The nutritional value of red palm oil

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http://dx.doi.org/10.19103/AS.2017.0018.33
© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2017. All rights reserved.
The nutritional value of red palm oil
Hélène Delisle, University of Montreal, Canada
1 Introduction
2 Nutritional composition of palm oil
3 Red palm oil as a source of provitamin A carotenoids
4 Case study: RPO in Burkina Faso
5 Conclusion
6 Future trends
7 Where to look for further information
8 References
1 Introduction
Palm oil is now the most widely consumed vegetable oil worldwide ( Mba et al., 2015 ).
For one, its cost is low compared to other oils. The main consumers of palm oil are China,
India, Indonesia and the European Union; their demand is entirely met by imports since
they do not produce palm oil. Additionally, the nearly solid state of palm oil at room
temperature makes it a good substitute for hydrogenated oils widely used until recently
in the food industry and which contain undesirable trans -fatty acids. The ban on trans
fat in several countries including Canada and the United States, because of adverse
cardiovascular effects similar to saturated fat, drives the rapid global shift in consumption
from soybean oil to palm oil ( Global Industry Analysts, 2015 ).
There is a great deal of confusion regarding the nutritional value and health effects of
palm oil. The controversy and confl icting views still continue on whether or not palm oil is
atherogenic. Based on current evidence, it would appear that palm oil has both favourable
and unfavourable effects. The nutritional and health properties of palm oil depend not
only on the amounts consumed and the other components of the diet, but also on the
extent of processing and on the fractions considered. The crude (red) palm oil (RPO) is very
distinct from the refi ned product and its high content of antioxidants including vitamin E
and provitamin A may be responsible for health benefi ts that are no longer present in the
refi ned oil as more than half its antioxidants have been destroyed. The health aspects
of palm oil were discussed in previous chapters. It is suspected that several publications
may have tended to be positively biased due to the fact that the palm oil industry has
been very active at sponsoring research, as reported in two large systematic reviews and
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meta-analyses ( Fattore et al., 2014 ; Sun et al., 2015 ). The primary focus of the present
chapter is on the nutritional value of crude RPO, primarily as a source of vitamin A.
2 Nutritional composition of palm oil
The nutritional composition of palm oil and its fractions is summarized in Table 1 . First,
palm mesocarp oil has to be distinguished from palm kernel oil, the latter being much
more saturated than the former, 80% versus 40%–50%, respectively. We will only refer
to palm fruit oil in this chapter. Palm (fruit) oil consists of 94%–98% triglycerides. Myristic
acid (1%), stearic acid (4–5%) and palmitic acid (42–47%) make up the saturated fatty
acid component in addition to monounsaturated oleic acid (37–41%) and polyunsaturated
linoleic acid (9–11%). Although it is not as saturated as coconut oil, palm oil is still at the
top of the list when it comes to saturation.
Although palm oil and animal fat have similar saturated fat content, the positional
distribution of fatty acids in triglycerides is different: 70% of the palmitic acid in palm oil is
in the sn-1 and sn-3 positions, whereas the majority of palmitic acid in animal fat is in the
sn-2 position ( Zhao et al., 2005 ). Fatty acids in the sn-2 position might have an enhanced
absorption ( Hunter, 2001 ), and thus some researchers have suggested that the palmitic
acid in palm oil may be less hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic than that in animal
Table 1 Nutritional composition of crude and refi ned palm oil and its fractions (per 100 g)
Palm
kernel oil
Crude (red)
palm oil
Refi ned
palm oil Olein Stearin
Lauric acid (12:0) 47.8 0.0 0.2 0.2 –
Myristic acid (14:0) 16.3 1.2 1.0–1.5 1.0–1.5 1.0–2.0
Palmitic acid (16:0) 8.5 39.5 42.0–47.0 38–42 47–74
Stearic acid (18:0) 2.4 4.0–5.0 4.0–5.0 4.0–5.0 4.0–6.0
Oleic acid (18:1) 15.4 43.4 37.0–41.0 40.0–44.0 16.0–37.0
Linoleic acid (18:2) 2.4 12.2 9.0–11.0 10.0–13.0 3.0–10.0
Linolenic acid (18:3) – 0 0.4 0.4
Total saturated fatty acids 82.1 44.4 49.9 45.9
Total monounsaturated fatty
acids
15.4 55.6 39.2 54.1
Total polyunsaturated fatty
acids
2.4 10.5
Total carotenes (µg/g) – 500–700 (90% α -
and β -carotene)
*12
Tocopherols and tocotrienols
(vitamin E) (µg/g)
– 600–1000 (73%
tocotrienols, 27%
tocopherols)
~50% loss 643
Sources: Sambanthamurthi et al., 2000; Edem, 2002; O’Brien, 2004; Boon et al., 2013.
