![Schematic diagram of the reverse osmosis process. Adapted from Garud et al. [19]](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323750223/figure/fig1/AS:963448569597986@1606715447986/Schematic-diagram-of-the-reverse-osmosis-process-Adapted-from-Garud-et-al-19_Q320.jpg)
![Seawater reverse osmosis process with integrated energy recover device. Adapted from Sim et al. [25]. HP = high pressure, SWRO = Seawater Reverse Osmosis, ERD = energy recovery device, PRO = pressure-retarded osmosis](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323750223/figure/fig2/AS:963448573808648@1606715448100/Seawater-reverse-osmosis-process-with-integrated-energy-recover-device-Adapted-from-Sim_Q320.jpg)
![Schematic diagram of a closed-circuit reverse osmosis system. Adapted from Warsinger et al. [39]. RO = reverse osmosis](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323750223/figure/fig3/AS:963448573812737@1606715448178/Schematic-diagram-of-a-closed-circuit-reverse-osmosis-system-Adapted-from-Warsinger-et_Q320.jpg)
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WATER POLLUTION (G TOOR AND L NGHIEM, SECTION EDITORS)
Desalination of Water: a Review
Natasha C. Darre
1
&Gurpal S. Toor
2
Published online: 14 March 2018
#Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
Purpose of Review In the face of rising water demands and dwindling freshwater supplies, alternative water sources are needed.
Desalination of water has become a key to helping meet increasing water needs, especially in water-stressed countries where water
obtained by desalination far exceeds supplies from the freshwater sources.
Recent Findings Recent technological advancements have enabled desalination to become more efficient and cost-competitive
on a global scale. This has become possible due to the improvement in the materials used in membrane-based desalination,
incorporation of energy-recovery devices to reduce electricity demands, and combining different desalination methods into
hybrid designs. Further, there has been a gradual phasing-in of renewable energy sources to power desalination plants, which
will help ensure the long-term sustainability of desalination. However, there are still challenges of reducing energy demands and
managing waste products from the desalination to prevent adverse environmental effects.
Summary This article reviews the history, location, components, costs, and other facets of desalination and summarizes the new
technologies that are set to improve the overall efficiency of the desalination process.
Keywords Desalination .Reverse osmosis .Membrane fouling .Brine management
Introduction
We live in a thirsty world. Despite the existence of ample
amounts of water on the Earth (1.4 × 10
9
km
3
), 97.5% of this
water is seawater with average salinity of 35,000 ppm or milli-
grams per liter [1,2]. In other words, the Earth only has 2.5%
freshwater , of which 80% is locked up in glaciers, leaving 20%
(or 0.5% of freshwater) available in the world’s rivers, lakes, and
aquifers [1]. In many regions of the world, freshwater is being
extracted at rates exceeding the natural recharge rates [3]. With a
rapidly growing and urbanizing population, increase in global
water use is expected. As demand for water is growing, water
scarcity is expanding and intensifying around the globe. It is
estimated that around 40% of the global population suffers from
serious water shortages, and this number is expected to rise to
60% by 2025 [1]. This is largely due to the increase in global
population, contamination and overexploitation of freshwater
sources, and economic activities [1,3]. The water shortages
could increase conflicts within and among governments over
the allocation of shared water resources, as seen in the 1950s–
1960s conflicts in the Middle East over water from the Jordan
River [4].
In several regions across the world with local water basins
depletions, communities have turned to alternative water
sources, water recycling, water imports, and desalination [3].
Desalination is the process of removing excess salts and other
dissolved chemicals from the seawater [5], which reduces salt
concentrations at or below the World Health Organization’s
drinking water limit of 500 ppm [6]. Desalination has been
around for centuries but has gained prominence in the last few
decades. The first references to desalination practices are
found from 300 BC to 200 AD [7]. In 320 BC, Alexander of
Aprodisias described sailors boiling seawater and suspending
This article is part of the Topical Collection on Water Pollution
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-018-0085-9) contains supplementary
material, which is available to authorized users.
*Natasha C. Darre
ndarre@ufl.edu
Gurpal S. Toor
gstoor@umd.edu
1
Department of Soil and Water Sciences, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
2
Department of Environmental Science and Technology, University of
Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
Current Pollution Reports (2018) 4:104–111
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-018-0085-9
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