 pupils attending eight classes in the fourth and fifth grades (age range 9-11 years).
Method:
The listening and reading programmes focused on the same abilities/processes strictly related to text comprehension, and particularly metacognitive knowledge and control, WM (per se and in terms of integrating information in a text). The training programmes were implemented by school teachers as part of the class's normal school activities, under the supervision of experts. Their efficacy was compared with the results obtained in an active control group that completed standard text comprehension activities.
Results:
Our results showed that both the training programmes focusing on specific text comprehension skills were effective in improving the children's achievement, but training in reading comprehension generated greater gains than the listening comprehension programme.
Conclusions:
Our study suggests that activities focusing specifically on metacognition and WM could foster text comprehension, but the potential benefit is influenced by the training modality, that is, the Reading group obtained greater and longer-lasting improvements than the Active control or Listening groups.
Secondary school pupils underachieve in tests in which reasoning abilities are required. Brain-based training of working memory (WM) may improve reasoning abilities. In this study, we use a brain-based training programme based on historical content to enhance reasoning abilities in history courses. In the first experiment, a combined intervention of WM-capacity and reasoning strategies is trained and compared with control group data in ‘HAVO’ (medium track secondary education in the Netherlands). WM-capacity and reasoning strategies of the experimental group improve significantly after three weeks of training. Students achieve significantly better in school tests in which reasoning abilities are tested. The gain in reasoning abilities is also significant 16 weeks after the training programme is completed. In the second experiment, WM-capacity and reasoning strategies are trained independently and compared with control group data in ‘VWO’ (upper track secondary education). Training of WM-capacity did not improve achievements in reasoning tests significantly, but training of reasoning strategies did. However, the results of both experiments cannot be compared because of cognitive group differences between Experiment 1 and 2 (educational tracks). These results demonstrate that brain-based learning strategies to improve reasoning abilities can easily be integrated in history curricula. Furthermore, a six-week training period can improve reasoning abilities of students in secondary education significantly. The study used content-based, non-adaptive training methods that are based on standardised tests. Cognitive WM test scores indicate a ceiling effect which can be explained by the absence of the adaptive element in the training.
The “Learn to Think” (LTT) Intervention Program was developed for raising thinking abilities of primary and secondary school students. It has been implemented in more than 300 schools, and more than 200,000 students took part in the experiment over a 10-year span. Several longitudinal intervention studies showed that LTT could promote the development of students' thinking ability, learning motivation, and learning strategy as well as raise academic performance in primary schools. This article describes a study of the influence and the delayed effects of LTT on the scientific creativity of secondary school students. One hundred and seven students were selected from a secondary school, 54 of them participated in the LTT every 2 weeks and the rest had not. The intervention lasted 2 years, and the delayed effect was explored half a year after terminating the intervention. The Scientific Creativity Test for Secondary School Students was used four times from pre-test to delayed post-test. The results indicated that the LTT did promote the development of scientific creativity of secondary school students, and the effects on the scientific creativity were not necessarily immediate, but tended to be long-lasting.
The authors designed a computer-based approach to enhance motivation and self-regulated learning. Participants of the quasi-experimental study were 6th-grade students (N = 151) who worked with a mathematicslearning software program during regular classroom instruction. In the 1st condition, students received attributional software-generated feedback. In the 2nd condition, students received the attributional feedback and additional self-regulation training, which the authors designed to foster metacognitive control. In a placebo condition, students received neither. The authors observed positive effects on motivation and knowledge acquisition in both training conditions. An enhancement of metacognitive control strategies was evident only in the self-regulation condition. Moreover, the additional self-regulation training led to better knowledge acquisition than did the exclusive attributional feedback.