* Physical or chemical refi ning entails a nearly total loss of carotenoids, but a technology exists to produce a refi ned
RPO retaining 80% of carotenoids and 85% of tocols (Mayamol et al 2007).
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 3
fat ( Ebong et al., 1999 ). A more recent study found that palmitic acid in the sn-2 position
could decrease postprandial lipaemia in humans ( Sanders et al., 2011 ).
The resulting two components of the palm oil fractionation is palm olein (liquid) and palm
stearin (solid). The fatty acid composition of palm olein is approximately 45% saturated
fat and 54% unsaturated fat. The main saturated fatty acids are 40–44% palmitic acid and
4–5% stearic acid. The unsaturated fatty acids are 43% oleic acid and 12% linoleic acid.
Technological advances in palm oil fractionation have allowed to further separate olein
fractions ( Boon et al., 2013 ).
Palm oil tends to be perceived negatively because it is highly saturated (and because of
the environmental impact of the large plantations). However, this is somewhat balanced
by its high content of provitamin A carotenoids, vitamin E and other antioxidants as well
as phytosterols, at least in the crude RPO. The antioxidants contribute to the oil stability,
as well as to its nutritional and health benefi ts, alleged or real ( Oyewole and Amosu, 2010 ).
One characteristic of crude palm oil is its high content in vitamin E (tocopherols and
tocotrienols), with a total content ranging from 600 to 1000 ppm. It is actually the highest
food source of tocotrienols. The tocopherol/tocotrienol ratio is usually around 20%, whereas
it is roughly reversed in palm oil. Compared to other oils, palm oil also has a high proportion
of tocopherols and tocotrienols in relation to its unsaturation. The ratio of total vitamin E
(tocopherols and tocotrienols in ppm) to polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA expressed in %)
is about 50, while it is only 19 for soybean and 12 for sunfl ower oils. The combined effects
of high tocopherols and tocotrienols, and low PUFA, could explain why palm oil would
present a greater oxidative stability, for instance, in frying ( Gibon et al., 2007 ).
Crude RPO also represents the highest natural source of carotenoids (500–2000 ppm).
β -carotene predominates and represents with α -carotene about 90% of the total carotenoids.
Additionally, these provitamin A carotenoids of RPO are highly bioavailable because of the
absence of a vegetable matrix and the presence of fat ( Cottrell, 1991 ). In terms of vitamin A
activity (expressed in retinol activity equivalents [RAE]), RPO provides 15 800 µg and carrots
1000 µg per 100 g ( Scrimshaw, 2000 ). Unfortunately most of the carotenoids in palm oil
are destroyed during the refi ning process, giving rise to colourless products ( Gibon et al.,
2007 ). Crude oils are refi ned to remove all impurities and undesirable odour, fl avour and
colour, but at the same time the process destroys more than half its natural antioxidants.
One of the modifi ed refi ning processes developed by the Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia procures a refi ned RPO (Carotino®) with a light pink colour but which has retained
80% of the carotenoids, 85% of the tocols and 65% of the phytosterols ( Mayamol et al.,
2007 ). It is unfortunate that this technology is not more widely applied, particularly in areas
where vitamin A defi ciency is a problem while palm oil is produced, notably in West Africa
and in India. The cost of the technology is possibly among main deterrents.
Elaeis guineensis is the principal variety of oil palm. It is originally from tropical Africa
and it is the most widely cultivated, not only in Africa but also in Asia and Indonesia.
E. oleifera is native of South America. Hybrids could have increased oil unsaturation,
carotene, tocopherol and sterol content ( O’Brien, 2004 ), but they are little produced.
