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ONCOLOGY LETTERS
Abstract. Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation was
classied in 2011 as a possible human carcinogen, Group 2B,
by the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the
World Health Organisation. Evidence of the risk of cancer risk
has since strengthened. Exposure is changing due to the rapid
development of technology resulting in increased ambient
radiation. RF radiation of sufcient intensity heats tissues, but
the energy is insufcient to cause ionization, hence it is called
non‑ionizing radiation. These non‑thermal exposure levels
have resulted in biological effects in humans, animals and
cells, including an increased cancer risk. In the present study,
the levels of RF radiation were measured in an apartment close
to two groups of mobile phone base stations on the roof. A total
of 74,531 measurements were made corresponding to ~83 h of
recording. The total mean RF radiation level was 3,811 µW/m2
(range 15.2‑112,318 µW/m2) for the measurement of the whole
apartment, including balconies. Particularly high levels were
measured on three balconies and 3 of 4 bedrooms. The total
mean RF radiation level decreased by 98% when the measured
down‑links from the base stations for 2, 3 and 4 G were disre‑
garded. The results are discussed in relation to the detrimental
health effects of non‑thermal RF radiation. Due to the current
high RF radiation, the apartment is not suitable for long‑term
living, particularly for children who may be more sensitive
than adults. For a denitive conclusion regarding the effect
of RF radiation from nearby base stations, one option would
be to turn them off and repeat the measurements. However,
the simplest and safest solution would be to turn them off and
dismantle them.
Introduction
The use of wireless digital technology has grown rapidly during
the last couple of decades. While in use, mobile and cordless
phones emit ra d iof requ e n c y (RF ) ra diat i o n. Th e br ai n is th e ma i n
target of exposu r e to RF radiatio n with handheld wi reless phones
(mobile and cordless) (1,2). An increased risk for brain tumors
has been of concern for a long time. In May 2011, RF radiation
in the range 30‑300 GHz could be categorized in Group 2B,
i.e., a ‘possible’ human carcinogen, by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC) of WHO (3,4). The decision
was based mainly on case‑control human studies on the use
of wireless phones by the Hardell group in Sweden (mobile
and cordless phones; DECT) and the IARC Interphone study
(mobile phones), which showed an increased risk for brain and
head tumours, i.e., glioma and acoustic neuroma (3‑6), which
has since been conrmed (7‑10), resulting in a recommendation
to upgrade IARC's 2011 classication of RF radiation to Group
1, a human carcinogen. This conclusion was published in our
up‑dated review in 2013 (11) using the so‑called Hill viewpoints
on the association or causation put forward at the height of the
tobacco and lung cancer controversy (12).
Due to the increasing use of the wireless technology, envi‑
ronmental exposure to RF radiation has been increasing, but
there has been no systematic study of ambient exposure. We
have measured RF radiation at Stockholm Central Station (13)
and the Stockholm Old Town in Sweden (14). The results
generally exceeded the levels known to have adverse biological
effects. By contrast, low levels were measured at certain places
in the WHO building in Geneva (15).
We have measured RF radiation in an apartment with a
central location at Östermalm in Stockholm. The apartment is
located on the 6th oor, with a tower including a bedroom on
the rst oor of the tower (7th oor) and a conference room on
the second and highest oor (8th) of the tower, at the same level
as the roof of the building. The measurements did not involve
any human subjects, and therefore no ethical permission was
needed. We also discuss laboratory studies on RF‑radiation and
biological effects relative to the levels of RF in question. Of
particular interest are the non‑thermal levels of RF radiation and
Radiofrequency radiation from nearby base stations gives high
levels in an apartment in Stockholm, Sweden: A case report
LENNART HARDELL1,2,4, MICHAEL CARLBERG1,2 and LENA K. HEDENDAHL2,3
1Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University,
SE‑701 82 Örebro; 2The Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, SE‑702 17 Örebro;
3Independent Environment and Health Research Luleå, SE‑972 53 Luleå, Sweden
Received November 16, 2017; Accepted February 22, 2018
DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8285
Correspondence to: Professor Lennart Hardell, Department of
Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University,
1 Fakultetsgatan, SE‑701 82 Örebro, Sweden
E‑mail: lennart.hardell@environmentandcancer.com
4Present address: The Environment and Cancer Research
Foundation, Studievägen 35, SE‑702 17 Örebro, Sweden
Key wo rds: radiofrequency radiation, microwaves, measurement,
exposure, health, cancer
HARDELL et al: RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION AMBIENT EXPOSURE
2
biological effects. For comparison, radiation was also measured
in another apartment located on the 3rd oor in a high building
of 9 oors at Gärdet in central part of Stockholm.
Materials and methods
EME‑Spy 200 exposimeter. To measure RF radiation,
a calibrated exposimeter EME‑Spy 200 (Satimo, MVG
Industries, Brest, France) was used. The instrument measures
20 predefined frequency bands (Table I), which cover the
frequencies of most public RF radiation emitting devices
now in use in Sweden. These frequencies are from 87 to
5,850 MHz. For frequency modulation (FM), TV3, TETRA,
TV4&5, Wi‑Fi 2.4 GHz and Wi‑Fi 5 GHz, the lower detection
limit is 0.01 V/m (0.27 µW/m2). For all other bands, the lower
detection limit is 0.005 V/m (0.066 µW/m2). For all bands, the
upper detection limit is 6 V/m (95,544 µW/m2). Samples were
taken every 4th second.
The exposimeter measures different telecommunications
protocols: FM radio broadcasting; TV broadcasting; TETRA
emergency services (police and rescue); GSM second genera‑
tion mobile communications, 2G; UMTS third generation
mobile communications, 3G; long‑term evolution (LTE) fourth
generation mobile communications standard, 4G; digital
European cordless telecommunications (DECT) cordless
telephone systems standard; Wi‑Fi 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz wire‑
less local area network protocol; worldwide interoperability
for microwave access (WiMAX) wireless communication
standard for high‑speed voice, data and Internet.
EME‑Spy 200 has a 3‑axis antenna to capture RF radia‑
tion from every direction. The unit reports the exposure after
statistical processing, since each value is a sampling outcome
of many readings after statistical analysis, including minimum,
mean, median and maximum values.
Study design. Measurements were taken on June 5, 6, and
August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017. Some measurements were made
during the night to assess variation of RF exposure from
daytime readings. While walking through all the rooms and
balconies, the effect of body shielding was minimized by the
exposimeter being held about 0.4 m in front of the investigator.