This article provides a synthesis of word-problem-solving intervention research with samples of students with learning problems (i.e., mild disabilities and at risk for mathematics failure). The effectiveness of word-problem-solving instruction in 25 outcome studies was examined across student characteristics (e.g., grade, IQ); instructional features (e.g., intervention approach, treatment length); methodological features; skill maintenance; and generalization components. Separate analyses were performed for group-design studies and single-subject studies using standardized mean change and percentage of nonoverlapping data (PND), respectively. The overall mean weighted effect size (d) and PND for word-problem-solving instruction were positive across the group-design studies (ES = +.89) and single-subject studies (PND = 89%). In addition, positive effects for skill maintenance and generalization were found for group design (ES = +.78 and +.84, respectively) and single-subject studies (PND = 100%). Computer-assisted instruction was found to be most effective for group-design studies. Effects for representation techniques and strategy training were found to be significantly higher than the "other" approach for both group-design and single-subject studies. Long-term (> 1 month) intervention effects were significantly higher than short- or intermediate-term interventions for group-design studies, whereas both long-term and intermediate treatments were seen to be more effective than short-term treatments for single-subject studies. Other significant effects found for group-design studies only in terms of student characteristics, instructional features, and methodological features are reported. Finally, implications of the current analysis for future research in the area of word-problem solving are discussed.
This study investigated the effectiveness of a main idea strategy and self-monitoring instructional procedure for improving comprehension of textual material in students with high-incidence (e.g., learning and behavioral) disabilities. Thirty-three middle school students with disabilities were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Students in the experimental condition were trained to identify and generate main idea statements using main idea strategy instruction and a self-monitoring procedure. Results indicated that the instructional procedures led to increased reading comprehension of students in the experimental group on the training measure, which was maintained over time. On near and far transfer measures, the experimental group statistically outperformed students in the control group on posttest and delayed posttest items requiring selection responses. Students in the experimental group maintained strategy usage 6 weeks later on selection type responses on the near transfer measure but, not on the far transfer measure. Implications for practice are discussed.
The aim of the present study is to explore the effects of Meta‐strategic Knowledge (MSK) on scientific inquiry learning. MSK is a subcomponent of metacognition defined as general, explicit knowledge about thinking strategies. Following earlier studies that showed considerable effects of explicit instruction of MSK regarding the strategy of variables control, the present study explores whether similar effects are found in two additional scientific thinking strategies: Define Research Questions and Formulate Research Hypotheses. Participants were 119 eighth‐grade students from six classes of a heterogeneous school. Equal numbers of low‐achieving and high‐achieving students were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The findings showed dramatic developments in students’ performance following instruction. The effect of the treatment was preserved in a delayed transfer test. Our findings show that explicit teaching of MSK had a stronger effect for low‐achieving students than for high‐achieving students. The implications of the findings for teaching and learning in the context of scientific inquiry are discussed.
A motivational science perspective on student motivation in learning and teaching contexts is developed that highlights 3 general themes for motivational research. The 3 themes include the importance of a general scientific approach for research on student motivation, the utility of multidisciplinary perspectives, and the importance of use-inspired basic research on motivation. Seven substantive questions are then suggested as important directions for current and future motivational science research efforts. They include (1) What do students want? (2) What motivates students in classrooms? (3) How do students get what they want? (4) Do students know what they want or what motivates them? (5) How does motivation lead to cognition and cognition to motivation? (6) How does motivation change and develop? and (7) What is the role of context and culture? Each of the questions is addressed in terms of current knowledge claims and future directions for research in motivational science.
Educational researchers have begun recently to identify and study key processes through which students self-regulate their academic learning. In this overview, I present a general definition of self-regulated academic learning and identify the distinctive features of this capability for acquiring knowledge and skill. Drawing on subsequent articles in this journal issue as well as my research with colleagues, I discuss how the study of component processes contributes to our growing understanding of the distinctive features of students' self-regulated learning. Finally, the implications of self-regulated learning perspective on students' learning and achievement are considered.
