Conference PaperPDF Available

Trade Liberalization in Textiles and Clothing: A Comparative Analysis of Policy Responses between Indonesia and Bangladesh 2010-2015

Authors:
Trade Liberalization in Textiles and Clothing: A Comparative Analysis of Policy Responses
between Indonesia and Bangladesh 2010-2015
1Irhamna, 2Riaty Raffiudin
1Master Program in Political Science
Department of Political Science, Universitas Indonesia
Senior Lecturer and Researcher
2Department of Political Science, Universitas Indonesia
Depok, 16424, Indonesia
Email: irhamna51@ui.ac.id/irhamna.irham@gmail.com
AbstractThisarticle examines the policy responses from the government of Indonesia and Bangladesh to
address the impact of liberalization in textiles and clothing towards women workers from 2010 to 2015. Using
the gendered political economy perspective by Wedderburn & Jackson (2008) and Mengesha (2008), this article
is aimed to answer the research question:How the two countries deliver their policy responses to overcome the
impact of trade liberalization in textiles and clothing on women workers between 2010-2015? This study used a
qualitative method with secondary data. The findings of this study suggest that the two countries reacted
differently to address the impact of trade liberalization. The Indonesian governmenttends to response the
changes byempowering the women workers through Government Regulation No.78 Year 2015 on
Remuneration. On the other hand, The Bangladesh government tends to respond the changes by expanding their
industries using the Export Processing Zones (EPZs).
Keywords: policy responses, trade liberalization, textiles, clothing, women workers.
GENDERED POLITICAL ECONOMY
PERSPECTIVES ON TRADE LIBERALIZATION
IN TEXTILES AND CLOTHING
The international trade regime on textiles and
clothing (T&C) has been significantly changed
since the Agreement on Textiles, and Clothing
(ATC) was ended in late 2004. The new era had
just begun in 2005, the liberalization of T&C
under the protocol of General Agreements on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), continued to a single
undertaking regime maintained by World Trade
Organization (WTO). Liberalization as its prolific
feature was aimed to open the market, expand
the demand, and gained the economics of scale.
Trade liberalization will be shrinking the
production cost, promoting competition and
triggered innovations. In the end, through several
channels trade liberalization has some impacts on
economic growth (Stiglitz & Charlton, 2005).
Since the Washington Consensus been
implemented, liberalization, openness, growth,
and elimination of poverty became the main
argument of global political economy. The
political economy context of liberalization will
trigger the redistribution. Sally (2009) argued
there be five factors that determined trade policy
reform in a country: economic condition, interest,
idea, institution, and endowments (Sally, Alves, &
Draper, 2009).
The agreement on trade liberalization in T&C
can be traced back to 1994 when the Uruguay
Round was held. The changing into themore
liberal system had made the developing countries
unable to gain the revenue compared when
thequotawas still imposed. Indonesia for
instance, by the time trade liberalization, was
started in 2005, there was a significant reduction
in T&C production, from 4 kg/capita to 3,5
kg/capita (Hermawan, 2011). Heron (2012)
argued that Uruguay Round be a grand bargain
between the developed countries and developing
countries. Agreement on Textile and Clothing
(ATC) as the successor of Multifiber Arrangement
(MFA) can be seen differently. Unlike the MFA
that tends to benefit the developed countries,
ATC is tried to accommodate the developing
countries’ interests. The negotiation of
themultilateral agreement shall involve all the
stakeholders, including the developing countries.
Their participation in the negotiation could be
crucial concerning their interest and position.
There are three main arguments on why
developing countries shall be participated: (1) the
outcomes of international negotiation are not
pre-determined by the relative power of
2nd International Conference on Social and Political Development (ICOSOP 2017)
Copyright © 2018, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
291
countries, developing countries can affect the
outcomes; (2) developing countries will have
replicable lessons, particularly on potential role
of inter-country alliances; (3) providing
information and analysis on a more systematic
basis on how international negotiations might
affect national interests, can improve the quality
of participation and negotiate success (Page,
2002).
The implementation of ATC has become a new
challenge for thedomestic market. They are
required to formulate a new strategy to deal with
quota, given the dependency to imported textile
materials (Heron, 2012). Single undertaking trade
regime under WTO was aimed to make global
economic integration become easier and tried to
eliminate all forms of barriers to global trade
(George, 2010).
The integration of MFA/ATC into single
undertaking trade regime under GATT/ WTO is
scheduled into four stages. The first stage took
place from 1st January 1995- 31st December
1997, during this period 16% of T&C products to
be integrated with GATT rules. The second stage
happened between 1st January 1998-31st
December 2001, during this time 17% of
products will be integrated, and the third stage
from 1st January 2002 to 31st December 2004
will integrate 18% of T&C products. Starts from
1st January 2005 the rest of total production
(49%) will automatically be integrated under
GATT rules (Naumann, 2006). As we can see from
the schedule above, the impact of quota imposing
would be most affected in the latter stages, and of
course after the post-quota era.