More extended measurements were then taken in places
judged to be of interest‑bedrooms and the living room. The
exposimeter was placed where people tend to occupy, e.g.,
corresponding to the upper part of the body, including the head
of a bed. Three of the ve balconies were located close to the
2 groups of base stations located on the roofs. The closest base
stations were only 6 m from the balcony outside the tower.
Measurements in another apartment for comparison
at Gärdet, Stockholm were taken on October 27‑29 and
November 6, 2017. This was a smaller apartment with a
balcony and no visible surrounding base stations. A group of
base stations are located at the top of another 9 oor building,
but in the opposite direction to this apartment.
Statistical methods. Means, medians, minimum, and maximum
values in µW/m2 were calculated for all measured frequency
bands, and box plots and bar graphs were constructed to illus‑
trate the distribution of total exposure for all measurement
rounds. Values at the lower detection limit were treated as
zero exposure. Total exposure was calculated as the sum of all
measured frequency bands. Stata/SE 12.1 (Stata/SE 12.1 for
Windows; StataCorp., College Station, TX, USA) was used for
all calculations.
Results
Whole apartment. The total of measurements made at the apart‑
ment in Östermalm was 74,531 readings (~83 h of recording).
The daily data were consistent; therefore, totals are presented
for the whole apartment including different locations. Some
places of interest will be discussed in greater detail. The results
are given as numbers of readings (measurements), and as mean,
median, minimum and maximum values in µW/m2.
Table II shows mean level 3,810.8 µW/m2 for the total
measurement of the whole apartment, including balconies, a
high maximum level of 112,318 µW/m2 being recorded. Over
55% of the mean level was caused by the 4 G down link from
base stations (LTE 800 and LTE 2600). The 3G down link
(GSM+UMTS 900 and UMTS 2100) yielded >40% of the
total mean exposure. About 96% of the total mean value was
caused by the 3G and 4G down links, with the 2G down link
accounting for only 2% (GSM 1800). The results were calcu‑
lated excluding all RF radiation from base stations, which
gave a mean level 78.8 µW/m2 and maximum 4,616.2 µW/m2,
Table II. Thus 3,732.0 µW/m2, 97.9% of the mean RF radia‑
tion was caused by down link from the 2G, 3G and 4G base
stations.
The measurements in the apartment, excluding the 5 balco‑
nies, were based on 64,070 readings (71 h of measurements).
The mean level was 1,766 µW/m2; median 1,051 µW/m2 (range
min 15.2 µW/m2, max 50,431.0 µW/m2; data not shown). These
results nevertheless represent high levels of RF radiation.
Table III gives the levels for different locations within the
apartment, and Table IV shows the results where the contribu‑
tion from base stations is excluded at each location; thereby
substantially lower values were generally obtained.
Balconies. The highest results were inevitably found on the
balconies, especially the 3 facing at short distance the visible
base stations. The highest mean value (24,885.9 µW/m2) was
measured on the balcony outside the living room (Table V),
at which the highest maximum exposure was found
(11 2 , 317.7 µW/m2). The results were based on 5,251 entries
corresponding to ~6 h of measurements. If the down link of RF
radiation from the base stations was disregarded, the total mean
on that balcony fell to 229.6 µW/m2 (~0.9% of the total; Table V).
The balconies outside the boy's bedroom and outside the tower
gave similar results with high RF radiation from nearby base
stations (Tables III and IV). Thus the mean RF radiation value
outside the boy's bedroom was reduced from 6,803.3 µW/m2 to
90. 2 µW/m2 when disregarding down links from base stations.
For the balcony outside the tower, the RF radiation fell from
8,989.4 to 331.2 µW/m2 excluding down links.
Bedrooms. Most of the time is usually spent in bedroom. The
master bedroom showed lower RF radiation values compared
with the other bedrooms, mean 569.7, and 32.4 µW/m2
excluding down links (Tables III and IV). Especially high
levels were recorded in the two children's bedrooms and the
ONCOLOGY LETTERS 3
one located in the tower (Tables VI‑VIII). In the girl's bedroom,
the mean level was 2,531.0 µW/m2 (Table VI), whereas in
the boy's bedroom it was 1,471.1 µW/m2 (Table VII). The
highest RF radiation level in the bedrooms was recorded in
the tower bedroom, mean value 5,954.3 µW/m2, Table VIII.
Most of the RF radiation came from down links from the base
stations, whereas excluding them gave a mean level in the girl's
bedroom of 34.1 µW/m2, 13.4 µW/m2 in the boy's bedroom,
and 205.4 µW/m2 in the tower bedroom. Thus, RF radiation
in the children's bedrooms was reduced ~99%, and by 97%
in the tower bedroom by excluding down links from the base
stations.
Fig. 1 shows box plots of median levels for all 18 measured
areas, with the results in increasing median levels of RF radia‑
tion. The bottom and top of the boxes represent rst and third
quartiles of the levels, with outliers shown as points. Without
doubt the balconies had the highest levels, especially the 3
visibly near the surrounding base stations. Fig. 2 shows a bar
graph of the mean levels.
There was little variation of the levels in the day and night.
Some fall in the measurements were noted from midnight until
early morning in the boy's bedroom (Fig. 3), but there was still a
high level of RF radiation.
Apartment at Gärdet for comparison. Data for the apartment
at Gärdet, Stockholm, based on 36,799 entries corresponding
to ~40 h of measurements are given in (Table IX). The highest
RF radiation was measured on the balcony, but the total mean
remained low, 15.6 µW/m2 (min 2.2, max 195.1 µW/m2). About
50% of the RF radiation was caused by the GSM + UMTS 900
(3G) down link.
Discussion
The results were based on a large sample of measurements in
the apartment at Östermalm, Stockholm representing about 83 h
Table I. Predened measurement frequency bands of EME‑Spy
200 Exposimeter. Frequency ranges.
Frequency Frequency
Min Max
Frequency band (MHz) (MHz)
FM 87 107
TV3 174 223
TETRA I 380 400
TETRA II 410 430
TETRA III 450 470
TV4&5 470 770
LTE 800, 4G (DL) 791 821
LTE 800, 4G (UL) 832 862
GSM 900 + UMTS 900, 3G (UL) 880 915
GSM 900 + UMTS 900, 3G (DL) 925 960
GSM 1800, 2G (UL) 1,710 1,785
GSM 1800, 2G (DL) 1,805 1,880
DECT 1,880 1,900
UMTS 2100, 3G (UL) 1,920 1,980
UMTS 2100, 3G (DL) 2,110 2,170
Wi‑Fi, 2GHz 2,400 2,483.5
LTE 2600, 4G (UL) 2,500 2,570
LTE 2600, 4G (DL) 2,620 2,690
WiMax 3,300 3,900
Wi‑Fi 5GHz 5,150 5,850
FM, frequency modulation; TV, television; LTE, long‑term evolu‑
tion; DL, downlink (transmission from base station to mobile phone);
UL, uplink (transmission from mobile phone to base station); GSM,
global system for mobile communications; UMTS, universal mobile
telecommunications system; DECT, digital European cordless
telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide interoperability for micro‑
wave access.