The authors evaluated the effectiveness of explicit reading comprehension strategies instruction, followed by practice in teacher-led whole-class activities (STRAT), reciprocal same-age (STRAT + SA) peer-tutoring activities, or cross-age peer-tutoring activities (STRAT + CA) on 2nd and 5th graders' reading comprehension and self-efficacy perceptions. For 2nd graders, multilevel analyses revealed significant STRAT and STRAT + CA effects; however, the effects did not last after finishing the program. Fifth graders in all 3 experimental conditions performed significantly better on the posttest than their control group peers. Results also showed continued growth for the STRAT and STRAT + CA conditions until at least 6 months after students finished the program. Moreover, on both the posttest and retention test, 5th graders in the STRAT + CA condition reported significantly fewer negative thoughts related to their reading proficiency.
Studies suggest that young children are quite limited in their knowledge about cognitive phenomena—or in their metacognition—and do relatively little monitoring of their own memory, comprehension, and other cognitive enterprises. Metacognitive knowledge is one's stored knowledge or beliefs about oneself and others as cognitive agents, about tasks, about actions or strategies, and about how all these interact to affect the outcomes of any sort of intellectual enterprise. Metacognitive experiences are conscious cognitive or affective experiences that occur during the enterprise and concern any aspect of it—often, how well it is going. Research is needed to describe and explain spontaneous developmental acquisitions in this area and find effective ways of teaching metacognitive knowledge and cognitive monitoring skills. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effectiveness of a short metacognitive intervention combined with algorithmic cognitive instruction was assessed in an elementary school setting. Two hundred thirty-seven 3rd-grade children were randomly assigned to a 5-session metacognitive strategy instruction, an algorithmic direct cognitive instruction, a motivational program, a quantitative-relational condition, or a spelling condition. Children in the metacognitive program achieved significant gains in trained metacognitive skills compared with the 4 other conditions. Moreover, the children in the metacognitive program performed better on trained cognitive skills than children in the algorithmic condition, with a follow-up effect on domain-specific mathematics problem-solving knowledge. Despite the consistency of findings, no generalization effects were found on transfer of cognitive learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
C. Midgley et al. (2001) raised important questions about the effects of performance-approach goals. The present authors disagree with their characterization of the research findings and implications for theory. They discuss 3 reasons to revise goal theory: (a) the importance of separating approach from avoidance strivings, (b) the positive potential of performance-approach goals, and (c) identification of the ways performance-approach goals can combine with mastery goal to promote optimal motivation. The authors review theory and research to substantiate their claim that goal theory is in need of revision, and they endorse a multiple goal perspective. The revision of goal theory is underway and offers a more complex, but necessary, perspective on important issues of motivation, learning, and achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effects of 2 rigorous strategic approaches to reading comprehension for 32 5th-grade students who struggle with reading were investigated. The first approach, TWA (Think before reading, think While reading, think After reading), was taught following explicit self-regulated strategy development instructional procedures (K. R. Harris & S. Graham. 1999). The second approach, reciprocal questioning (RQ), was taught following Cooperative ReQuest procedures developed by A. V. Manzo. U. C. Manzo, and T. H. Estes (2001). Compared with RQ students, TWA students improved significantly (with medium to large effect sizes) on 5 oral reading comprehension measures. There were no significant differences, however, between groups on 3 written comprehension measures, self-efficacy, or motivation. Students were positive about each intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors examined the effectiveness of self-regulated learning (SRL) training in facilitating college students' learning with hypermedia. Undergraduate students (N = 131) were randomly assigned to either a training condition or a control condition and used a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. Students in the SRL group were given a 30-min training session on the use of specific, empirically based SRL variables designed to foster their conceptual understanding; control students received no training. Pretest, posttest, and verbal protocol data were collected from both groups. The SRL condition facilitated the shift in learners' mental models significantly more than did the control condition; verbal protocol data indicated that this was associated with the use of the SRL variables taught during training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Extending S. Graham and K. R. Harris's (2003) self-regulated strategy development model, this study examined whether self-regulation procedures would increase the effectiveness of a writing strategies training designed to improve 4th graders' (N = 113) composition skills. Students who were taught composition strategies in conjunction with self-regulation procedures were compared with (a) students who were taught the same strategies but received no instruction in self-regulation and (b) students who received didactic lessons in composition. Both at posttest and at maintenance (5 weeks after the instruction), strategy plus self-regulation students wrote more complete and qualitatively better stories than students in the 2 comparison conditions. They also displayed superior performance at a transfer task requiring students to recall essential parts of an orally presented story. