Chapter

Process Contaminants: A Review

Authors:
  • National Agricultural and Food Centre / VUP Food Research Institute Bratislava, Slovakia
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... PAHs can be divided into light and heavy, depending on the number of aromatic rings in the molecule. Heavy PAHs are considerably more toxic than light ones (EFSA 2008;Murkovic et al. 2018;Singh et al. 2016). ...
... In 2002, the European Commission's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) ruled that 15 PAHs are genotoxic carcinogens (SCF 2002 PAHs have been detected in soil, sediments, water and air (Hong et al. 2016;Tomaz et al. 2017), as well as in foodstuffs (Ciecierska and Obiedziński 2013b;Murkovic et al. 2018;Singh et al. 2016;Surma et al. 2018). Food contamination with PAHs may both be a result of general environment pollution, heat processing during food production and its preparation for consumption. ...
... Arabica and Robusta coffee beans of different origins and different state: both green and roasted in an electric coffee roaster were examined. During previous studies concerning PAHs occurrence in food, it was established that 4 light PAHs, known as phenanthrene (Phen), anthracene (Anthr), fluoranthene (F) and pyrene (Pyr), had always been considered dominant in PAHs qualitative profiles (Ciecierska and Obiedziński 2010;Murkovic et al. 2018). Therefore, apart from 15 heavy PAHs, which were listed to be monitored by the SCF, also the above-mentioned 4 light PAHs listed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) were determined in analysed coffee samples. ...
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this research was to establish the effect of mild roasting on coffee beans contamination level by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The materials investigated were green Arabica and Robusta coffee beans imported from different countries, as well as those already roasted. The experiment was carried out in a coffee-roasting plant, with the use of an electric coffee roaster, at the temperature of 125–135 °C for 25–26 min. PAHs analysis was conducted by means of high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence and diode array detectors (HPLC-FLD/DAD). Results had been verified by means of gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. Contamination level for 19 PAHs, 15 of which were heavy PAHs included on the list of European Union Scientific Committee in Food, varied from 4.29 to 16.17 µg/kg in roasted coffee beans, whereas in green coffee beans varied from 8.66 to 76.63 µg/kg. The results of statistical analysis showed that the contamination level in roasted coffee beans was significantly lower than that in green beans. The applied parameters of roasting did not lead to the occurrence of conditions in which PAHs, especially heavy ones, would possibly be formed. On the contrary, the roasting process itself had significantly reduced the PAHs content in the final product. The reason for this phenomenon was relatively high volatility of light PAHs.
... However, three potential mechanisms concerning the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons in food, the combustion of cooking fuel, and fat droplets over an open flame are commonly acknowledged as the primary contributors to PAH formation in processed food [3,12,13]. Notably, smoking, grilling, roasting, and direct drying are significant contributors to elevated food contamination levels [14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... However, the low porosity (approx. 16.6%) of synthetic coatings keeps the fat content in the smoked product unchanged. Consequently, the surface of the casing remains dry, non-sticky, and smooth, exhibiting less affinity for smoke particles and, therefore, also for PAH particles. ...
Article
Full-text available
To ensure food safety and protect human health, the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in model smoked-pork meat products were examined to select which type of casing and variant of raw material contributes to minimizing the content of PAHs in the final products. The sausages were smoked in a steam smoke chamber with an external smoke generator. The determination of PAHs was performed using the QuEChERS-HPLC-FLD/DAD method. The analyzed products met the requirements of Commission Regulation (EU) No. 835/2011 on the maximum permissible levels of PAHs. Statistically higher sums of 19 PAHs, including 15 heavy and 4 marker PAHs, were stated in smoked sausages in natural and cellulose casings. Synthetic casings like collagen and polyamide exhibited better barriers against PAH contamination than cellulose and natural casings. For each type of casing, significantly higher concentrations of PAHs were found in the external parts of the products. An increase in the fat content of the raw material increased the levels of PAH contamination in the products, regardless of the casing. Therefore, in industrial practice, the selection of an appropriate type of casing and raw material with the lowest possible fat content can be an effective method for reducing PAH levels in the interior of smoked meat products.