Table II. Levels of RF‑radiation in total based on 74,531 entries
for 6 different tours (Östermalm, Stockholm).
Variable Mean Median Min Max
FM 38.3 3.4 0.0 3,441.2
TV3 4.7 0.0 0.0 308.4
TETRA I 1.2 0.0 0.0 229.3
TETRA II 0.2 0.0 0.0 33.9
TETRA III 0.1 0.0 0.0 26.5
TV4&5 3.0 0.0 0.0 2,206.2
LTE 800 (DL) 977.5 299.5 1.1 52,526.5
LTE 800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5
GSM + UMTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5
900 (UL)
GSM + UMTS 1,236.2 459.0 2.5 44,241.5
900 (DL)
GSM 1800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5
GSM 1800 (DL) 78.9 17.8 0.3 8,442.1
DECT 27.3 5.1 0.0 4,614.8
UMTS 2100 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6
UMTS 2100 (DL) 301.8 92.8 0.2 18,445.0
WIFI 2G 0.0 0.0 0.0 203.5
LTE 2600 (UL) 3.9 0.0 0.0 904.7
LTE 2600 (DL) 1,137.5 70.5 0.5 95,522.5
WIMax 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7
WIFI 5G 0.1 0.0 0.0 105.0
Total 3,810.8 1,312.9 15.2 112,317.7
Total excluding 78.8 27.0 0.0 4,616.2
down link
Data is based on 74,531 entries for 6 different tours, June 5, 6 and
August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017 (apartment at Östermalm, Stockholm).
Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Frequency bands are given. FM, frequency modulation; TV, televi‑
sion; LTE, long‑term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from
base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile
phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communica‑
tions; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT,
digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide
interoperability for microwave access.
HARDELL et al: RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION AMBIENT EXPOSURE
4
of recording. High levels of RF radiation were clearly measured
throughout the apartment, but especially on the 3 balconies.
Most of the RF radiation came from the outside base stations.
The total mean level in the apartment fell from 3,810.8 to
78.8 µW/m2, a reduction of ~98% occurring if the down links
from base stations were excluded.
Table II shows that TV and radio communications
contributed only to a minor extent. The contribution was more
pronounced at the balcony outside the kitchen in the direction
of the transmitting tower (mean level of 276.4 µW/m2 for all TV
and radio communications; data not in the Table). Most of the
RF radiation in the tower bedroom was also caused by radio/TV
towers when down links from base stations were excluded
(see Table VIII). A minor contribution was from the DECT
frequency (Table II). The source of radiation was probably from
a neighboring apartment, since no DECT phone was used in the
present apartment.
The highest RF radiation levels were measured on the
balconies (Figs. 1 and 2 give median and mean values). Fig. 4
shows the group of base stations located only 12 m from the
balcony outside the living room. It is questionable whether
these balconies are suitable for any longer stay due to the high
radiation; the balcony outside the living room (with mean level
24, 885.9 µW/m 2, median 22,256.1 µW/m2, and maximum level
112, 317.7 µW/m 2) gave the highest of all recorded measurements
(Table V). Regarding all 5 balconies, the results were based
on 10,461 readings (>11 h of measurements). The mean level
was 16,338.7 µW/m2, with a median of 13,775 µW/m2 (range
min 31.8, max 112,318 µW/m2). Usually balconies in Sweden
are used only briey due to the climate, but nevertheless these
results far exceed levels known to be detrimental to health from
RF radiation.
The use of balconies with decent views can be used for
pleasure, a part of comfortable living, but most of the day and
night is spent in the apartment. Thus, the level of RF radiation
inside is of more concern, especially for a family with chil‑
dren. Notably there was high RF radiation in the bedrooms
occupied by children, as also in the tower bedroom. There
was little variation with time, although the level declining
during night (Fig. 3) still exceeded what is known to give
non‑thermal biological effects from long‑term RF radia‑
tion. In the boy's bedroom there seemed to be 2 steps in the
reduction of radiation during night, one from approximately
7:00 p.m. and another from midnight, indicating less use of
wireless communication after business hours and during late
leisure time.
Interestingly measurements recorded in another centrally
located apartment in Gärdet were considerably lower in RF
radiation. Thus, the mean level was only 0.4% of that found in
the apartment at Östermalm. The mean RF radiation on the
balcony in Gärdet was much lower; only 0.3% of that on the
balcony outside the living room in Östermalm. These results
show extreme variation of RF radiation in 2 residential apart‑
ments in Stockholm.
Table III. Levels of RF‑radiation in total for different locations in the apartment (Östermalm, Stockholm).
Total
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
Location No. Mean Median Min Max
1. Balcony outside kitchena 166 1,083.2 895.6 226.5 5,026.6
2. Kitchen 1,973 256.4 194.0 70.4 2,091.7
3. Dining room 4,272 1,480.6 854.1 93.6 12,068.7
4. Master bedroom 12,920 569.7 370.5 36.1 6,280.8
5. Balcony outside bathrooma 506 1,912.8 1,684.4 31.8 6,475.8
6. Living room 4,415 321.7 236.1 15.2 8,782.6
7. Balcony outside living room 5,251 24,885.9 22,256.1 72.0 112,317.7
8. Main halla 59 185.2 154.2 59.6 512.7
9. Workroom close to kitchena 599 266.9 235.3 123.6 2,135.6
10. Workroom close to laundry 3,899 1,310.1 1,044.6 266.0 7,999.8
11. Laundrya 388 1,561.6 1,416.0 193.2 7,843.2
12. Girl's bedroom 11,440 2,531.0 2,270.5 79.1 11,802.6
13. Boy's bedroom 14,161 1,471.1 1,122.3 58.5 13,739.1
14. Balcony outside boy's rooma 777 6,803.3 3,254.9 65.3 107,992.5
15. Hall outside elevatora 90 251.3 197.6 24.3 1,590.1
16. Bedroom in tower 6,797 5,954.3 4,503.5 96.8 50,431.0
17. Conference room in tower 3,057 432.5 229.3 89.9 12,840.7
18. Balcony outside tower 3,761 8,989.4 7,848.8 43.5 56,191.3
Whole apartment 74,531 3,810.8 1,312.9 15.2 112,317.7
aOnly measured June 2017. Levels of RF‑radiation in total for different locations in the apartment (Östermalm, Stockholm) based on measure‑
ments in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0. Numbers of entries are
given for the different locations.