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study was designed to identify, through mediation analysis, potential causal mechanisms by which procedures of self-regulated learning increase the efficaciousness of teaching young students strategies for writing stories. In a randomized controlled trial with 3 measurement points (pretest, posttest, maintenance), 117 fourth graders either received self-regulatory writing strategies training or were taught writing strategies without self-regulation procedures. Path analyses indicated that relative to teaching writing strategies alone, teaching strategies in tandem with self-regulation procedures improved students' skills of planning and revising stories and thereby enhanced the quality of the resulting stories. Self-regulated learning also enhanced students' knowledge about good writing and strengthened their self-efficacy beliefs, which both had a positive effect on the use of the learned strategies while planning narratives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous meta-analyses have identified many effective interventions for reducing the recidivism of juvenile offenders and various program factors that are asso-ciated with the best outcomes. Most of that work has been focused on only one interven-tion area and thus has limited scope. Notable exceptions are two relatively comprehensive meta-analyses that have identified a small number of factors or princi-ples that appear to characterize the most effective programs. This paper presents a new analysis of data from one of those meta-analyses designed to test a broader range of intervention factors in a manner that allows identification of both the general principles and the distinct intervention types associated with the greatest reductions in recidi-vism. Only three factors emerged as major correlates of program effectiveness: a "thera-peutic" intervention philosophy, serving high risk offenders, and quality of implementation. With other variables statistically controlled, relatively few differences were found in the effectiveness of different types of therapeutic interventions. Meta-analytic reviews of research on the effects of interventions with juvenile offenders have provided ample evidence that a rather broad range of such The construction of the meta-analysis database on which the analyses in this paper are based was supported in part by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Russell Sage Foundation. Thanks to Paul Gendreau, James Howell, and Darin Carver for useful comments on this paper.
There are many established reading strategy training programmes, which explicitly teach strategic and meta-cognitive knowledge to improve reading comprehension. Although instruction in strategy knowledge leads to improvements in meta-cognitive skills, the effects do not always transfer to reading comprehension. Therefore, to investigate preconditions for knowledge transfer, two different strategy training programmes were implemented in nine classes of Grade 6 students (N = 148) over the course of one school year. One programme involved teacher-directed instruction of declarative meta-cognitive knowledge (Reading Detectives; Rühl & Souvignier, 2006). The other aimed at improving executive meta-cognition by guided practice: students worked with a computer program based on latent semantic analysis (LSA) (conText) and received immediate feedback on written summaries. Although both groups improved their strategy knowledge to the same extent, the conText group showed a greater improvement in reading comprehension. These findings suggest that guided practice, which is characterised by intensive practice and individualised corrective feedback, is superior to explicitly teaching strategy knowledge.
The common approach to the multiplicity problem calls for controlling the familywise error rate (FWER). This approach, though, has faults, and we point out a few. A different approach to problems of multiple significance testing is presented. It calls for controlling the expected proportion of falsely rejected hypotheses — the false discovery rate. This error rate is equivalent to the FWER when all hypotheses are true but is smaller otherwise. Therefore, in problems where the control of the false discovery rate rather than that of the FWER is desired, there is potential for a gain in power. A simple sequential Bonferronitype procedure is proved to control the false discovery rate for independent test statistics, and a simulation study shows that the gain in power is substantial. The use of the new procedure and the appropriateness of the criterion are illustrated with examples.
