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Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies (ISSN: 2220-6140)
Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 217-223, February 2018
217
Food Insecurity and the Rising Urbanisation in Africa: Can ICT Revolution Bridge the GAP?
Isaac B. Oluwatayo,1 Ayodeji O. Ojo2
1University of Limpopo, Sovenga, South Africa
2University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
isaac.oluwatayo@ul.ac.za, ayodejiojo7591@gmail.com
Abstract: The task of reducing food insecurity in Africa is very challenging. This is because of the changing
conditions such as adverse climate change impacts. This study examined food insecurity, urbanisation and ICT
in Africa. The paper employed a combination of both secondary and historical information obtained from
different sources (UNHCR, FAO, Mo Ibrahim Foundation etc). Analytical method used include descriptive
statistics such as charts. Food security indices in Africa is alarming and disturbing. One in four people in Africa
do not have access to food in adequate quantities and one in five African children are underweight. African
agriculture is rendered unattractive by low productivity hence the exodus of labour from rural to urban areas.
Africa is the most rapidly urbanising continent in the world with enabling factors comprising of infrastructure
deficits in rural areas, dearth of employment opportunities and glamour of city life. However, Africa’s urban
centres are not immune to the challenges inducing rural-urban migration in the first place. In fact, youth
unemployment in Africa is 6 times higher in urban areas than in rural areas. About 72percent of urban dwellers
live in slums with the most of them having no access to basic amenities. These culminated in what is regarded
in literature as ‘urbanisation of poverty’. Migrants are generally scapegoated as the causes of crimes, violence
and even unemployment in urban areas. Therefore, they are subjected to sub-human living conditions.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is particularly critical to the achievement of food security
in Africa. This is because of the huge gap between markets and farmers which it is capable of filling. The paper
therefore recommends increased but monitored investments in infrastructure in Africa in order to make rural
areas more attractive and discourage rural-urban migration. There is also the need to provide favourable micro
and macro-environment for businesses to grow especially in rural Africa.
Keywords: Africa, Development, Food insecurity, ICT revolution, Rural-urban drift, Urbanization
1. Introduction
Background of the Study: Food security occupies a central position in the global policy discourse (Ruhiiga,
2013). In fact, it is the second goal in the Sustainable Development Goals which is to end hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. The Catholic Relief Agency defines food
security as a situation where people have physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary
needs for a productive and healthy life today without sacrificing investments in livelihood security tomorrow
(Ubong et al., 2009). The most widely cited definition in literature is the 1996 World Food Summit Plan of
Action which states that food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy
life (Harris, 2014). Although, urbanisation has been defined in many ways. It is defined as the process of
agglomeration of people in a human settlement such that the settlement graduates from a level of complexity
(economic, social and physical) to the other (Jelili, 2012). Urbanisation can also be viewed as the process by
which rural areas are transformed into urban areas which involves population rise stemming from migration
and natural expansion (Waugh, 1990). Most of the definitions of urbanisation in previous studies have some
concepts that unite them. The concepts include (i) a demographic process (ii) necessary ingredient for
economic and industrial development (iii) social change and (iv) a universal phenomenon (Hove et al., 2013).
There are a lot of issues around the nature of urbanisation in Africa and its effects on food security and they
have received attention in literature. However, this paper situates ICT within the context of food security and
urbanisation process in Africa in order to drive inclusive and pro-poor policies.
The Current State of Food Security in Africa: There is a reduction in global hunger according to the FAO
estimate. An estimated 805 million people were estimated to be chronically malnourished in 2012-2014.
However, Northern Africa has a consistently low prevalence of hunger at less than 5 percent. According to
Ackello-Ogutu et al., (2012), an estimated 40 percent of people in sub-Saharan Africa subsist below the poverty
line with majority living in rural areas. Given the current situation and potential climate change issues, it is
Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies (ISSN: 2220-6140)
Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 217-223, February 2018
218
estimated that 52 million children will be malnourished by 2050 (Ackello-Ogutu et al., 2012). Meanwhile,
agriculture accounts for 60 percent of employment, 15percent of exports and 20 percent of Africa’s Gross
Domestic Product (Ackello-Ogutu et al., 2012). However, only 5percent of the cropped area is irrigated as
against 14 percent in Latin America and 37 percent in Asia (Ringler et al., 2010). Hence, the undue exposure to
vagaries of weather and consequently low productivity. The proportion of food insecure people has been rising
globally since 2007 food price crisis. Available estimates reveal an increase in the proportion of
undernourished from 28percent in 2004-2006 to 29percent in 2008 (UN, 2009; Conceicao et al., 2011)
compared to 17percent in developing countries. An estimated 50 percent of food insecure people are
smallholder farmers, 22percent are rural landless, 20percent are urban poor and 8percent depend on natural
resources for their livelihoods (Bremner, 2012).