ONCOLOGY LETTERS 5
The guideline for RF radiation in Sweden is set on the
false assumption that adverse health effects are caused only
by heating. However, human, animal and cell studies show
biological effects at non‑thermal exposure levels that are
often exceeded during the life‑time of most people, especially
as shown from the measurements in the Östermalm apart‑
ment during this study. Exposure to RF radiation levels in
the current study may clearly increase the risk for adverse
health effects in the long run, since levels giving non‑thermal
biological effects are generally exceeded. Our ndings will
now be related to other measurements of RF radiation expo‑
sure, guidelines and studies regarding health issues.
Levels of RF radiation have increased considerably in
recent years, both outdoor and indoor, due to new telecommu‑
nication technologies and protocols. In 2013, Estenberg and
Augustsson (16) measured outdoor exposure with a car‑based
measuring system in Sweden. The median power‑density
for RF elds between 30 MHz and 3 GHz was measured in
rural areas at 16 µW/m2, urban areas 270 µW/m2, and city
areas 2,400 µW/m2. The EME‑Spy 200 exposimeter was
used to measure 2 areas of high exposure to RF radiation in
Stockholm. At the Central Railway Station, the mean total RF
radiation level varied between 2,817 and 4,891 µW/m2 (min
5.8, max 155,263 µW/m2) when walking around (13). T he
total RF radiation in the Stockholm Old Town varied between
a mean of 404 µW/m2 (min 20.4, max 4,088 µW/m2) on the
streets around the Supreme Court, 756 µW/m2 (min 0.3, max
50, 9 67 µW/m2) around the Royal Castle, and 24,277 µW/m2
(min 257, max 173,302 µW/m2) at Jä rn t orge t , wh ich is a po p ula r
square with shops and outdoor restaurants (14).
Calvente et al in Spain (17) measured outside the homes of
123 boys aged 10 years. For all houses, the root mean‑square
of power density (SRMS) was 286 µW/m2 and the maximum
power density (SRMS) was 2,760 µW/m2 for frequencies
between 100 kHz and 6 GHz. The range between highest
and lowest measured mean was large, ranging from 5.5 to
11, 5 6 0 µW/m2. The 10‑year old boys with higher exposure of
RF radiation in their immediate surroundings of their dwell‑
ings showed statistically signicant lower scores in expression
and comprehension, and higher behavioral and emotional
problems, including anxiety and depressed behavior in
different tests.
Usua lly much lower RF radiation exposure inside homes is
measured since the walls can act as a shield against RF radia‑
tion. Frei et al (18) got 166 volunteers measure the frequencies
88‑2,500 MHz with a body‑born exposimeter (EME‑Spy
120) in Switzerland. In the homes, the total mean value was
10 0 µW/m 2, and total median 44 µW/m2. The maximum level
in the homes was 1,212 µW/m2.
Roser et al (19) got 90 adolescents to carry a body‑born
exposimeter (Expo‑RF) for 3 consecutive days to measure
frequencies from 620 to 2,450 MHz. The total mean for these
measurements was 63.2 µW/m2, and the total mean measured
in the homes was 32.1 µW/m2.
Table IV. Levels of RF‑radiation in total excluding down links in the apartment (Östermalm, Stockholm).
Total excluding down links
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
Location No. Mean Median Min Max
1. Balcony outside kitchena 166 288.2 310.3 68.1 565.1
2. Kitchen 1,973 87.4 44.5 15.0 440.7
3. Dining room 4,272 70.8 68.4 20.0 461.0
4. Master bedroom 12,920 32.4 22.5 4.8 606.5
5. Balcony outside bathrooma 506 77.3 56.8 5.8 687.1
6. Living room 4,415 26.8 25.5 2.0 383.8
7. Balcony outside living room 5,251 229.6 146.5 0.0 4,155.6
8. Main halla 59 41.3 28.4 5.7 282.9
9. Workroom close to kitchena 599 40.6 31.5 14.0 2,004.3
10. Workroom close to laundry 3,899 25.3 19.4 6.7 2,199.0
11. Laundrya 388 38.4 26.0 3.2 343.6
12. Girl's bedroom 11,440 34.1 23.1 7.2 1,069.8
13. Boy's bedroom 14,161 13.4 6.8 0.0 427.8
14. Balcony outside boy's rooma 777 90.2 52.6 0.0 4,616.2
15. Hall outside elevatora 90 28.3 22.0 0.2 157.8
16. Bedroom in tower 6,797 205.4 158.4 13.5 3,457.8
17. Conference room in tower 3,057 44.5 36.7 9.4 743.4
18. Balcony outside tower 3,761 331.2 363.8 3.8 1,618.4
Whole apartment 74,531 78.8 27.0 0.0 4,616.2
aOnly measured June 2017. Levels of RF‑radiation in total excluding down links for different locations in the apartment (Östermalm, Stockholm)
based on measurements in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017. Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at detection limit as 0.
Numbers of entries are given for the different locations. Down links from base stations are excluded.
HARDELL et al: RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION AMBIENT EXPOSURE
6
Vermeeren et al (20) measured levels using exposimeters
EME‑Spy 121 and 140 in schools, kindergartens, ofces and
homes in Belgium and Greece. In homes, the total average was
0. 32 V/m (272 µW/m2) in Belgiu m and 0.42 V/m (468 µW/m 2) in
Greece. The maximum levels were 0.77 V/m (1,574 µW/m2) in
Belgium and 2.08 V/m (11,482 µW/m2) in Greece. In Belgium,
FM‑radio, GSM 900 down link from bases stations, and DECT
telephones contributed most of the radiation, and in Greece
DECT and Wi‑Fi 2.45 GHz contributed most.
Verlock et al (21) measured schools, homes and public
places in Belgium with a Narda NBM‑550 in the frequency
range 100 kHz‑6 GHz. Total means for the measurements
was 0.45 V/m (537 µW/m2), for homes 0.08 V/m (16.9 µW/m2),
and maximum value in homes was 1.08 V/m (3,096 µW/m2).
These studies, published from 2009 to 2017, show a large
variation in the levels of RF radiation, with highest levels
measured in Stockholm.