3 RPO as a source of provitamin A carotenoids
Vitamin A defi ciency is still widespread in several African and Asian regions, where it is
responsible for excess morbidity and mortality particularly among young children, even in
the absence of the ocular manifestations of the defi ciency. Preformed vitamin A or retinol
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can be obtained from animal products (such as liver, eggs, dairy products) or as provitamin
A carotenoids in some plant products, including orange fl esh fruits and vegetables. RPO
is the highest plant source of provitamin A carotenoids, and, as mentioned previously, its
vitamin A bioactivity is very high. The provitamins are absorbed and partly converted into
retinol. Various combinations of fortifi cation, supplementation and dietary diversifi cation
strategies are used to control vitamin A defi ciency, but periodic supplementation with high-
dose vitamin A capsules is still a major component of child survival strategies in African
and Asia countries where the defi ciency is widespread. Promoting the production and
consumption of RPO where feasible and preventing its overheating appear as a logical,
although neglected strategy to prevent vitamin A defi ciency. In sub-Saharan Africa, where
oil palms originated, RPO is traditionally consumed in some but not all areas, while vitamin
A malnutrition persists.
Table 2 lists the safe level of vitamin A intake in various age-sex groups, expressed in
RAE, the corresponding β -carotene needed, and, in the last column, the amount of RPO
required to meet the recommended daily intake. It is seen that, roughly equating 1 g RPO
with 1 ml, from two to four teaspoons of RPO would meet the daily recommended intake
of vitamin A. Even consuming small amounts of RPO can therefore go a long way towards
meeting daily requirements for vitamin A.
Table 2 The amount of RPO needed to meet the FAO/WHO recommended intakes of vitamin A
Subpopulation
Recommended safe
intake (RAE, µg)
1 β -carotene (µg)
2 RPO (g)
3
Children 375 4500 9.0
0–6 months 400 4800 9.6
7–12 400 4800 9.6
1–3 years 450 5400 10.8
4–6 500 6000 12.0
7–9
Adolescents 600 7200 14.5
10–18 years
Adult women 500 6000 12.0
19–65 years 600 7200 16.4
65+ 800 9600 19.2
Pregnant women 850 10200 20.4
Lactating women
Adult men 600 7200 14.5
19–65 years 600 7200 14.5
65+
1 Source: FAO/WHO.
2 Based on a conversion factor of 12 µg β -carotene for 1 µg of RAE.
3 Average value of 500 µg of β -carotene for 1 g of RPO.
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 5
Several trials and quite a few programmes showed vitamin A effi cacy and effectiveness
of RPO in children and in women. In a systematic review ( Rice and Burns, 2010 ), ten key
intervention trials of RPO used as daily supplement, in-home fortifi cant or in fortifi ed food
programmes were analysed. These trials were conducted in Indonesia, Honduras, Papua
New Guinea, Tanzania, India, South Africa and Burkina Faso. Except for the studies in
Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and Burkina Faso, the RPO was from Malaysia or Indonesia,
the largest producers of palm oil in the world. All these studies reported positive effects,
whether on serum or on milk retinol levels. In an Indian village, for example, 8 g of RPO
daily for 15 days proved as effective as a single high-dosage retinol supplement on vitamin
A status of schoolchildren ( Mahapatra and Manorama, 1997 ). In South African poor
schoolchildren aged 5–11 years, RPO- and β -carotene-fortifi ed biscuits resulted in similar
serum retinol increases ( Van Stuijvenberg et al., 2001 ). The RPO-fortifi ed biscuit is now
commercialized and available on the South African market. In Tanzania (Lietz et al., 2001)
and in Honduras ( Canfi eld et al., 2001 ), RPO supplementation trials during pregnancy
and lactation showed benefi cial effects on vitamin A status of mothers and infants. In
the Honduras study, RPO was found to be as effective as β -carotene supplements in this
regard. The RPO studies that we conducted in Burkina Faso over a 10-year period are
detailed below as case study.
There are at least two published reports of successful RPO fortifi cation of staples. In
a district of Tanzania, RPO was incorporated in cassava fl our on a pilot basis in villages
representing three agro-ecological zones with high rates of vitamin A defi ciency ( Mosha
et al., 1999 ). Out of fi ve villages, two served as controls. At the end of the 20-month
programme, most mothers had reportedly adopted the innovation and were preparing
the mix at home. The prevalence of low plasma retinol decreased from 53% to 8.5% in
pilot village children, while remaining above 50% in the control villages. Plasma retinol of
pregnant and lactating women increased by 12.6% in the pilot villages and only by 3.5%
in the control villages. However, in the absence of meta-analysis of the data for all these
studies, the average resulting effect on serum (or milk) retinol cannot be ascertained.