This research synthesis explores how academic achievement relates to two main components of self-regulated learning for students in elementary and secondary school. Two meta-analyses integrated previous findings on (1) the defining metacognitive processes of self-regulated learning and (2) students’ use of cognitive strategies. Overall correlations were small (metacognitive processes, r = 0.20; cognitive strategies, r = 0.11), but there was systematic variation around both of them. Five moderator analyses were conducted to explain this variation. Average correlations significantly differed based on the specific process or strategy, academic subject, grade level, type of self-regulated learning measure, and type of achievement measure. Follow-up tests explored the nature of these differences and largely support the hypotheses. Theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Comprehension is the essence of reading. Finding appropriate and effective reading strategies to support students’ reading comprehension has always been a critical issue for educators. This article presents findings from a meta-analysis of 17 studies of metacognitive strategy instruction on students’ reading comprehension in computerized reading contexts. Overall, some instances of metacognitive strategy instruction tended to be more effective than others. Additionally, the effects of the instruction seemed to vary according to participants’ characteristics. Drawing upon the findings of this meta-analysis, we propose recommendations for future research and practice.
In this study, reciprocal teaching (RT) was combined with specific self-regulation procedures to promote the reading comprehension of fifth grade students. Twenty four classes with N = 534 students were assigned to RT plus strategy implementation procedures (RT + SIP), RT plus outcome regulation procedures (RT + ORP), RT plus strategy implementation and outcome regulation procedures (RT + SRL), or RT without explicit instruction in self-regulation. At maintenance students assigned to the three self-regulation conditions outperformed RT students according to a standardized measure of reading comprehension. RT + SIP and RT + SRL students outperformed RT as well as RT + ORP students using a measure of reading strategy performance. However, reading comprehension was only mediated by strategy performance under the RT + SRL condition. Among students assigned to the RT + ORP condition, an improvement in reading motivation between pretest and posttest and between posttest and maintenance was observed.
We examined the effects of the Self-Regulated-Strategy-Development (SRSD) for opinion essay writing among 380 eighth grade students in six urban middle schools in a major city in Portugal. Fourteen teachers in six urban middle schools in Portugal participated in the present study; 7 of these teachers participated in practice-based professional development (PBPD) in SRSD before implementation, and follow-up support once instruction began. Schools were matched in pairs based on SES and teacher characteristics; a member of each pair was randomly assigned to either: a) teacher led SRSD instruction for opinion essay writing; or b) teacher implementation of the schools’ existing curriculum and language program prescriptions for opinion writing. Students in the experimental schools were taught strategies for planning and composing opinion essays once a week in 45 min sessions, over a three-month period. Multilevel modelling for repeated measures indicated SRSD instructed students made statistically greater gains in composition elements than the comparison students immediately after instruction and two months later. Teachers implemented SRSD with fidelity and teachers and students rated the intervention favorably. This study provides initial evidence for replication of the effects of PBPD and SRSD outside of the United States. Limitations, lessons learned, and directions for future research are discussed.
In this classroom intervention study, reciprocal teaching (RT) of reading strategies was combined with explicit instruction in self-regulated learning (SRL) to promote the reading comprehension of fifth-grade students (N = 306). Twelve intact classes were randomly assigned either to an RT + SRL condition or to an RT condition without explicit instruction in self-regulation. Three additional classes served as a no-treatment comparison group. Strategies instruction was delivered by trained assistants in conventional German language lessons. Students practiced the application of these strategies in small groups. Both at posttest and at maintenance (8 weeks after the intervention), students in the two intervention conditions (RT and RT + SRL) outperformed comparison students in measures of reading comprehension, strategy-related task performance, and self-efficacy for reading. Relative to RT students, students in the RT + SRL condition were better able to maintain training-induced performance gains over the follow-up interval. A moderated mediation analysis revealed that this difference in the sustainability of the two treatments was (a) mediated by the successful mastery of the learned strategies and (b) most evident among students with poor reading fluency skills.
To assess the effect of “metacognitive” instruction on reading comprehension, 20 studies, with a total student population of 1,553, were compiled and quantitatively synthesized. For 115 effect sizes, or contrasts of experimental and control groups' performance, the mean effect size was .71, which indicates a substantial effect. In this compilation of studies, metacognitive instruction was found particularly effective for junior high students (seventh and eighth grades). Among the metacognitive skills, awareness of textual inconsistency and the use of self-questioning as both a monitoring and a regulating strategy were most effective. Reinforcement was the most effective teaching strategy.