... Among compounds analysed, the above-mentioned 15 heavy PAHs from the SCF list, including 4 marker PAHs, and 4 light PAHs (phenanthrene (Phen), anthracene (Anthr), fluoranthene (F) and pyrene (Pyr)), from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) list, were determined. The extension of the analysed 15 heavy PAHs by an additional 4 light PAHs resulted from the fact, that in previous studies on PAHs contamination of food products, these compounds had always dominated in the qualitative and quantitative profiles of PAHs (Ciecierska et al., 2019;Murkovic, Pedreschi, & Ciesarova, 2019;Sadowska-Rociek, Cieślik, & Sieja, 2015;Żyżelewicz et al., 2017). beans of two different varieties and origins (Trinitario from Nicaragua and Criollo from Venezuela) were additionally roasted at a lower temperature than typically used (160°C), and for a longer time, that is at 140°C for 40 min. ...
Article
Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cocoa beans of several varieties originating from different countries and their derived products from one technological line were examined. PAHs analysis was performed using HPLC-FLD/DAD and confirmed by GC-MS. Significant differences in total 19 PAHs contents between raw cocoa beans of different varieties and origins were observed. The highest sums of 19 PAHs were determined in roasted cocoa beans, cocoa mass and cocoa butter (16.69-74.15 μg kg-1 of fat). The roasting temperature of 160 °C led to PAHs formation, though not the heavy ones. Lowering temperature to 140 °C while extending the time minimized the total contamination but to a small extent. In all samples relatively low levels of total contamination were noted, with light PAHs being predominant and the sum of 4 heavy and marker PAHs much lower than the maximum legal limit. Therefore, analysed products, especially chocolate, do not threaten consumers' health.
Chapter
The problem of processing contaminants is now one of the most challenging issues the food industry needs to address. Heat processing contaminants may be defined as substances that are produced in a food when it is cooked or processed, and they are not present or present at much lower concentrations in the raw, unprocessed food. These heat toxic compounds and undesirable either because they have an adverse effect on product quality or because they are potentially harmful. It is important to highlight that Maillard Reaction (Mr) is the most important chemical reaction occurring during food processing at high temperature unit operations since it is crucial for the development of attractive sensory food attributes of the final products, improving their digestibility, ensuring microbial safety, and developing flavor and taste to name just three. On the other hand, Mr has shown that heating of starchy and protein food matrixes can generate various kinds of potentially toxic compounds (PTCs). Consequently, PTCs could be mitigated by favoring the processing conditions under which Mr is inhibited and/or reducing the PTC crucial precursors in raw food materials before being heated at high temperature unit operations such as frying, extrusion, roasting, grilling, baking, and among others. Mr also plays a crucial role in the heat formation of some PCTs such as acrylamide (AA), furan, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and heterocyclic amines (HAs) either in starchy and/or protein food matrixes processed by excessive heating. In this chapter, we will present some of the most important PTCs in foods such as AA, furan, HMF, and HAs. We will show you some mitigation strategies for PTCs considering the following issues: (1) raw materials and precursor contents specific for the formation of one or more PCTs, (2) heating processing conditions, and (3) mecanism(s) of PTC formation under specific conditions. This information will help you to generate foods heated at high processing temperatures while minimizing PCT formation and preserving the quality attributes of the desired food product. In this way, we will contribute in reducing the exposure of consumers to dietary PCTs.