Other applications of RPO that were not assessed for their impact on vitamin A status
are mentioned in the review by Rice and Burns (2010) , including its use as ingredient in
lipid-based ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) and as fortifi cant in commercial baked
foods, as well as in condiments or salad dressings. It was also tested when added to
other cooking oils, for instance, in Brazil. In India, a blend of oil including 6–12% RPO was
found to be palatable, with no objectionable taste or smell of the food, although the oil
was coloured in red ( Rao, 2000 ). In Burkina Faso, we also tested blends of RPO with local
vegetable fats as described below. More recent advances have been the development of
high-carotene varieties of maize, sweet potatoes and cassava, as well as the genetically
modifi ed ‘golden rice’.
It is now common practice to fortify refi ned palm oil (or other vegetable oils) with retinyl
palmitate as a source of preformed vitamin A to compensate for the loss of provitamin A
carotenes during processing. Such fortifi cation programmes are considered highly cost-
effective and they have been used successfully in various parts of the world with sugar,
monosodium glutamate or wheat fl our as vector foods. The feasibility of using as natural
fortifi cant β -carotene from RPO as alternative strategy to address vitamin A defi ciency
was reviewed ( Souganidis et al., 2013 ). While β -carotene may be as effective as retinyl
palmitate to improve vitamin A status, the challenges of fortifi cation with RPO-derived
β -carotene include its unfavourable colour, taste and odour, as well as the lower stability
to high temperatures of β -carotene compared to retinyl palmitate. Additionally, the RPO
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fortifi cation cost would be roughly 40 times higher than that of retinyl palmitate ( Souganidis
et al., 2013 ). It is also reminded here that RPO is not only a high source of vitamin A (and
fat), but also of several other healthful antioxidants including non-vitamin A carotenoids
(lutein and lycopene) and vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), which are lost during
refi ning. The health effects of these antioxidants were discussed in previous chapters.
4 Case study: RPO in Burkina Faso
This case study describes the rationale, the objectives and the activities of the three distinct
phases of the RPO project. The results, lessons learned and challenges are then discussed.
4.1 Project background and history
The role of RPO for reducing vitamin A defi ciency in Africa was considered underexploited
( Solomons, 1998 ), and the possible nutritional and economic benefi ts for Sahelian
countries were, and continue to be, little recognized. The idea for our project stemmed
from the observation that refi ned palm oil could be found even in remote locations of
the Sahel. Burkina Faso is probably the only country where the feasibility and impact of
introducing RPO on a commercial basis in non-consuming population groups could be
tested, because some RPO is produced in the western part of the country, although in still
limited quantities. Besides, preliminary market studies had shown that the production of
RPO could be considerably increased in Burkina Faso and that it could indeed generate
profi t.
The studies that our team conducted with institutional partners in Burkina Faso between
1998 and 2008 were intended to demonstrate the feasibility and nutritional impact of
stimulating the production and consumption of RPO. Increasing RPO production,
distribution and consumption indeed bears potential as part of overall strategies to
increase vitamin A intake, in Burkina Faso and in surrounding Sahelian areas as well. The
RPO project in Burkina Faso was developed on a small scale, although the initial intent
was to scale it up if the initial phases proved successful. It is unique in that a new demand
for RPO was created by social marketing and was used as driver for local production. It
involved the development of oil palm orchards by women, and improved oil extraction
methods and the expansion of local markets to generate nutritional, women’s income
and even environmental benefi ts as palm trees are known to consolidate the land of river
banks. RPO was posited as a food ‘fortifi cant’ for the nutritional benefi t of mothers and
children primarily, as RPO is costly in the Sahel and as it is highly concentrated in vitamin
A. Several papers on this project were published ( Delisle et al., 2001 , 2003 , 2004; Zagré
et al., 2002 , 2003 , 2004; Zeba et al., 2006 ).
The three phases of the project are described below, before commenting on the results
and perspectives.
4.1.1 Phase I: 1999–2002
The purpose was to demonstrate that it was feasible to introduce locally produced RPO on
a commercial basis, and that it was effective in improving the vitamin A status of women and
young children. The Burkina Faso Association of Home Economists (ABESF) was the main
fi eld partner and the research was conducted in collaboration with the French Institute for
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 7
Research and Development (IRD). Field promotional activities were conducted by home
economists after appropriate training in social marketing, in a pilot zone (north-central part
of the country) where RPO is not part of food habits. RPO was purchased by the project
from women in south-western Burkina Faso, and other women were retailing it in the
intervention sites. Promotional activities included using the media, plays and testimonies
at village level, demonstrations and tasting of RPO-fortifi ed dishes, and contests among
villages. RPO promotion was also coupled with vitamin A capsule distribution during
National Immunization and Micronutrient Days in order to bring the population to make
the connection between food (and not only capsules) and the prevention of vitamin A
defi ciency. The impact was assessed in a random sample of 210 mother-child pairs whose
vitamin A status was assessed based on serum retinol levels before the beginning of the
project and two years later.