Three studies were carried out with Compulsory Secondary Education students to verify the effectiveness of two intervention methods—the infusion method (IM) and the instrumental enrichment program (IEP)—to enhance thinking skills, creativity, behavioral self-regulation, and academic achievement. Study 1 (N=118) was conducted in order to create the IM, an instruction method designed to teach these skills along with the syllabus content, and to compare its effects with the conventional method (CM). In Study 2 (N=176), the effects of the IM, the IEP, and the CM were compared in the same variables. In Study 3 (N=168, using the same subjects as in Study 2), the effects of the IM and the IEP were analyzed to determine whether they were maintained or they increased with time. The results showed that greater changes were obtained with the IM than with the IEP in all the criterial variables and that the effects attained in Study 2, in addition to being significant, persisted at least 1 year after completing the intervention. Relevant scientific and educational implications are drawn from the studies.
Learning strategies can be defined as behaviors and thoughts in which a learner engages and which are intended to influence the learner's encoding process. Thus, the goal of any particular learning strategy may be to affect the way in which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge. Good teaching includes teaching students how to learn, remember, think, and motivate themselves. Teachers enter the classroom with two distinctly different kinds of goals which are teaching students "what" to learn and teaching students "how" to learn. Some major categories of learning strategies are: (1) rehearsal strategies such as copying, underlining, or shadowing; (2) elaboration strategies such as paraphrasing or summarizing; (3) organizational strategies such as outlining or creating a hierarchy; (4) comprehension monitoring strategies such as checking for comprehension failures; and (5) affective strategies such as being alert and relaxed. Many current approaches to classroom learning emphasize the role of the learner in creating, monitoring, and controlling a suitable learning environment. Learning strategies research, by providing strong evidence that these learning strategies can be taught, is creating a useful data base from which applications can and will be derived. (EM)
Current research on goal orientation and self-regulated learning suggests a general framework for examining learning and motivation in academic contexts. Moreover, there are some important generalizations that are emerging from this research. It seems clear that an approach-mastery goal orientation is generally adaptive for cognition, motivation, learning, and performance. The roles of the other goal orientations need to be explored more carefully in empirical research, but the general framework of mastery and performance goals seems to provide a useful way to conceptualize the academic achievement goals that students may adopt in classroom settings and their role in facilitating or constraining self-regulated learning. There is much theoretical and empirical work to be done, but the current models and frameworks are productive and should lead to research on classroom learning that is both theoretically grounded and pedagogically useful.
Research on the implementation of reading strategies suggests that self-regulated learning might be a powerful framework to optimize effects on reading comprehension. Models of self-regulation emphasize that the teaching of strategy knowledge (Strat) has to be complemented by offering skills of cognitive (CSR) and motivational (MSR) aspects of self-regulation. In order to investigate whether all aspects of this model have to be carried out under regular classroom conditions, three different strategy programs (Strat+CSR+MSR vs. Strat+CSR vs. Strat) and a control condition were compared. Within a pre-, post-, and retention-test design with 20 classes, comprising of 593 fifth-graders (11 years), development of strategy knowledge, reading comprehension, school-related self-efficacy, and motivational orientation towards learning goals were assessed. While all strategy-oriented programs proved to enhance reading competence, understanding of reading strategies and competence for application of reading strategies, gains in self-efficacy did not differ from the control condition. As regards the retention test, the program that covered all aspects of strategy instruction (MSR+Strat+CSR) showed strongest effects as predicted by self-regulation theory.
This paper describes an applied training study which investigated the differential effects of two instructional methods on the reading performance of primary school children with reading difficulties. Sixty five children aged 7-10 participated. Twenty five children were assigned to each of two experimental groups: direct instruction in phonological awareness and the alphabetic principle, or the same direct instruction in phonological awareness in conjunction with training in specific metalinguistic concepts and metacognitive strategies. Fifteen children were selected as controls. Reading performance from baseline was measured within a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest experimental design. Data and results are presented on 60 children owing to attrition. Results showed that direct instruction in phonological awareness improved the reading performance of children with reading difficulties over time. However, direct instruction in phonological awareness in conjunction with explicit training in specific metalinguistic concepts and metacognitive strategies was more advantageous overall.
