Effects of taurine supplementation in elite swimmers performance

Abstract

AIM
Taurine is considered a semi-essential amino acid characterized by having various physiological functions in the body that modulate mechanisms of action involved in the muscle contraction process, increased energy expenditure, insulin signaling pathway, carbohydrate metabolism, and scavenging free radicals. These functions are crucial for aerobic exercise performance; thus, taurine supplementation may benefit athletes’ performance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of taurine supplementation on the resting energy expenditure and physical performance of swimming athletes.

METHODS
In a double-blind study, 14 male swimmers were randomized into two groups: the taurine group (n = 7) and the placebo group (n = 7), which received 3 g per day of taurine or placebo in capsules during 8 weeks. Resting energy expenditure, plasma taurine, physical performance, anthropometry, dietary consumption were measured and an incremental test was performed to determine their maximal front crawl swimming performances before and after the 8-week period.

RESULTS
The levels of serum taurine (p < 0.0001) and lactate (p = 0.0130) showed a significant increase in the taurine group; however, the other variables were not different. No changes were observed in the resting energy expenditure, mean speed performed, and the anaerobic threshold of the swimmers post-supplementation period.

CONCLUSION
Supplementation of taurine increased plasma concentrations of this amino acid, but did not lead to significant changes in food intake, rest energy expenditure, and athletes’ performance. However, the supplemented group presented a higher lactate production, suggesting a possible positive effect of taurine on the anaerobic lactic metabolism.

Full text

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Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1980-6574201800010011
Introduction
Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) is a non-essential amino
acid found in abundance in mammalian cells, which is syn-
thesized from other sulfur-containing amino acids such as
methionine and cysteine. Although taurine can be obtained by
endogenous synthesis, there are reports in the literature showing
the endogenous production is insufcient for attending the body
requirement of taurine. This non-essential amino participates in
numerous biological and physiological functions like regulation
of calcium homeostasis in both skeletal muscle and cardiac tis-
sue
1,2
, increases muscle force
3
and insulin sensitivity
4
, improves
energy expenditure
5
and lipid metabolism
6
and prevents oxidative
stress in athletes7. Therefore, taurine must be obtained by food
intake and can be found mainly in sh and seafood2. This amino
acid does not participate in the process of protein synthesis2.
Among the functions related to taurine is the regulation of
intracellular calcium levels (Ca
2
+), membrane stabilizing
2,8
,
antioxidant7,8 and anti-inammatory processes9,10. Taurine can
modulate glucose metabolism potentiating the hepatic and muscu-
lar insulin signaling pathways
4,11.
Also, this amino acid modulates
the use of lipids, stimulating the expression of genes related to
the production of the following enzymes: lipoprotein lipase, acyl-
CoA oxidase, acyl-CoA synthase, and acyl-CoA dehydrogenase,
which are involved in the metabolism of lipid substrates5.
Due to the several effects attributed to the action of taurine
in the body, some investigations tried to understand the relation-
ship between this nutrient and physical exercise. According to
Bakker and Berg
12
, taurine can increase the transport of calcium
to myobrillar contractile proteins, optimizing skeletal muscle
function, with consequent benets to athletic performance. Acute
supplementation of 6 g/day of taurine for seven days signi-
cantly increased the time to exhaustion, maximum workload,
and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) on a cycle ergometer,
and reduced the oxidative stress markers13. Yatabe, Miyakawa,
Miyazaki, Matsuzaki, Ochiai
14
evaluated the taurine concentra-
tions in the skeletal muscles of rats and their time to exhaustion
after endurance running. The authors found that 0.5 g/kg/day of
taurine increased physical strength in the supplemented group.
In swimming, the contribution of the aerobic metabolism to
a maximal effort of 400 m may range from 25 to 83% of total
energy and can be inuenced by maximal oxygen uptake, meta-
bolic thresholds and peak speed performed15, 16. Thus, the use of
taurine supplementation may oppose the possible overproduction
of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Since other investigations
described nutritional inadequacies in competitive swimmers that
result in losses of recovery time and performance17, 18, some at-
tention must be given to the provision of adequate energy intake
of both macronutrients and micronutrients19.
Considering taurine supplementation has potential effects
on energy metabolism and muscle contraction strength, we
hypothesize that its use as an ergogenic resource will benet
swimmers’ performance, especially those performing efforts of
400 m. Thus, the primary aim of the present investigation was
to evaluate the effects of taurine supplementation on the resting
energy expenditure and physical performance of swimmers.
Original Article (short paper)
Effects of taurine supplementation in elite swimmers performance
Gabriela Batitucci1, Sara Ivone Barros Morhy Terrazas1, Mariana Pereira Nóbrega1, Flávia Giolo de Carvalho2, Marcelo Papoti2,
Júlio Sérgio Marchini 3, Adelino Sanchez Ramos da Silva2, Ellen Cristini de Freitas1,2
1Universidade Estadual Paulista, UNESP, Faculdade de Ciências Farmaceuticas, Araraquara, SP; 2Universida-
de de São Paulo, USP, Escola de Educação Física e Esporte de Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; 3Uni-
versidade de São Paulo, USP, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
Abstract — Aim: Taurine is considered a semi-essential amino acid characterized by having various physiological
functions in the body that modulate mechanisms of action involved in the muscle contraction process, increased energy
expenditure, insulin signaling pathway, carbohydrate metabolism, and scavenging free radicals. These functions are crucial
for aerobic exercise performance; thus, taurine supplementation may benet athletes’ performance. The objective of this
study was to evaluate the effects of taurine supplementation on the resting energy expenditure and physical performance
of swimming athletes. Methods: In a double-blind study, 14 male swimmers were randomized into two groups: the
taurine group (n = 7) and the placebo group (n = 7), which received 3 g per day of taurine or placebo in capsules during
8 weeks. Resting energy expenditure, plasma taurine, physical performance, anthropometry, dietary consumption were
measured and an incremental test was performed to determine their maximal front crawl swimming performances before
and after the 8-week period. Results: The levels of serum taurine (p < 0.0001) and lactate (p = 0.0130) showed a signicant
increase in the taurine group; however, the other variables were not different. No changes were observed in the resting
energy expenditure, mean speed performed, and the anaerobic threshold of the swimmers post-supplementation period.
Conclusion: Supplementation of taurine increased plasma concentrations of this amino acid, but did not lead to signicant
changes in food intake, rest energy expenditure, and athletes’ performance. However, the supplemented group presented a
higher lactate production, suggesting a possible positive effect of taurine on the anaerobic lactic metabolism.
Keywords: anaerobic lactic metabolism, energy expenditure, swim.

2Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137
Batitucci G. & Terrazas S.I.B.M. & Nóbrega M.P. & Carvalho F.G. & Papoti M. & Marchini J.S. & Silva A.S.R. & Freitas E.C.
Methods
Participants
The volunteers participating in the present study were 14 male
swimmers with 18-25 years of age, the weight of 78.6 ± 5.8 kg,
the height of 180.0 ± 4 cm, and a body mass index (BMI) of
24.1 ± 0.6 kg/m2. All volunteers were from the elite competitive
swim team of Ribeirão Preto city. These athletes regularly trained
two to three hours per day during a particular training period
and were competitive swimmers with a minimum of 3 years of
experience at regional and/or national competition level. Each
participant gave a written consent before the start of the study.
The inclusion criterion was based on their participation for at
least two consecutive years in national competitions. Also, they
were not using any medication at the time of the research. The
present study was approved by the Human Subject Committee
of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Food and Nutrition
Department / Food and Nutrition Postgraduate Program- São
Paulo State University (protocol nº 00526312.9.0000.5426).
Trial design
A double-blind and randomized study was conducted. The subjects
were divided randomly into two groups: the placebo group (n
= 7) and the taurine group (n = 7). The taurine group received
3g of taurine per day7,20, while the placebo group received 3g of
starch our, which was identical in appearance to taurine capsules.
After a fasting period of 8h, each volunteer was to the
University Hospital of Ribeirão Preto to measure resting energy
expenditure by indirect calorimetry, plasma taurine and anthro-
pometric measurements. Also, guidelines were given to complete
the three-day food register. These evaluations were performed
before and after eight weeks of placebo or taurine supplementation.
Supplementation protocol
The participants were instructed to intake 3 grams of pure
taurine7,20 or placebo, which refers to 3 capsules containing 1g
of the supplement, every day in the morning before breakfast,
during an eight-week period. The taurine powder was obtained
from Ajinomoto (Aminoethylsulfonic Acid, Ajinomoto R, São
Paulo, SP) and the capsules were manipulated by the Department
of Industrial Pharmacy of the School of Medicine of Ribeirão
Preto, University of São Paulo. Swimmers were instructed to
avoid taurine food sources such as sh, seafood, and energy
drinks during the study protocol.
Nutritional assessments
Dietary intake was assessed using three-day dietary records.
The records were lled by the volunteers on 2 weekdays and 1
weekend day. The software DietPro 5.1 (A.S. Sistemas, Viçosa,
MG, Brazil) was used to quantify the intake of macronutrients
and total energy of athletes.
Measurement of resting energy expenditure
The resting energy expenditure (REE) was determined by
indirect calorimetry. The subjects were instructed to breathe
immediately into a face mask (Hans Rudolph, Kansas City,
MO, USA) connected to a breath-by-breath gas analyses system
Medics Calorimeter® (SensorMedics Corporation, Yorba Linda,
California, USA). After a fasting period of 8h, the athletes were
evaluated during the 30-minute test18. The values with varia-
tions higher than 10% were not used. Also, the average of the
values of oxygen uptake (VO2) and carbon dioxide elimination
(VCO2) was used to calculate energy expenditure according to
Weir’s formula21.
Plasma taurine assay
The concentrations of plasma taurine were determined by
high-performance liquid chromatography (Shimadzu model
LC 10AD) using a Shimadzu Model RF-535 uorescence
detector. Taurine 99 % was used as standard (Sigma-Aldrich,
St. Louis, MO, USA)22.
Performance test protocol
After 15 min of warm-up (i.e., 500m of low and moderate inten-
sity), the swimmers randomly performed three 400-m front-crawl
submaximal efforts with 3 min of passive recovery in between
and in intensities corresponding to 85, 90, and 100% of the
maximum velocity obtained by the athletes for this swimming
distance23. It is important to point out the maximal velocity for
the 400-m swimming distance was measured before and after
the 8-week period. The motion-analysis software KinoveaTM
(version 0.8.15, available for download at http://www.kinovea.
org) was used to analyze performance (time and velocity). The
tests were performed in a 25-m swimming pool with a water
temperature of 25 ± 1ºC.
Blood samples were obtained from the earlobes in 25 μL
heparinized capillary tubes 1min after the end of each effort.
Also, after the last effort of 400 m, blood samples were also taken
after 3 and 5min to measure peak blood lactate concentrations23.
Blood lactate concentrations were assayed by a lactate analyzer
(YSI 2300 Sport, Yellow Spring Instruments, Yellow Springs,
Ohio). The swimming intensity corresponding to the 4.0 mM
blood lactate concentration was considered as the anaerobic
threshold24 and was obtained by the exponential interpolation
of the lactatemia vs. swimming intensity curve.
Statistical analyses
Shapiro-Wilk and Levene’s tests were applied to assess nor-
mality and homogeneity, respectively. Two-way repeated
measures analysis of variance followed by Sidak post hoc test
were conducted to compare changes within and between groups
(Placebo versus Taurine). In cases of nonparametric distribution,

Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137 3
Taurine supplementation and swimmers performance.
Friedman test was applied. For data with heterogeneous vari-
ances, Welch test was conducted. The level of signicance was
set at p ≤ 0.05 in all analyses and data were expressed as mean
± standard deviation and as condence intervals graphics.
Results
The plasma taurine concentrations were not different between the
studied groups at baseline. After the 8-week period, the taurine
group showed a signicant increase in plasma taurine (Taurine
group pre: 104.75 ± 88.33 nmol/L; Taurine group post: 3983.48
± 768.87 nmol/L, p < 0.0001). Also, compared to the placebo
group, the taurine group showed a signicant increase of plasma
taurine (Placebo group pre: 49.91 ± 8.1 nmol/L; Placebo group
post: 174.00 ± 120.29 nmol/L).
Figure 1 shows the parameters assessed by the three-day
dietary records. The intake of calories and macronutrients
(carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) was similar between the
groups, before and after the period of taurine supplementation.
Figure 1. Evaluation of food intake before (Pre) and after (Post) 8 weeks of placebo or taurine supplementation (n = 14).
2000.00
2500.00
3000.00
3500.00
4000.00
4500.00
Energy (Kcal) CI 95%
Pre PrePost Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Placebo
Taurine
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre PrePost Post
Placebo Taurine
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00
18.00
Protein (% of Energy)
CI 95%
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
Lipids (% of Energy) CI 95%
40.00
45.00
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
Carbohydrates (% of Energy)
CI 95%
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.50
1.70
1.90
2.10
2.30
Protein (g/kg) CI 95%
Figure 2 shows the values obtained by the indirect calo-
rimetry before and after the intervention period. No signicant
differences were found between the groups and periods studied.
Regarding blood lactate concentrations, the taurine group
increased all values after the supplementation period. First
effort of 400m: F(1,12) = 8.161, p < 0.05; Second effort of 400m:
F(1,12) = 12.007, p < 0.05; Third effort of 400m: F(1,12) = 8.423,
p < 0.05; 3 min after the third effort of 400m: F(1,12) = 49.211,
p < 0.05; 5 min after the third effort of 400m: F(1,12) = 34.669,
p < 0.05) (Figure 3).

4Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137
Batitucci G. & Terrazas S.I.B.M. & Nóbrega M.P. & Carvalho F.G. & Papoti M. & Marchini J.S. & Silva A.S.R. & Freitas E.C.
Figure 2. Evaluation of REE, VO2, VCO2 and QR before (Pre) and after (Post) 8 weeks of placebo or taurine supplementation (n = 14).
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
REE (Kcal/min) CI 95%
2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20 0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.55
VO2 (ml/kg/min)
CI 95%
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
VC02 (ml/kg/min) CI 95%
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
0.75
QR (Kcal/g)
CI 95%
Figure 3. Evaluation of blood lactate concentrations (mmol/L) before (Pre) and after (Post) 8 weeks of placebo or taurine supplementation (n =
14). * Statistical difference in relation to “Pre Taurine” at p ≤ 0.05.
*
First effort of 400m
Third effort of 400m
Second effort of 400m
*
**
3 min after the third effort of 400m
*
5 min after the third effort of 400m
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
Lactate (mmol/L)
CI 95%
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
Lactate (mmol/L)
CI 95%
3.00
5.00
7.00
9.00
11.00
13.00
15.00
Lactate (mmol/L)
CI 95%
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
Lactate (mmol/L)
CI 95%
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
Lactate (mmol/L)
CI 95%

Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137 5
Taurine supplementation and swimmers performance.
Figure 4 shows the mean speed achieved in each effort
of 400 m and the anaerobic threshold of the swimmers. No
signicant changes were observed before and after the supple-
mentation period.
Figure 4. Evaluation of mean speeds (m/s) before (Pre) and after (Post) 8 weeks of placebo or taurine supplementation (n = 14).
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
PostPre
Taurine
PostPre
Placebo
Taurine
Pre Post
Placebo
Pre Post
Taurine
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.42
1.44
1.18
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.30
1.32
1.34
1.36
1.38
1.28
Speed of the first effort of 400m
CI 95%
Speed of the second effort of 400m
CI 95%
Speed of the third effort of 400m
CI 95%
Anaerobic threshold
CI 95%
Discussion
In this study, we examined the effects of eight weeks of taurine
supplementation on energy consumption, resting energy expen-
diture and swimmers’ performance. The levels of serum taurine
and lactate showed a signicant increase in the taurine group;
however, the other variables were not statistically signicant.
No changes were observed in the resting energy expenditure, the
mean speed achieved in each effort of 400 m, and the anaerobic
threshold of the swimmers post-supplementation period.
The plasma taurine concentrations were not different between
groups at baseline. However, eight weeks of supplementation of
3g of taurine increased its plasma concentration (p < 0.0001) in
22.89 times compared to the placebo group, which evidenced
the effectiveness of the current supplementation protocol.
Similar results were found by Galloway, Talanian, Shoveller,
Heigenhauser, Spriet
25
that used an acute supplementation of 5g
of taurine in physically active subjects and detected an increase
of approximately 16 times in the plasma taurine concentration
compared to the baseline condition. According to Bakker and
Berg
26
, the content of taurine in muscle cells can modulate
contractile muscle activity. Therefore, the increase of plasma
taurine may be benecial for the athlete, because can promote
the maintenance of muscular integrity.
Adequate energy consumption is essential to maintain the
performance, body composition, and health of athletes (American
College of Sports Medicine Joint Position Statement)27. Herein,
energy intake ranged from 3120 to 3720 Kcal/day, and we did
not verify signicant differences in total calories and macronu-
trients consumed between the groups or between the evaluated
time periods. Since we did not observe signicant changes in
body mass, we consider that the energy intake was sufcient to
deal with the energy requirements imposed by the total energy
expenditure of the athletes. Furthermore, their energy intake
attended the nutritional recommendations for athletes suggested
by American College of Sports Nutrition27, which refers to 45
kcal/kg of body weight.
Regarding the effects of taurine supplementation on athletes’
performance, Balshaw, Bampouras Barry, Sparks28 observed that
the acute use of 1g of taurine in runners improved their time
trial performances. However, their oxygen uptake and blood
lactate concentrations were not inuenced by this dose. The
authors considered that the probability that their performance
results were associated with the action of taurine was 99.3%,
although it was noted that the mechanism of taurine action has
not yet been elucidated.
In the current investigation, the mean speeds of the three
efforts of 400 m and the anaerobic threshold were not affected

6Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, n.1, 2018, e1018137
Batitucci G. & Terrazas S.I.B.M. & Nóbrega M.P. & Carvalho F.G. & Papoti M. & Marchini J.S. & Silva A.S.R. & Freitas E.C.
by the chronic use of 3g of taurine. However, after the eight
weeks of intervention, the taurine group increased the blood
lactate concentrations measured after the three efforts of 400 m
as well as those measured at the third and fth minute after the
third effort of 400 m. These results suggest that taurine supple-
mentation stimulated the use of the anaerobic lactic metabolism
during the efforts of 400 m. Also, despite the increased lactate
production, our results showed that the taurine supplemented
athletes did not decrease the speed performed even when the
lactate production was higher than the placebo group.
Also, Beyranvand, Khala, Roshan, Choobineh, Parsa,
Piranfar
29
evaluated the effects of 1.5 g supplementation for two
weeks in seven patients with cardiac insufciency. The authors
observed that the application of an exercise capacity test per-
formed before and after taurine supplementation resulted in a
greater ability to perform the exercise, including an increase in
time and distance when compared to the control group. Their
results suggest that taurine optimized the performance of the
test by increasing the tolerance to the effort.
It is well established in the literature that the physiological
adaptations of the athlete are highly specic to the nature of
the training30. In practical terms, the difference of 0.027 m/s
found between the speed attained at baseline and after taurine
supplementation could be crucial in athletic performance during
competition. In fact, in the last Absolute Brazilian Swimming
Championships - Maria Lenk Trophy-2016, the difference in
mean speed between the rst and second place in the 400 m
competition was 0.007 m/s31.
Considering that all participants underwent the same training
program in the current study, we can hypothesize that the statisti-
cal difference observed in the concentration of lactate and the
slight alteration in average speed may be associated with taurine
supplementation. However, more studies are needed to evaluate
the effects of chronic supplementation of taurine on swimmer’s
performance to elucidate the mechanisms associated with tau-
rine and increased lactate production as well as the viability of
its consumption for enhancing the training capacity of athletes.
Conclusions
The results of this study showed that supplementation of taurine
during the eight-week period in elite swimmers did not promote
signicant changes in rest energy expenditure and 400 m per-
formance; however, there were observed higher levels of blood
lactate after all efforts without impairing speed performance.
Thus, taurine supplementation may contribute to the anaerobic
lactic metabolism. As a practical application, taurine supple-
mentation may allow the performance of training sessions that
emphasize the anaerobic lactic metabolism development.
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Corresponding Author
Ellen Cristini de Freitas
School of Physical Education and Sports of Ribeirão Preto, University of Sao Pau-
lo, EEFERP/USP. Exercise Physiology and Metabolism Laboratory.
Bandeirantes Avenue, 3900 - Monte Alegre. Ribeirão Preto , São Paulo, Brazil.
Email: ellenfreitas@usp.br
Manuscript received on September 23, 2017
Manuscript accepted on February 7, 2018
Motriz. The Journal of Physical Education. UNESP. Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
- eISSN: 1980-6574 – under a license Creative Commons - Version 4.0