4.1.2 Phase II: 2002–2004
The second phase of the RPO project pursued the same initial goal, that is, to improve
vitamin A status of vulnerable groups via the purchase and consumption of RPO produced
right in Burkina Faso, but it was carried out on a larger scale and involved a wider range of
partners. Additionally, more emphasis was given to strengthening the RPO production and
commercial distribution system. The intervention zone was extended to fi ve provinces,
whereas Phase I took place in only one province. A school component was introduced,
and school meals were fortifi ed two to three times a week with 15 ml of RPO per child
in a total of 41 schools in three provinces. In one province, RPO-fortifi ed snacks were
fi rst offered in schools before school canteens were operational. The formulations were
developed by ABESF and were very well appreciated. In all cases, teachers, parents and
communities were closely involved, and training for appropriate handling of RPO was
provided to cooks and to school managers.
In one of the provinces participating in the RPO fortifi cation of school lunch, a randomized
controlled trial was carried out, with eight primary schools randomly assigned to RPO,
eight to supplementation with vitamin A capsules and eight served as controls. Serum
retinol was measured before the intervention in October and in the same children exactly
12 months later (to avoid a seasonality effect). The vitamin A capsule group received a
200 000 IU capsule before the school break, in July of the same school year. Serum retinol
was again measured when school resumed in October.
During Phase II, RPO production groups benefi ted from training, in Bénin and in Burkina
Faso, in order to improve the extraction techniques, to learn simple management tools
and to contribute to setting up the RPO commercial distribution system through direct
connections with wholesale outlets established in the main city of the fi ve provinces.
Women’s groups extracting the oil went from four at the beginning of Phase II to eight
by the end with an average of 25 women per group. The groups formed a union of RPO
producers around the pioneer group in the main producing village. A local organization
involved in supporting rural enterprises funded the purchase of oil extraction equipment
and the construction of a shed for RPO storage; it also provided support on technical and
managerial matters.
4.1.3 Phase III: 2006–2008
This phase was limited to the RPO production zone of south-western Burkina Faso owing to
limited funding. The activities were carried out in close collaboration with Oxfam-Québec,
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the NGO in charge of the intervention proper for this phase of the project. The objectives
were to improve vitamin A status of mothers and children by promoting the consumption
of RPO and to further strengthen the RPO production and marketing efforts as a means of
procuring additional income for women (Oxfam-Québec, 2008).
The research activities conducted by our university team were: (1) to assess vitamin A
status and RPO consumption and production among women of reproductive age in the
RPO-producing area of Burkina Faso; (2) to assess the quality of RPO samples from Burkina
Faso and samples coming from neighbouring countries as available in Burkina Faso; and
(3) to test the technical feasibility and consumer acceptance of blends of RPO with either
peanut oil or shea butter at various concentrations. The underlying hypotheses were that
women’s vitamin A status would be better in the RPO production area than in non-producing
areas, that the RPO produced in Burkina Faso with project support would be of high quality,
and that mixtures of RPO with other traditional fats would be well accepted by women
and their family. The research components included baseline data on RPO consumption
and vitamin A status of women as well as on the quality of the RPO from local production.
A total of 150 mothers randomly selected in 15 villages of the RPO-producing areas were
interviewed twice over a ten-month period. Their vitamin A status based on serum retinol
was assessed in the fi rst survey round. An additional ten women from the main production
village were interviewed to better assess their experience with RPO production.
4.1.4 Phase IV: 2008–2011
This phase was planned to consolidate the previous achievements, to increase RPO
production and consumption and to undertake a comprehensive evaluation of the
health, income and environmental effects of the RPO project. This was to be a critical
phase to ensure the sustainability and scaling-up of the production and consumption of
RPO beyond the production zone to contribute to vitamin A status improvement and to
women’s income. The project was to be scaled up further to set the stage for a national
RPO programme as part of the vitamin A strategy. The health, agriculture and social
sectors of the government of Burkina Faso were all mobilized and gave their support to
the approach. The expected duration of Phase III was three years. However, in spite of
the positive results of the previous phases and after several proposals to various potential
funding agencies, the funding was not secured. RPO apparently continues to be produced
locally and palm orchards are growing but no evidence of the benefi cial effects and costs
could be generated and our dream of positing RPO as a major component of the vitamin
A strategies in the whole region of sub-Saharan Africa had to be dropped.