An estimated 70percent of the global poor live in rural areas with young people constituting the vast majority
of the poor. Meanwhile, about 75 percent of the poor live in rural areas in South and South East Asia and sub-
Saharan Africa (SDSN, 2013). In fact, 25percent of people who lack adequate food for healthy and active life
reside in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO et al., 2014). In Africa, agricultural food productivity per capita of about
2.5percent is lower than population growth estimated at 3.6 percent hence the worsening food crisis (Ogujiuba
et al., 2013). Low agricultural and food productivity in Africa is on the other hand caused by unfavourable
climatic conditions, land degradation and natural disasters such as drought especially in the Horn of Africa,
desertification and desert encroachment in other parts of Africa (IFAD, 2011; IFPRI, 2012). This has resulted
in increased food prices thereby pushing access to food beyond the reach of the poor. Moreover, agriculture in
Africa is characterised by undercapitalisation, underproduction, underemployment and low incomes. Scholars
have identified a relationship between food crisis, population growth and human health (Ogujiuba et al., 2013).
In fact, due to global population growth there are 840 million malnourished people in the world. Developing
countries account for the bulk (799million) of the malnourished people most of which are in Asia and Africa
(WHO, 1996). Poor people are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition, anaemia, vitamin A deficiency, iodine
deficiency, acute respiratory infections, malaria and fatigue.
There is the challenge of multidimensional nature of food security and its relationship with issues such as
climate change, trade and development that policy makers have to resolve (Masters, 2008). The issue of food
security is very complex as it can be linked to poor harvests and low food stocks, floods, droughts and changing
consumption patterns. Climate change worsens food insecurity in Africa (Lwasa, 2014). This occurs through
delay in the onsets and early cessation of rains, rising sun intensity and wind storms consequently leading to
crop failure, sub-optimal production level, high post-harvest losses and conflicts (Oluwatayo and Ojo, 2016).
Hence, climate change affects social and economic development in Africa. According to Masters (2008), heavy
rains and flooding has affected over 800,000 people with Ghana, Togo, Burkina Faso and Mali most affected.
Drought is the main undermining factor influencing food security in Mauritania. Another climate change-
induced challenge is the increase in the incidences of pests and diseases for humans, animals and plants. While
pests and diseases reduce yields and consequently income of farm families, it increases the number of days
farmers spend off-farm. In terms of trade, there are challenges in Africa’s regional integration plan. This can be
attributed to the absence of legal and regulatory framework and capacity to implement policy decisions
(Masters, 2008).
Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is another emerging
threat to Africa’s food security. This is because HIV significantly influences availability and health of farm
labour. The disease also affects household income due to the high cost of managing it. HIV/AIDS is more
prevalent among people aged 15 to 50 years who constitute the bulk of the labour force. FAO estimates that
AIDS has killed seven million agricultural workers in Africa since 1985. It has the potential to kill 16 million
more within the next 20 years (ICAIDS, 2001). Typically, the quantity and quality of food available to a
household will decline as productive family members become sick or die. The situation is worse for child-
headed households in countries like South Africa. The additional burden of caring for orphans and
unproductive individuals can impact upon overall food security (ICAIDS, 2001). Conflicts in Central African
Republic, North East Nigeria and Northern Mali have grave consequences on food security. Fulani herdsmen
are actively destroying farmlands and engaging in attacks and reprisal attacks in almost all parts of Nigeria.
This threatens already inadequate food production level. There are currently 1, 235, 294 internally displaced
persons in Nigeria (UNHCR, 2015 cited in FAO, 2015). Chad currently has 17,300 refugees out of which ten
Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies (ISSN: 2220-6140)
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percent battle with severe food insecurity (FAO, 2015). In West Africa, about 4,749, 000 people were food
insecure between March and May 2015 (FAO, 2015).
2. The Food Insecurity and Urbanisation Nexus in Africa
The global population is expected to rise to 7.5 billion by 2020. Meanwhile, the developing world is expected
to account for 80percent of the urban population. According to the 2014 World Urbanisation Prospects,
54percent of global population currently live in the urban areas and the number is expected to rise to 66percent
by 2050 (UNDESA, 2012; Freire et al., 2014). The global urban population increased from 746million in 1950
to 3.9 billion in 2014. Africa and Asia will account for significant level of global urbanisation in near future. In
fact, Africa and Asia will account for 70percent of urban inhabitants in the world by 2030 (Jelili, 2012). New
cities are emerging in Africa while the existing ones are fast becoming megacities (Hove et al., 2013; Chenal,
2016). An estimated 50percent of Africa's population will be living in urban areas by 2030 (Mo Ibrahim
Foundation, 2015). Africa is considered the most rapidly urbanising continent in the world (Hove et al., 2013)
with an annual average growth of 3.3percent between 1990 and 2000 and 4.5 percent between 2000 and 2005
(Jelili, 2012). The percentage of African population living in urban areas is expected to increase to 56percent
by 2050 (AFDB et al., 2016; Carmody and Owusu, 2016).