Article
Full-text available
Furan is generally produced during thermal processing of various foods including baked, fried, and roasted food items such as cereal products, coffee, canned, and jarred prepared foods as well as in baby foods. Furan is a toxic and carcinogenic compound to humans and may be a vital hazard to infants and babies. Furan could be formed in foods through thermal degradation of carbohydrates, dissociation of amino acids, and oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The detection of furan in food products is difficult due to its high volatility and low molecular weight. Headspace solid‐phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometer (GC/MS) is generally used for analysis of furan in food samples. The risk assessment of furan can be characterized using margin of exposure approach (MOE). Conventional strategies including cooking in open vessels, reheating of commercially processed foods with stirring, and physical removal using vacuum treatment have remained unsuccessful for the removal of furan due to the complex production mechanisms and possible precursors of furan. The innovative food‐processing technologies such as high‐pressure processing (HPP), high‐pressure thermal sterilization (HPTS), and Ohmic heating have been adapted for the reduction of furan levels in baby foods. But in recent years, only HPP has gained interest due to successful reduction of furan because of its nonthermal mechanism. HPP‐treated baby food products are commercially available from different food companies. This review summarizes the mechanism involved in the formation of furan in foods, its toxicity, and identification in infant foods and presents a solution for limiting its formation, occurrence, and retention using novel strategies.
Article
Full-text available
Consumers like fried snacks, and taste, color, and texture are key aspects in their preference. However, during frying of foods some toxic compounds, such as furan and acrylamide, are produced. The objective of this work was to mitigate furan and acrylamide formation in potato chips, without affecting their main quality attributes, by using vacuum frying. To accomplish this purpose, potato slices were fried at atmospheric (Pabs 29.92 inHg) and vacuum conditions (Pabs 3.00 inHg), using equivalent thermal driving forces (Twater boiling point − Toil = 50, 60, or 70 °C). Furan and acrylamide concentration, oil content, and texture of both atmospheric and vacuum-fried samples were determined. Vacuum-fried potato chips showed reductions of about 81, 58, and 28% of furan, acrylamide, and oil content, respectively, when compared to their atmospheric counterparts. Additionally, the texture was not affected (p > 0.05) by changes in the pressure during frying. Results clearly showed that vacuum frying is an effective technology for furan and acrylamide mitigation in potato chips, since it reduces the content of both contaminants and preserves the quality attributes of fried snacks.
Article
Full-text available
Occurrence and toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been extensively studied in countries all over the world. PAHs generally occur in complex mixtures which may consist of hundreds of compounds. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed in the 1970 to monitor a set of 16 PAHs which are frequently found in environmental samples. This article reviews the suitability of the 16 EPA PAHs for the assessment of potential health threats to humans stemming from the exposure to PAHs by food ingestion. It presents details on analysis methods, the occurrence of PAHs in food, regulatory aspects, and related risk management approaches. In addition, consideration is given to newer evaluations of the toxicity of PAHs and the requirements for risk assessment and management stemming from them.
Article
EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on acrylamide (AA) in food. AA has widespread uses as an industrial chemical. It is also formed when certain foods are prepared at temperatures above 120 °C and low moisture, especially in foods containing asparagine and reducing sugars. The CONTAM Panel evaluated 43 419 analytical results from food commodities. AA was found at the highest levels in solid coffee substitutes and coffee, and in potato fried products. Mean and 95th percentile dietary AA exposures across surveys and age groups were estimated at 0.4 to 1.9 µg/kg body weight (b.w.) per day and 0.6 to 3.4 µg/kg b.w. per day, respectively. The main contributor to total dietary exposure was generally the category ‘Potato fried products (except potato crisps and snacks)’. Preferences in home-cooking can have a substantial impact on human dietary AA exposure. Upon oral intake, AA is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed to all organs. AA is extensively metabolised, mostly by conjugation with glutathione but also by epoxidation to glycidamide (GA). Formation of GA is considered to represent the route underlying the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of AA. Neurotoxicity, adverse effects on male reproduction, developmental toxicity and carcinogenicity were identified as possible critical endpoints for AA toxicity from experimental animal studies. The data from human studies were inadequate for dose-response assessment. The CONTAM Panel selected BMDL10 values of 0.43 mg/kg b.w. per day for peripheral neuropathy in rats and of 0.17 mg/kg b.w. per day for neoplastic effects in mice. The Panel concluded that the current levels of dietary exposure to AA are not of concern with respect to non-neoplastic effects. However, although the epidemiological associations have not demonstrated AA to be a human carcinogen, the margins of exposure (MOEs) indicate a concern for neoplastic effects based on animal evidence.