One obstacle to those concerned with RF radiation
exposure in Sweden, as in many other countries, is that
different authorities base their guideline for exposure on
the International Commission on Non‑Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP). This guideline is based on short‑term
(acute) exposure. Chronic, low‑intensity cumulative expo‑
sures, possible long term health effects, and non‑thermal
biological effects have been ignored. The ICNIRP safety limit
established in 1998 (22) was updated in 2009 (23) without
change. The guideline from the ICNIRP for RF radiation is
2 to 10 W/m2 (2,000,000 to 10,000,000 µW/m2) depending
Table V. Levels of RF‑radiation at the balcony outside the
living room (Östermalm, Stockholm).
Variable Mean Median Min Max
FM 6.3 1.2 0.0 2,139.0
TV3 0.7 0.0 0.0 66.2
TETRA I 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4
TETRA II 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9
TETRA III 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7
TV4&5 9.3 0.0 0.0 828.9
LTE 800 (DL) 1,280.2 706.2 4.9 17,533.3
LTE 800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
GSM + UMTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
900 (UL)
GSM + UMTS 8,731.6 11,977.8 16.1 44,241.5
900 (DL)
GSM 1800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8
GSM 1800 (DL) 584.3 409.7 0.7 6,193.1
DECT 212.9 137.9 0.0 4,124.7
UMTS 2100 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6
UMTS 2100 (DL) 1,421.6 1,270.2 1.1 18,445.0
WIFI 2G 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2
LTE 2600 (UL) 0.4 0.0 0.0 95.8
LTE 2600 (DL) 12,638.7 8,394.8 1.1 95,522.5
WIMax 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8
WIFI 5G 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8
Total 24,885.9 22,256.1 72.0 112,317.7
Total excluding 229.6 146.5 0.0 4,155.6
down link
Levels of RF‑radiation at the balcony outside the living room based
on measurements in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017 (apart‑
ment at Östermalm, Stockholm). Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating
values at detection limit as 0. In total 5,251 entries corresponding to
almost 6 h of measurements. FM, frequency modulation; TV, televi‑
sion; LTE, long‑term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from
base station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile
phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communica‑
tions; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT,
digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide
interoperability for microwave access.
Table VI. Levels of RF‑radiation in the girls's bedroom
(Östermalm, Stockholm).
Variable Mean Median Min Max
FM 1.2 0.5 0.0 1,056.1
TV3 0.1 0.0 0.0 28.7
TETRA I 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
TETRA II 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0
TETRA III 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4
TV4&5 0.2 0.0 0.0 44.8
LTE 800 (DL) 327.0 156.6 12.6 3,980.4
LTE 800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
GSM + UMTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
900 (UL)
GSM + UMTS 774.9 590.9 18.7 5,561.5
900 (DL)
GSM 1800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
GSM 1800 (DL) 29.4 18.3 1.2 243.5
DECT 8.1 4.0 0.0 167.1
UMTS 2100 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
UMTS 2100 (DL) 808.5 706.2 2.9 3,806.9
WIFI 2G 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
LTE 2600 (UL) 24.5 15.7 0.0 904.7
LTE 2600 (DL) 557.1 420.2 1.4 7,584.8
WIMax 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WIFI 5G 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5
Total 2,531.0 2,270.5 79.1 11,802.6
Total excluding 34.1 23.1 7.2 1,069.8
down link
Levels of RF‑radiation in the girls's bedroom based on measure‑
ments in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017 (apartment at
Östermalm, Stockholm). Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values
at detection limit as 0. In total 11,440 entries corresponding to almost
13 h of measurements. FM, frequency modulation; TV, television;
LTE, long‑term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base
station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile
phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communica‑
tions; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT,
digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide
interoperability for microwave access.
ONCOLOGY LETTERS 7
on frequency (22). The Swedish Radiation Safety Authority
(SSM) has adopted the ICNIRP guideline. Many experts at
the SSM panel are also members of ICNIRP, which suggests
a conict of interest, since they would rarely compromise the
ICNIRP view by expressing critical opinions (15).
Our results on RF radiation exposure in Östermalm are
orders of magnitude lower than the ICNIRP guideline, with the
median level of exposure being ~10,000 times lower. Using the
ICNIRP guideline gives a ‘green card’ to roll out the technology,
and position mobile phone base stations on roofs on apartment
houses, in close to those living in the surrounding houses, since
the high exposure level by ICNIRP is rarely compromised.
In contrast to ICNIRP, the BioInitiative Reports from 2007
and updated in 2012, based the evaluation on non‑thermal
health effects of RF radiation (24,25). A summary of the
BioInitiative Report (2007) was published in a peer‑reviewed
article (26). Furthermore in both reports, all chapters were
based on peer‑review published articles, many of them by
the authors of the different chapters. Thus, it is incorrect to
suggest that the reports represent views and results that are not
supported by the scientic literature.
The BioInitiative Report (2012) with updated references
dened the scientic benchmark for possible health risks as
30‑ 6 0 µW/m2. Considering also chronic exposure and the
sensitivity of children, the precautionary target level was
proposed at 1/10th of this, i.e., 3‑6 µW/m2 (25). This exposure
target level has not been acknowledged by SSM in Sweden,
thus making it possible to neglect results on exposure, such as
Table VII. Levels of RF‑radiation in the boy's bedroom
(Östermalm, Stockholm).
Variable Mean Median Min Max
FM 0.5 0.4 0.0 407.6
TV3 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1
TETRA I 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.6
TETRA II 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2
TETRA III 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6
TV4&5 2.2 0.0 0.0 304.8
LTE 800 (DL) 448.2 292.4 2.4 8,651.6
LTE 800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
GSM + UMTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
900 (UL)
GSM + UMTS 756.1 558.8 6.4 7,056.1
900 (DL)
GSM 1800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
GSM 1800 (DL) 29.4 18.7 0.7 474.6
DECT 10.5 5.9 0.0 353.4
UMTS 2100 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
UMTS 2100 (DL) 124.3 114.8 1.5 1,158.9
WIFI 2G 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2
LTE 2600 (UL) 0.2 0.1 0.0 14.1
LTE 2600 (DL) 99.7 57.3 0.5 1,352.2
WIMax 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WIFI 5G 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9
Total 1,471.1 1,122.3 58.5 13,739.1
Total excluding 13.4 6.8 0.0 427.8
down link
Levels of RF‑radiation in the boy's bedroom based on measure‑
ments in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017 (apartment at
Östermalm, Stockholm). Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values
at detection limit as 0. In total 14,161 entries corresponding to almost
16 h of measurements. FM, frequency modulation; TV, television;
LTE, long‑term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base
station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile
phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communica‑
tions; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT,
digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide
interoperability for microwave access.
Table VIII. Levels of RF‑radiation in the tower bedroom
(Östermalm, Stockholm).