Figure 1: Population, Urban Population and Population Growth Rate in Africa
Sources: Author’s representation of underlying data from UN-Habitat, (2010); Adegun (2011) and Jiboye
(2011)
In absolute terms, an estimated 900 million new urban dwellers which is equivalent to what Europe, USA and
Japan combined have managed over the past 265 years will emerge in Africa by 2050 (Mo Ibrahim Foundation,
2015). Urbanisation is both a problem and advantage to Africa’s economic development (Tacoli et al., 2015;
Collier, 2016). Urbanisation provides an opportunity to internalise economies of scale in the provision of basic
infrastructure (water, health, education and electricity among others) (Carmody and Owusu, 2016). There is a
dearth of opportunities in rural Africa which accounts for exodus of people to urban areas. The people gain
improved access to employment opportunities and infrastructure (schools, electricity, water, health facilities
etc.) (Opoko and Oluwatayo, 2014). There are pull and push factors influencing urbanisation in Africa (Freire
0
500000 1000000 1500000
Population Dynamics
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Year
Population UrbanPopulation
AverageAnnualUrbanGrowth
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et al., 2014). In Africa, the bulk of the people who moved into the urban areas were “pushed-out” of rural areas
because of adverse climate change impacts resulting in low agricultural productivity and consequently low
income. Another push factor is infrastructure deficits that characterise rural areas in Africa. The pull factors
are the abundance of opportunities-employment and social services and glamour of city life. Urbanisation is an
outcome of social, economic and political developments resulting in urban concentration and growth of large
cities, changes in land use and transformation from rural to metropolitan pattern of organisation and
governance (Ekpenyong, 2015).
Urbanisation becomes a problem when cities are not safe because of the one-way movement of people from
rural to urban areas. Generally, migrants are scapegoated as the cause of insecurity confronting our world.
African urban centres are characterised by kidnapping, terrorism, armed robbery and electoral violence among
others. Migrants put pressure on the already stressed or inadequate infrastructure in cities. Only 38percent of
the urban population in Africa have access to piped water networks (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2015). The level
of indiscriminate disposal of toxic wastes into the environment is worrisome. Urban environment is
characterised by pollutions from industries, traffic, residential congestion and lack of green parks (UNECA,
2014). According to Tabiajuka (2007), an estimated 72percent of the urban population in sub-Saharan live
under sub-human conditions in slums and squatter settlement without adequate access to basic services.
African cities have the 2nd highest level of inequality in the World with urban Gini coefficient of 0.84 compared
to the average of 0.4 (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2015; UNHabitat, 2015). In fact, one could be living in urban
areas without gaining access to basic services e.g. health, education, water and improved sanitation among
others (Ozden and Enwere, 2012). The facilities could be available while an average citizen lack economic
access to them (Nordhag, 2012). Youth unemployment in Africa is 6 times higher in urban areas than in rural
areas (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2015). Therefore, living in urban areas does not necessarily translate to better
economic outcomes. Urban and rural areas are linked in the food security web. This is because increased food
production in rural areas will result in low food prices in urban areas given transportation costs ceteris paribus.
The population of farmers in rural Africa are aged owing to the migration of potential agricultural labour to
urban areas. Therefore, urbanisation compound agricultural production problems since there is little to what
the farmers can produce (Ackello-Ogutu et al., 2012). The risk aversion of farmers makes technology adoption
difficult. Therefore, almost all the four pillars of food security are affected by urbanisation in Africa.
There is a large body of literature in economics which explained urbanisation in the context of spatial and
demographic outcome of a broader process of structural transformation (Timmer, 2009; Djurfeldt, 2015).