Before discussing the effects of the RPO project, we summarize the main outputs below:
• A total population of 1.3 million was reached through community activities, the school
component, R&D activities and media-based promotion of RPO in fi ve provinces of
Burkina Faso;
• The more intensive community-based RPO strategy in one province reached 26
villages, for an estimated direct target of 20 000 women and under-fi ve children;
RPO retailing committees were trained (150 persons);
• 6400 pupils aged 6–10 years in 41 schools of three provinces, the teachers and the
parents were reached by the school component involving RPO-fortifi ed meals and
community mobilization. Some 76 school canteen cooks and at least 76 teachers
were trained in adequate handling, storage and portioning of RPO in schools;
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 9
• The number of RPO production women’s groups went from 4 to 8 (~25 women per
group), and the production was around 4200 liters for 2003 and 2004; 330 women
producing or selling RPO received training and were given an opportunity to generate
some additional income. Information on the number of palm tree planted and on
their oil yield once they began to be productive is unfortunately not available.
4.2 Effects on vitamin A status of women and under-fi ve children
We could demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of increasing production and
consumption of local RPO. In the north-east pilot area where RPO was not previously
available or consumed, nearly half the women purchased and consumed RPO after two
years of social marketing of the product. This was based on a random sample of 210
mother-child pairs who were surveyed at the beginning of the project and then 24 months
later. Highly signifi cant improvements of the vitamin A status of women and children were
observed: the prevalence of low serum retinol ( < 0.7 µmol/L), while remaining high, went
from 85% to 67% in children, and from 62% to 28% in mothers. The prevalence of low
serum retinol remained high particularly among children in spite of the fact that they had
received a vitamin A capsule six months before the beginning of the RPO project. This
shows the importance of mixed strategies for the control of the defi ciency which can
include supplementation, food-based approaches and public health measures to reduce
infection. The reduction of the prevalence of vitamin A defi ciency was more marked among
women, which strongly suggests that other factors of the defi ciency are at work in children,
particularly recurrent infections. It was noted that in mothers as well as in children, the
most defi cient were also the ones whose vitamin A status improved the most, which tends
to confi rm that provitamin A carotenoids are better utilized in defi cient subjects.
Among schoolchildren included in the controlled trial, the prevalence of low serum
retinol was signifi cantly reduced with both the RPO and the vitamin A capsule, as shown
in Fig. 1 . Although the baseline prevalence of vitamin A defi ciency was much lower in
the control schools, which was unexpected, mean serum retinol varied little in the control
group, whereas it increased sharply in the RPO and the vitamin A capsule groups. This trial
in schools confi rmed that vitamin A defi ciency was also widespread at school age and that
Figure 1 Serum retinol changes in primary schoolchildren exposed to HPR or high-dose vitamin A
supplements compared with control subjects .
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an average of 51 RPO-fortifi ed meals over a school year was as effective as one vitamin A
capsule to improve vitamin A status, besides RPO being well liked by children. Through
RPO fortifi cation of school meals two to three times/week, it can be assumed that 34% of
the pupils were protected from vitamin A defi ciency, based on the observed reduction of
low serum retinol from 47% before the school intervention to 13% one year later.
RPO was also successfully integrated into a local infant cereal mix and in nutrition
rehabilitation centres, although this was only done on a pilot basis and there was no
assessment of impact.
At the beginning of Phase III of the project in the RPO production zones, it was found
that the vitamin A status of RPO-producing women was signifi cantly better, with only 5.9%
showing low serum retinol ( < 0.7 µmol/L), compared with 20.8% in non-producing women
(and 62% initially among women of the pilot intervention area of Phase I of the project).
Although there was a tendency for RPO-producing women to report better socio-economic
conditions, RPO production was the only signifi cant variable in the logistic regression of
vitamin A status. The odds ratio for low serum retinol was 0.28 (CI 0.09–0.79) in RPO-
producing women compared to non-producers. Mean intakes of total vitamin A as well
as preformed retinol were signifi cantly higher among RPO-producing than non-producing
women, which suggested that not only RPO but also (other sources) of vitamin A were
consumed in higher amounts among the former compared with the latter.