Variable Mean Median Min Max
FM 155.0 127.2 4.0 3,441.2
TV3 6.2 4.9 0.0 193.4
TETRA I 9.1 0.0 0.0 59.7
TETRA II 1.6 1.8 0.0 33.9
TETRA III 0.6 0.0 0.0 11.9
TV4&5 14.0 0.0 0.0 2,206.2
LTE 800 (DL) 3,712.1 2,333.8 8.6 48,136.9
LTE 800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
GSM + UMTS 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5
900 (UL)
GSM + UMTS 1,785.4 1,689.1 13.8 11,775.7
900 (DL)
GSM 1800 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1
GSM 1800 (DL) 59.0 47.6 0.9 657.8
DECT 18.8 13.8 0.0 593.4
UMTS 2100 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7
UMTS 2100 (DL) 77.7 65.4 1.0 495.0
WIFI 2G 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7
LTE 2600 (UL) 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.4
LTE 2600 (DL) 114.8 75.8 2.7 3,321.4
WIMax 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
WIFI 5G 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5
Total 5,954.3 4,503.5 96.8 50,431.0
Total excluding 205.4 158.4 13.5 3,457.8
down link
Levels of RF‑radiation in the tower bedroom based on measure‑
ments in June 5, 6 and August 21, 22, 30, 31, 2017 (apartment at
Östermalm, Stockholm). Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values
at detection limit as 0. In total 6,797 entries corresponding to almost
7.5 h of measurements. FM, frequency modulation; TV, television;
LTE, long‑term evolution; DL, downlink (transmission from base
station to mobile phone); UL, uplink (transmission from mobile
phone to base station); GSM, global system for mobile communica‑
tions; UMTS, universal mobile telecommunications system; DECT,
digital European cordless telecommunications; WiMAX, worldwide
interoperability for microwave access.
HARDELL et al: RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION AMBIENT EXPOSURE
8
in the apartment we measured, and not in providing precaution
for the potential detrimental effects on health for those living
therein.
We used the same exposimeter in the Geneva WHO
building on March 3, 2017. The results show a low mean tota l
exposure level of 21.5 µW/m2, median 13.3 µW/m2 (range
min 4.8, max 433 µW/m2), i.e., a mean level below the scien‑
tic benchmark of 30‑60 µW/m2 that has been proposed as
the ‘lowest observed effect level’ (LOEL) for RF radiation,
[see Chapter 24 in the BioInitiative Report (25)]. The major
sources were GSM + UMTS 900 DL (3G), GSM 1800 DL
(2G) and UMTS 2100 DL (3G), i.e., down link (DL) of RF
radiation from base stations. Thus these results indicate that,
whether known or unknown, the WHO staff seems to protect
themselves from high involuntary RF radiation levels at least
within the measured areas of the Geneva building (15).
In the present study, for the whole apartment including
the balconies, the measurements of RF radiation had a total
mean of 3,811 µW/m2 and a total median of 1,313 µW/m2.
For rooms inside the apartment, the tower bedroom had the
highest mean (5,954 µW/m2) and median (4,504 µW/m2).
Also the girl's bedroom with mean 2,531 µW/m2 and median
2, 271 µW/m2 and the boy's bedroom with a mean of
1,471 µW/m 2 and median 1,122 µW/m2 were high values.
Time spent in a bedroom is usually many hours per night,
which means long term exposure when relatively high levels
of RF radiation are still present.
RF radiation exposure at or below these levels indicated
above have influenced several physiological parameters
in the body of mammals in laboratory studies. Effects on
oxidative cell stress and DNA damage in cells, opening
of the blood‑brain barrier, up or down regulated proteins
and microRNA in the brain, and testicular dysfunction,
have been found. For people living near mobile phone
base stations, effects have been seen on neurotransmitters,
peripheral blood lymphocytes with DNA damage, lower
antioxidant levels, decreased salivary secretion, adverse
neuro‑behavioral symptoms, and an increased incidence
of cancer. People residing near mobile phone base stations
have more often complained of sleep disturbances, head‑
aches, dizziness, irritability, concentration difculties and
hypertension. Exposures to RF radiation were all below the
reference levels in the ICNIRP guidelines. The effects were
caused by non‑thermal RF radiation exposure and will now
be briey discussed.
In rats exposed to RF radiation, the blood brain barrier
(BBB) has opened up, leading to leakage into the brain
tissues of large molecules, e.g., albumin and toxins that can
Figure 3. Time variation of measurements in boy's bedroom (apartment in
Östermalm, Stockholm) from the afternoon until early next morning (µW/m2
on a logarithmic scale). The spikes represent measurements taken every
4th sec.
Figure 1. Box plot of exposure in µW/m2, logarithmic scale, for the
6 measurement rounds and total exposure (apartment in Östermalm,
Stockholm). The median is indicated by a black line inside each box; the
bottom and top of the boxes show rst and third quartiles; the end of the
whiskers are calculated as 1.5xIQR (interquartile range). Points represent
outliers. Results are displayed according to increasing median level. 1,
Balcony outside kitchen; 2, Kitchen; 3, Dining room; 4, Master bedroom;
5, Balcony outside bathroom; 6, Living room; 7, Balcony outside living
room; 8, Main hall; 9, Workroom close to kitchen; 10, Workroom close to
laundry; 11, Laundry; 12, Girl's bedroom; 13, Boy's bedroom; 14, Balcony
outside boy's bedroom; 15, Hall outside elevator; 16, Bedroom in tower; 17,
Conference room in tower; 18, Balcony outside tower.
Figure 2. Bar graph on mean levels of total exposure in µW/m2 displayed
with a logarithmic scale and ranked according to increasing mean level in
the different locations (apartment in Östermalm, Stockholm). 1, Balcony
outside kitchen; 2, Kitchen; 3, Dining room; 4, Master bedroom; 5, Balcony
outside bathroom; 6, Living room; 7, Balcony outside living room; 8, Main
hall; 9, Workroom close to kitchen; 10, Workroom close to laundry; 11,
Laundry; 12, Girl's bedroom; 13, Boy's bedroom; 14, Balcony outside boy's
bedroom; 15, Hall outside elevator; 16, Bedroom in tower; 17, Conference
room in tower; 18, Balcony outside tower.
ONCOLOGY LETTERS 9
damage the brain tissue. The BBB is supposed to protect
and prevent pathological leakage of toxins from the blood
vessels (27). Several studies have shown that the BBB can
open after RF radiation from a GSM mobile phone with a
peak power output of only 1,000 µW, and with an average
whole body specic energy absorption rate (SAR) of down to
120 µW/kg (28). Stronger effects on health due to RF radia‑
tion at lower exposure levels than at higher exposure indicate
a U‑shaped response curve (28,29).