Labour and capital flow from agriculture to manufacturing and services in urban areas. This reduces the share
of agriculture both in total value added and in the labour force in the process of economic growth (Djurfeldt,
2015). Urbanisation in the developed world resulted from increase in agricultural productivity which induced
movement of people into labour markets in newly developed industries. In other words, a positive relationship
exists between economic growth and societal development in developed countries (Nordhag, 2012). This is
consistent with the earlier works of Arthur Lewis and Simon Kuznets (Christiaensen et al., 2013). In other
words, it is believed that as people move out of agriculture to engage in economic activities off-farm and outside
the rural communities, new opportunities are opened up. The opportunities include remittances, increased
demands for agricultural output thereby igniting the process for economic growth and poverty reduction
(Christiaensen et al., 2013). Africa’s urbanisation is unplanned (Fox, 2013) and premature since it is not a
product of agricultural growth (Tibajiuka, 2007; AFDB et al., 2016). To this end, Africa now witnesses
“urbanisation of poverty” and new dimensions of crime (Christiaensen et al., 2013). Now that urbanisation is a
reality of our time, global economic integration, improved trade, capital flows and Information Communication
Technology (ICT) play an important role in integrating major cities and shaping the spatial organisation of cities
(Jiboye, 2011).
3. The ICT Revolution in Africa: A Problem or Way out of Urbanisation Challenges and Food Insecurity?
Broadband penetration is currently low in Africa, but it is expected to rise steadily in the next few years (AFDB,
2011). The ICT penetration estimated at 7percent in 2010 is expected to rise to 99percent of the population in
2060 (AFDB, 2011). African cities are built around large system of interconnected networks with regards to
flow of labour, raw materials and other resources from rural areas (Dodman et al., 2016). Proper management
of urbanisation is critical to economic development (Nordhag, 2012; Collier, 2016). Over time, countries that
Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies (ISSN: 2220-6140)
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have reached OECD level of prosperity had successful urbanisation (Collier, 2016). There is a need for
connectivity between the producers or firms and the market. Rural Africa is predominantly agricultural and as
such needs to be well connected to the industries. Producers need to be connected with consumers given their
changing needs such that they can transact in the market (Collier, 2016).
Urbanisation is key to good spatial connectivity as it generates connectivity in two ways. Urbanisation reduces
distance between household and firms and cost of transport per unit of distance between them (Collier, 2016).
Information Communication and Technology provides a platform where information on transactions, new
business prospects, opportunities and market information can be generated, shared and reviewed on some
devices including phones, computers, and internet among others. The world without borders and significant
reductions in distance is emerging. Although, the state of infrastructure in Africa is not commendable, ICT
provides a way out of most of the current challenges. The ICT revolution is based on quality information
efficiently disseminated at the right time. Many scholars have argued that the African agricultural system needs
a total overhaul in order to achieve food security. ICT can be used to gather, analyse and interpret information
on the existing agricultural practices with the aim of proffering far-reaching solutions to age-long problems.
There are improved strains of livestock and varieties of crops that did not go beyond the researchers’ farm
plots in Africa. The ailing agricultural extension system suffering from inadequate man power and unattractive
conditions is not able to guide adoption process of improved agricultural practices and inputs. On the other
hand, farmers face challenges in getting their goods to the market owing to infrastructure deficit. Due to high
moisture content, bulkiness and perishability that characterise agricultural products, farmers are forced to sell
at low prices to middlemen. ICT can provide a platform for farmers to gain better access to markets and re-
organise their farm operations to accommodate market dynamics. According to Mafusire et al. (2010), Africa
requires about USD93 billion of investment to meet the funding needs in ICT, irrigation, power, transport, water
and sanitation infrastructure. ICT especially mobile networks that are currently growing exponentially in Africa
can be harnessed in bridging food gaps and urbanisation issues in Africa. ICT can also be used in crime control
and maintaining law and order.
4. Conclusion and Recommendations
The paper examined food security and urbanisation within the context of ICT revolution in Africa. We found
that urbanisation and agricultural productivity have bi-causal relationship. There is no way food security will
be attained if agricultural productivity is low in Africa. The bulk of the people are food insecure due to some
undermining factors of agricultural productivity. The factors include undercapitalisation, climate change,
inadequate access to improved technologies and low adoption of improved agricultural practices. As a result
of this, people move from rural to urban Africa thereby increasing the proportion of the population that is
urban. The paper found that urbanisation can both be a challenge and opportunity depending on how it is
managed. The level of ICT use in Africa is still low but it is projected to increase significantly in future. ICT can
be used to provide market information to farmers with regards to sourcing of improved inputs and getting
good markets for agricultural products. ICT can also be deployed to climate change adaptation through weather
forecasts and advice towards building climate resilient systems. From the foregoing, the following policy
prescriptions are suggested:
African governments should plan urbanisation such that cities will have master plans to be adhered to
by all developers towards reducing slums.
Government and private organisations should increase and monitor investments in infrastructure
(roads, schools, hospitals, electricity, potable water etc.) in order to make rural areas more attractive
and reduce unplanned migration
Farmers should adopt improved technologies towards mitigating climate change impacts in order to
enhance agricultural productivity.
There is the need for government to provide enabling environments where industries can thrive if the
much desired improvement in youth employment especially in African major cities is anything to go
by.
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