4.3 Quality of the RPO
Throughout the project, producing high-quality RPO and using labour-saving equipment
were sought. During Phase II, RPO samples from Burkina Faso ( n = 4, including two
from RPO project) and nine imported samples from Togo, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana were
analysed for chemical properties, microbiological quality and content of provitamin A.
An expert tasting panel assessed the organoleptic quality of seven samples (four from
Burkina and one randomly selected sample per import country). All 13 samples were again
analysed 8 months later, and 5 were again tested 12 months after the initial analyses.
The results varied widely, whether in terms of chemical, microbiological or nutritional
quality. There was no relationship between organoleptic quality rating by the taste panel
and the other aspects of quality of the RPO samples, not even their acidity. All except
one imported sample were adequate from a bacteriological standpoint, and the bacterial
counts went down with time, likely owing to increasing acidity. The initial provitamin A
carotenoid results confi rmed that in spite of the high variance, RPO is a concentrated
provitamin A source, providing more than 100 µg RAE per gram.
4.4 RPO as a food fortifi cant
Other approaches for promoting RPO consumption were tested and found very successful
during Phase II. In a nutrition rehabilitation centre (CREN) close to the capital city of
Ouagadougou, introducing RPO in the rehabilitation meals encouraged the mothers to
purchase some RPO to continue using it at home (Delisle, unpublished results). RPO was
also tested as a fortifi cant for Misola®, a locally prepared complementary food (weaning
mix), with the local unit of fabrication in one province. It proved technically feasible to
add 4–5% RPO without changing the process except for a slight reduction in groundnut
content, and the mothers and children liked it very much. RPO fortifi cation of Misola on a
broader scale could therefore have been considered if the RPO project had been sustained.
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 11
Blends of RPO with either groundnut oil or shea butter were tested among women
because mixing RPO with other local fats and oils may encourage its consumption without
changing cooking practices. The response was positive for both mixes. The taste of RPO
was found more acceptable when mixed with either fat and there was no technical problem
with mixing RPO with these other fats and oils. The tests were fi rst conducted in the RPO
pilot project area and, for that reason, we suspected that exposure to the RPO project
may have introduced some bias. The study was therefore repeated in a non-RPO area with
50 women (in charge of kitchen) randomly selected in the fi ve neighbourhoods of a town
located 20 km away from the capital city of Ouagadougou. Following the initial interview
of all women on their perceptions and use of fats and oils in general and RPO in particular,
12 women were retained for two focus groups, one on RPO mixed with peanut oil and
the other one on RPO mixed with shea butter. In each case, two different concentrations
of RPO were presented for evaluation and tasting. The women were then given samples
of the two mixtures (prepared with them) at the preferred RPO concentration for trial with
their family. A fi nal individual interview of these women was conducted 15 days later in
their home. The results showed that the mixtures were feasible and acceptable in terms
of colour, texture, taste and culinary use. Only one woman (out of 12) reported a negative
response. The mixtures with a lower RPO concentration (10%) were preferred. The mixture
of RPO with peanut oil was better rated than that with shea butter, and was considered
preferable to using RPO alone in various preparations. The women appeared ready to
prepare the mix again and they would even be willing to pay ~10% more for the mix
already prepared. Blending RPO with peanut oil therefore appeared as an interesting
strategy to promote RPO consumption.
4.5 Effects on women’s income and empowerment
During Phase III, there was particular emphasis on capacity building of women as producers
and consumers. RPO production increased, and women extracting the oil formed a
producers’ group (500 women in fi ve subgroups); they had planted dwarf palm trees and
were even given literacy and business training. Women producers were trained in palm
orchard and RPO management as well as advocacy, along with literacy training. Several
community workers were trained to carry social marketing campaigns for the promotion
of RPO consumption.
According to the survey ( Bougma, 2008 ), RPO-producing women perceived several
advantages to the activity: RPO availability for consumption (88%), potential source of
income (54%), and savings to attend to other needs (18%). The negative aspects were
that it is physically demanding (49%) and time consuming (20%). In Tin, the village where
the extraction unit is located, the 11 respondents (out of 20 in the unit) producing RPO
were highly satisfi ed with the extraction material making the process easier; they wanted
to remain members of the production group, and they reported that RPO production
was a source of income, whether used for investment by the group or shared among
members. Unfortunately, our plan to thoroughly assess the health and income effects of
RPO production and distribution could not materialize since Phase IV was not funded.