Difference between sexes exposed to different RF
radiation frequencies has been reported, where only female
rats showed increased BBB permeability at 900 MHz
frequency, whereas male rats had increased BBB perme‑
ability at both GSM 900 and 1,800 MHz pulse‑modulated
RF radiation (30).
Exposure to 900 MHz for 3 h per day for 28 days caused
extravasation of albumin in the hippocampus and cortex, and
impaired spatial memory in rats. The hippocampus, a center for
co‑ordination of memory and learning in the brain, seems in
particular to be a primary target for neuronal damage from RF
radiation and opening of the BBB (31). Exposure for 2 h each
week for 55 weeks impaired the memory in rats exposed to
GSM 900 MHz, but histopathological parameters did not seem
to be statistically signicantly affected (32,33).
Higher sensitivity to RF radiation has been reported in
growing organisms. An increase in protein synthesis in prolif‑
erating human cells has been seen after 8 h of RF radiation
exposure, but not in quiescent white blood cells (34). In stems
cells, the capacity to repair DNA double‑strand breaks was
more affected by RF radiation compared to differentiated cells
(broblasts) (35).
Mice exposed to RF radiation from a GSM 900 MHz
mobile phone for 3 h/day or to DECT base station for 8 h/day
over 8 months showed an up or down regulation of 143 out of
432 proteins analyzed from the cerebellum, hippocampus and
frontal lobes of the brain. Several proteins involved in the brain
metabolism and different neural functions were altered (36).
Two long‑term studies have exposed rats for 24 h a day
for 12 months to RF radiation emitted from a Wi‑Fi system at
2.4 GHz. The peak power was 100,000 µW, with the antenna
50 cm above the cage. The SAR value over 10 g of brain tissue
was 1,030 µW/kg. One study examined 5 different microRNAs
(miRNA) in the rat brains, 2 of which decreased at least 70%.
miRNA is important in the proliferation, differentiation,
function and maintenance of all cells, including neurons; and
dysfunction of their pathways can contribute to pathogenesis
of neurodegenerative disorders, as well as being a key indi‑
cator of epigenetic changes and cancer risk (37).
Rat testes and prostate were examined in another study,
where the SAR value was 1,020 W/kg over 10 gram tissue.
The Wi‑Fi exposed rats showed statistically signicant greater
effects on testicular function and histology, and increased
defects in the heads of sperms (38). DNA damage in sperms
has been reported in several other Wi‑Fi exposure investiga‑
tions (39‑41).
In a review of 100 studies, Yakymenko et al (42) showed
oxidative effects of low‑intensity RF radiation on living cells,
with exposure down to 2,500 µW/m2 (43). SAR values down
to 600 µW/kg increased oxidative stress in the cells (44,45).
Embryos of Japanese quails were exposed to RF radiation using
GSM 900 MHz (46). The average intensity of RF radiation on
the surface of hatching eggs was 2,500 µW/m2 (0.25 µW/cm2).
SAR was calculated to be 3 µW/kg. A statistically signicant
overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxida‑
tive damage of DNA in living cells was reported compared
with the control group given no exposure. The exposure was
far below the guideline of the ICNIRP for RF radiation at 2
to 10 W/m2 depending on frequency and 2 W/kg to the brain.
The results showed that the ICNIRP guidelines are outdated.
Moreover, using a safety factor of 10 would give 250 µW/m2
as a guideline, a level easily exceeded in many places, e.g.,
our measurements taken at the Stockholm Central Railway
Table IX. Levels of RF‑radiation in total for different locations
in the apartment (Gärdet, Stockholm).
Location No. Mean Median Min Max
Kitchen 6,815 9.2 7.8 4.2 55.6
Dining room 5,970 16.2 15.4 6.2 60.6
Bedroom 8,163 10.7 8.6 3.9 58.2
Living room 8,229 18.4 17.0 7.5 97.8
Hall 5,809 4.2 3.9 2.2 20.6
Balcony 1,813 82.4 73.1 9.1 195.1
Whole apartment 36,799 15.6 12.8 2.2 195.1
Whole apartment‑ 36,799 1.1 0.7 0.0 124.6
excluding down link
Levels of RF‑radiation in total for different locations in the apartment
based on measurements in October 27‑29 and November 6, 2017
(Gärdet, Stockholm). Analysis of all data (µW/m2) treating values at
detection limit as 0. Numbers of entries are given for the different
locations.
Figure 4. Image taken from the balcony outside the living room where the
highest mean and median were measured (24,885.9 and 22,256.1 µW/m²).
One group of base stations is located only 12 m from the balcony.
HARDELL et al: RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION AMBIENT EXPOSURE
10
Station (13), in the Old Town (14) and in most rooms in the
present apartment at Östermalm.
Long‑term RF radiation exposure for 2 h per day 5 days per
week for 30‑180 days at SAR values of 595‑667 µW/kg and at
the frequencies 900, 1,800 and 2,450 MHz resulted in oxidative
stress, increase in pro‑inammatory cytokines, DNA damage
with single‑strand breaks, reduced levels of neurotransmitters
and downregulation of mRNA in the hippocampus in the
brain of rats (45,47,48), with memory and learning also being
affected (47). More deleterious effects on several of the param‑
eters were seen with an increase in frequency; 1,800 MHz
and 2,450 MHz had a statistically signicant effect, not only
compared with sham exposed animals, but in some cases
compared with 900 MHz exposure.
Even a SAR value down to 85 µW/kg exposure from
900 MHz during 2 h/day, 5 days/week for 30 days, increased
oxidative stress parameters in lipid peroxidation and protein
oxidation, and resulted in a statistically signicant impairment
in spatial memory in rats (49).
The pancreas was examined in young rats of 6 weeks
of age exposed for 3 h/day for 30 days to 2.45 MHz, pulsed
217 Hz, from a RF test generator, with similar exposure
to Wi‑Fi 2.45 GHz. Compared to the control group, these
rats had statistically signicant increased levels of glucose,
lipase and amylase in the blood, degenerative changes in
both endocrine and exocrine cells, increased inammatory
cells and immune‑positive markers, especially in the islets
of Langerhans. These ndings point to a deleterious effect
on both endocrine and exocrine functioning of the pancreas.
Langerhans islets secret hormones like insulin, glucagon and
somatostatin, which regulate blood glucose levels; insufcient
secretion can lead to diabetes, which have seen a big increase
during the last few decades in parallel with the fast increasing
use of wireless techniques (50).