Chapter
Acrylamide (AA) (CAS number 79-06-1) (CH2=CH–CO–NH2), a white, odorless, toxic crystalline compound is produced mainly for the synthesis of nontoxic polyacrylamide, which is used as a flocculent in water treatment, and as a binder in pulp and paper processing. AA affects the nervous system even at low levels, causing hallucinations and drowsiness (IARC 1994). Human health effects associated with consumption of small amounts of AA over long periods of time are not known (Bent et al. 2012). AA vapors irritate the eyes and skin and cause paralysis of the cerebrospinal system (Kotsiou et al. 2011). Chronic exposure results in neurotoxicity in animals and humans, and AA has been found to be carcinogenic to laboratory animals. As a result, AA has been classified as “probably carcinogenic to humans” (Group 2A) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1994).
Article
Meat products are sources of protein with high biological value and an essential source of other nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals. Heating processes cause food to become more appetizing with changes in texture, appearance, flavor, and chemical properties by the altering of protein structure and other ingredients. During heat treatment, heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), potent mutagens/carcinogens, are formed due to the Maillard reaction. The HAAs are classified in at least 2 groups: thermic HAAs (100 to 300 °C) and pyrolytic HAAs (>300 °C). This review focuses on the parameters and precursors which affect the formation of HAAs: preparation, such as the marinating of meat, and cooking methods, including temperature, duration, and heat transfer, as well as levels of precursors. Additionally, factors are described subject to pH, and the type of meat and ingredients, such as added antioxidants, types of carbohydrates and amino acids, ions, fat, and other substances inhibiting or enhancing the formation of HAAs. An overview of the different analytical methods available is shown to determine the HAAs, including their preparation to clean up the sample prior to extraction. Epidemiological results and human daily intake of HAAs obtained from questionnaires show a relationship between the preference for very well-done meat products with increased HAA levels and an enhanced risk of the incidence of cancer, besides other carcinogens in the diet. The metabolic pathway of HAAs is governed by the activity of several enzymes leading to the formation of DNA adducts or HAA excretion and genetic sensitivity of individuals to the impact of HAAs on human cancer risk.
Book
Acrylamide in Food: Analysis, Content and Potential Health Effects provides the recent analytical methodologies for acrylamide detection, up-to-date information about its occurrence in various foods (such as bakery products, fried potato products, coffee, battered products, water, table olives etc.), and its interaction mechanisms and health effects. The book is designed for food scientists, technologists, toxicologists, and food industry workers, providing an invaluable industrial reference book that is also ideal for academic libraries that cover the domains of food production or food science. As the World Health Organization has declared that acrylamide represents a potential health risk, there has been, in recent years, an increase in material on the formation and presence of acrylamide in different foods. This book compiles and synthesizes that information in a single source, thus enabling those in one discipline to become familiar with the concepts and applications in other disciplines of food science. • Provides latest information on acrylamide in various foods (bakery products, fried potato products, coffee, battered products, water, table olives, etc.) • Explores acrylamide in the food chain in the context of harm, such as acrylamide and cancer, neuropathology of acrylamide, maternal acrylamide and effects on offspring and its toxic effects in tissues • Touches on a variety of subjects, including acrylamide, high heated foods, dietary acrylamide, acrylamide formation, N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-cysteine (AAMA), acrylamide removal, L-asparaginase, and acrylamide determination • Presents recent analytical methodologies for acrylamide determination, including liquid chromatographic tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Foods: Possible Human Carcinogens
  • R H Admanson
  • J A Gustafsson
  • N Ito
  • M Nagao
  • T Sugimura
Admanson, R.H., Gustafsson, J.A., Ito, N., Nagao, M., Sugimura, T., et al., 1995. Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Foods: Possible Human Carcinogens. Princeton Scientific, New Jersey USA.