4.6 Perspectives
The ‘scaling-down’ of the project rather than its scaling-up prevented an adequate
assessment of the approach. It may even have had a negative effect in communities
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The nutritional value of red palm oil
12
© Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited, 2017. All rights reserved.
previously exposed to the pilot project. It would have been critical to thoroughly evaluate
the process, outcomes and impact of the approach, as there are few projects based on
local agriculture, focusing on women, and potentially benefi ting micronutrient health and
women’s income. It is unfortunate and indeed diffi cult to understand that this natural oil,
which is now even promoted as ‘natural’ or ‘health food’ in the West, has raised until now
so little enthusiasm among international decision-makers and donors.
As underlined by Rice et al. ( 2010 ), there are several barriers to expanding and scaling
up RPO-based interventions, including local food preferences, the availability and cost
of RPO and policies, and programmes and resources to fund such vitamin A initiatives.
Consumer acceptance may be an issue where populations are unfamiliar with RPO, but
not in Africa. Even if RPO is not produced locally, most African populations know RPO
and it is a prestige food in some cultures. The quality, shelf life and cost of RPO remain
challenges, however, in non-producing areas. Sustained investments in local palm oil
production in Africa have been advocated ( Skurtis et al., 2010 ), and it should have been
possible to encourage the use of the improved RPO-extracting technology in order for
the oil to retain its vitamin A activity and other oxidants, thereby contributing to improved
nutritional health and even contribution to income in Burkina Faso and neighbouring
Sahelian countries. As aptly stated by an eminent nutritionist ( Solomons, 1998 ), RPO
should have become the logical substitute for vitamin A capsules in Africa.
5 Conclusion
Crude RPO is the highest and most bioavailable plant source of vitamin A in the form
of carotenoids, primarily α - and β -carotenes. Palm oil is nearly 100% fat and it is 50%
saturated, whether crude or refi ned; it may therefore contribute to overweight as well
as nutrition-related chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease or diabetes ( Mensik,
2016 ). However, RPO may have important health benefi ts because of its high provitamin
A, vitamin E and other antioxidant content. Furthermore, unlike Malaysian plantations,
palm trees growing in the wild and small plantations in Africa are not detrimental to the
environment. The project in Burkina Faso showed that RPO was effective in improving
the vitamin A status of women, under-fi ve children and school-age children, that it is well
accepted by the population which is also willing to purchase the product, and that there
is income generation for women producing RPO. The project also confi rmed the high
vitamin A content of RPO, its safety, the motivation of women to engage in RPO extraction
as source of food and income and the prospective value of blending RPO with peanut oil
as a means of increasing the use of RPO (and the intake of vitamin A). The project was
deemed successful and the results impressive in spite of its small scale, but it proved
impossible to get further funding to scale up the initiative and mount the distribution
system.
6 Future trends
Implementation research would now be needed during a ‘revitalization’ phase of the
RPO project in Burkina Faso. Additionally, various RPO commercial distribution strategies
should be tested for their economic sustainability. Another area for promising research is
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The nutritional value of red palm oil 13
on the adoption of the improved technology for processing palm oil without destroying its
antioxidants – enabling factors and barriers.
Research on potential cost-effectiveness of RPO-based interventions has been
advocated because such data are missing ( Rice et al., 2010 ). However, cost-effectiveness
comparisons between RPO (and other food diversifi cation) interventions, vitamin A
capsule supplementation and food fortifi cation may not be appropriate and indeed
work against RPO (and other food diversifi cation schemes) as these are more expensive
for less spectacular results on vitamin A status. RPO-based projects have benefi ts other
than vitamin A status, and these benefi ts are not taken into account in cost-effectiveness
studies, for instance, the income effects and the effects on local agriculture and the anti-
erosion effects. For this reason, cost-utility evaluation or, even better, separated costs
and consequences are to be preferred in order to also take into account the benefi ts
other than nutritional. RPO production and distribution should be researched in inclusive
evaluation schemes.
7 Where to look for further information
The Micronutrient Forum: www.micronutrientforum.org
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil: http://www.rspo.org
Carotino
®
website: www.carotino.com/improving-vitamin-a-and-antioxidant-status-59.aspx
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