In this paper, meta-analysis is used to identify components that are associated with effective metacognitive training programs in reading research. Forty-three studies, with an average of 81 students per study, were synthesized. It was found that metacognitive training could be more effectively implemented by using small-group instruction, as opposed to large-group instruction or one-to-one instruction. Less intensive programs were more effective than intensive programs. Program intensity was defined as the average number of days in a week that instruction was provided to students. Students in higher grades were more receptive to the intervention. Measurement artifacts, namely teaching to the test and use of nonstandardized tests and the quality of the studies synthesized played a significant role in the evaluation of the effectiveness of the metacognitive reading intervention. Appendixes contain ERIC keyword search; the coding instrument; coding instructions; interrater reliability; and formulas for the generalized least square regression coefficients and associated standard errors.) (Contains 1 figure, 4 tables of data, 55 references, and a list of 43 primary studies evaluated.)
In this study the author examines the efficacy of translating socio-cognitive principles into practice, by using the FCL (Fostering Communities of Learners and Thinkers) method devised by Brown and Campione. The benefits of FCL are compared with traditional interventions, within the context of writing competence. The principle hypothesis of this study is that an FCL intervention program will deliver greater writing competence than more traditional methods. It is shown that students exposed to the metacognitive and shared problem solving environment that is created by FCL derive larger benefits than students exposed to traditional instruction. Moreover, it is shown that the benefits of the FCL approach increase with time, even after the intervention has ceased.
This paper reports on a study of 354 pupils in the top form of Dutch primary schools spread over 18 classes and two research conditions (an experimental and a control condition). The experimental condition involved teaching the recognition of two text structures, the classification structure and the causation structure. Pupils were also taught how to make schematics in which the main points of the text are arranged in line with the text structure. The study shows that pupils of around 12 years old are able to recognize the text structures involved and can learn to master a complex study strategy like 'making schematics'. These are the main results of the experimental lesson series with which pupils in the experimental condition were taught. The study also revealed transfer-effects. The experimental lesson series proved to have an effect on the ability to infer the main idea of a text and spontaneous application of the study strategy learnt.
Reading comprehension is strongly associated with academic achievement, including science achievement. A better understanding of reading comprehension processes in science text might hold promise for improving science achievement in the long run. We tested the fit of the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model of reading comprehension (Cromley & Azevedo, 2007) with 737 students in an introductory biology course required for majors. Participants completed multiple choice measures of biology-specific prior-topic knowledge, inference, reading strategy use, reading vocabulary, word reading fluency, and reading comprehension in small groups in our laboratory. Using structural equation modeling to test the fit of the DIME model to the data, we found excellent fit indices for all models. However, the original DIME model fit significantly worse than the measurement model, and a modified model that included a path from reading vocabulary to reading strategy use fit significantly better. Results from the modified model suggest that comprehension interventions for undergraduate students with biology majors might use preteaching to build topic knowledge. We discuss the need for future experimental studies to confirm the vocabulary-reading strategies link. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The Science Curriculum Improvement Study Learning Cycle provides opportunities for students to reveal their science ideas, but no formal, structured opportunities exist for students to reflect on their science ideas. This study proposes a revised learning cycle model, termed the Metacognitive Learning Cycle, which emphasizes formal opportunities for teachers and students to talk about their science ideas. Working collaboratively, the researcher and a seventh-grade science teacher developed a 3-month ecology unit based on the revised model. Two science classrooms studied identical ecology content using different pedagogical orientations. One class was taught using the SCIS approach and one was taught using the metacognitive approach. Only in the metacognitive classroom were students asked to reveal their science ideas and to discuss the status of their conceptions throughout the instruction. Results showed that students in the metacognitive classroom did not gain a greater content knowledge of ecology, but they did experience more permanent restructuring of their ecology understandings. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed84:486–506, 2000.