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) under the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the USA released a
report in 2016 which showed an increased incidence of glioma
in the brain and malignant schwannoma in the heart in up to
2 years in RF irradiated rats. These ndings support human
epidemiological studies on brain tumor risk and strengthen
the association between RF radiation and cancer (51). Recent
results from the NTP study showed genotoxicity of RF radia‑
tion in rats and mice (52). This result supports several previous
ndings of DNA strand‑breaks in rat brain cells exposed to RF
radiation, as rst published by Lai and Singh (53). RF radia‑
tion leads to oxidative stress in biological systems, including
the brain, due to an increase in free radicals and changes in
antioxidant defence systems.
The NTP study has greatly strengthened the evidence of
cancer risk, and reafrms that there is sufcient scientic
evidence to reclassify wireless phone radiation as a carcino‑
genic agent in Group 1, according to the IARC classication. It
conrms that the current public safety limits based only on the
thermal effects are inadequate and do not protect us against
the associated detrimental health effects (10,11).
In the village of Rimbach in Germany, a GSM mobile
base station was built in 2004. Buchner and Eger (54) studied
60 inhabitants (aged 0‑69 years), measuring the neurotransmit‑
ters adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine and phenyletylamine
(PEA) in second morning urine samples before the base station
was activated, and at 6, 12 and 18 months after activation. RF
radiation was measured in peak value of the power density
after the activation of the base station outside each partici‑
pant's houses. The participants were divided into 3 groups
based on exposure: less than 60, 60‑100 or >100 µW/m2. The
stress hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline were signi‑
cantly increased over the rst 6 months after the activation
of the GSM base station. The levels decreased, but were not
restored to initial level, after 18 months. This was especially
evident in the children and the chronically ill adults. A statisti‑
cally signicant decrease was seen for dopamine levels over
the rst 6 months, after which dopamine levels increased,
but did not return to their initial level. For the participants
with RF radiation exposure over 100 µW/m2 at home, the 3
neurotransmitters showed a clear dose‑response relationship.
PEA levels decreased rst for the highest exposed group, but
after 18 months the 3 groups were all statistically signifi‑
cantly decreased. DECT, Wi‑Fi and other wireless devices at
home seemed to amplify the effect of GSM radiation. After
18 months, even the lowest exposed group (RF radiation
<60 µW/m2) had decreased dopamine and PEA levels.
PEA is often low in patients with depression, and in adults
and children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). Chronic dysregulation of the catecholamine system
and PEA may contribute to chronic illnesses and health
problems in the long term. Several of the 60 participants had
new symptoms, including headache, dizziness, concentration
problems, sleep disturbances and allergies (54).
Khurana et al (55) reviewed epidemiological studies on
populations living near mobile phone base stations for indica‑
tions of any health risks for humans. In 80% of the studies,
people living <500 m from base stations had an increased
prevalence in particular of adverse neuro‑behavioral symptoms
and cancer. In another review of 56 studies, Levitt and Lai (56)
found that exposure from base stations and other antenna
arrays induced changes in immunological and reproductive
systems, DNA double‑strand breaks, influence on calcium
movement in the heart, and increased proliferation of astrocy‑
toma cancer cells in humans and laboratory animals. Cortisol
and thyroid hormones were also affected in people living near
base stations (57,58).
A study with 40 healthy persons in India living <80 m
from a mobile phone base station showed that RF radiation
denitely induced DNA damage, a lowering of antioxidants
levels, and a higher frequency of micronuclei in peripheral
blood lymphocytes compared with a control group living
>300 m from the base station. Those exposed were between 20
and 40 years old, 18 being male and 22 female. All but 3 used
a mobile phone every day. None of the participants had occu‑
pational exposure to RF radiation and none lived near a high
tension electric power line or electric transformer station (59).
Sleep disturbances, burned‑out syndromes, depressions,
pain problems and sick leaves are being increasingly reported
in our daily papers. Scientic studies on humans, animals
and biological material show adverse effects on physiological
parameters due to RF radiation. The complex picture relates to
wellbeing within the stress of working life and at home, and
the rapid technological development leading to more sedentary
behavior, with both children and adults watching the screen of
a smart phone, laptop or television for many hours each day.
ONCOLOGY LETTERS 11
RF radiation may contribute to deterioration in physical and
mental wellbeing and health. There seems also to be a large
difference in sensitivity to RF radiation between individuals,
both in humans and animals (28,60). One example is the nd‑
ings of downregulation of a sleep‑inducing neurohormone in
the age group of 18‑30 years. Its level decreased with increasing
number of years in use of a wireless phone (61), whereas no
effect was seen among older persons (62). Since tumors take
several decades to develop, and chronic illnesses, like neuro‑
logical and cardiac diseases, come in older ages, we will only
know in the future if and to what degree RF radiation may
inuence on the incidence of these illnesses and disorders.
Children are probably more sensitive to RF radiation
because of their growing bodies and more immature cells,
and also because they will be exposed for probably a whole
lifetime in contrast to present generation (34,35,63). High
mean exposure levels in the bedrooms of growing children
(one at 2,531 µW/m2 and the other at 1,471 µW/m2) may have
deleterious effects on their physical and mental health, based
on data already obtained from humans and animals. Cognitive
effects have also been found in such studies (17,32,48,49),
which might affect a child's future work and memory function
in older age.
This study shows high RF radiation levels in an apartment
with 2 groups of base stations in the near vicinity. Of special
concern is the levels in bedrooms, especially those two used
by children, since they seem to be more vulnerable to adverse
health effects than grown‑ups. They have also a longer expected
life in which illnesses may later become manifest. The results
indicate that this apartment is unsuitable for long‑term living
based on current knowledge of the potential adverse effects
on health of RF radiation. For denitive conclusions regarding
the effects of RF radiation levels from the base stations, one
option would be to turn off all nearby base stations and make
new measurements; some exposure from more distant located
base stations cannot be excluded. However, the present results
show that the safest solution is to turn off permanently and
dismantle the base stations.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Funding
The study was supported by grants from Mr Brian Stein, Cancer
och Allergifonden, Cancerhjälpen, and the Pandora‑Foundation
for Independent Research, Berlin, Germany.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study
are not publicly available due to measurements performed in
a private apartment, but are available from the corresponding
author on reasonable request.
Authors' contributions
LHa made all measurements and drafted the article. MC
made all statistical analyses, tables and figures. LHe was
responsible for the literature review of other measurement
studies in homes and studies about the biological effects from
non‑thermal levels of RF radiation. All authors contributed to
the nal article and approved the submitted version.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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