WTO got its mandate to regulate all forms of
multilateral trading from 2001 Doha Round. The
round itself has completed the unfinished 199
Seattle Round (Stiglitz & Charlton, 2005). Doha
Round also knew as Development Round since
they are trying to maximize growth and end
poverty. Rodrik (2007) has argued on the
alternative perspective of international trade
regime for developing countries. WTO shall be
seen as a part of theinstitutional integration, WTO
has to bridge the gap between thepractical and
strategic institution (Rodrik, 2007).
The Economic structure of a state is a complex
system. There are too many dimensions that need
to be comprehensively analyzed. The complexity
of the structure is reflecting the competition
between state and the market. In the broader
context, regional economic cooperation becomes
inevitable. The market already transformed as
the primary institution of theworld economy
(Gelinas, 2005). Expansion of the market was
originally caused by a phenomenon called
globalization, certain condition where borders of
nations seem to be blurred. Globalization became
a continuous process which placed men as the
dominant power, gained access to resources, and
be economically benefited (Peterson, 2005).
The market is one of the most
importantdimensions in economics. The market
can be defined as astructured connection which
operated through the freedom of both parties,
producer, and consumer. T&C Industry offered
such an opportunity to expand the market,
especially for newly industrialized countries, like
Indonesia and Bangladesh (Hermawan, 2011).
Indonesia and Bangladesh are two emerging
market; both are having competitive T&C
industries and become one of the
biggestcontributors of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
Indonesia and Bangladesh are two major
exporting countries in T&C. As the newly
industrialized countries, T&C has played apivotal
role in their emerging market. Bangladesh for
instance, according to the data provided by
Bangladesh Investment Development Authority
(BIDA) T&C has the biggest share in country’s
GDP, as high as US$16 billion or 77% of their total
export in 2009-2010. Meanwhile, Indonesia
successfully gained US$11,2 billion from T&C
during the same period. By the time being, those
numbers are getting higher.
Randriamaro (2003) argued that gender has
become the key factor to see the relations
between trade, growth, and development.
However, trade policies are often assumed as
gender-neutral. The state should recognize the
economic contribution of women, both in
productive labor, and unpaid female reproductive
work. Trade policies have different impacts on
women and men; this is due to gender inequality,
unequal access between women and men in the
policy-making process, including the economic
sector.
The impact is also caused by the gendered
work separation. Trade liberalization offers
theopportunity to increase the number of women
in labor force, especially in the export-based
industries such as T&C. Why is it so? Women
workers are always presumed as low-skilled
labors; it suited them. Since they have lower
education rate compared to men workers. As the
consequences, women are only gained
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
292
theinsignificant amount of wages. This made the
gender gap has become wider, men are
maintained their position as breadwinner, and
then women are still classified as secondary
income (Rice, 2010).
Gender inequality and trade should be
perceived as an interaction between those two
factors. Trade reform through liberalization will
make a different impact on women (gender-
differentiated) since both parties had different
access and limited control of resources, they also
had adifferent role in daily economic activities.
Gender inequality has limited women to gain
more benefit from trade liberalization.
Trade liberalization has restructured the
economy, changed labor market, and in the
extreme form, it can lead to unemployment.
Market openness will require abusiness to
perform efficiencies, and women are often
become avictim, due to their limited skills
(Randriamaro, 2003).
Many international agreements had not given
any sufficient scope for gender consideration. It is
very often that the agreement did not have any
specific articles related to gender. This is the part
when discrimination is started.Randriamaro
(2003) stated that the participations of women
and gender experts in the formulation of trade
liberalization policies are important. Including in
the process of negotiation. Women should be
encouraged to be involved in the whole process at
all levels, in doing so the policies formed have a
gender perspective.
The impact of international trade can be seen
through to what extent the obstacles havebeen
overcome. The development of technology has
caused transportation and communication factor
is no longer consideredas asignificant obstacle. As
for now, the biggest comes from the policies
taken by the government, which provides tariffs
barriers.
The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem is one of the
references in international trade. The main
argument of the theory that when a country’s
domestic market becomes open to international
trade, the country will start to export goods and
services, which they have acomparative
advantage in theproduction process. Comparative
advantage refers to the availability of factors of
production on a large scale so that the State can
use it at a cheaper cost. In a liberalized market,
this comparative advantage can produce cheaper
goods and services for a wider market. On the
other hand, goods and services that require
ahigher cost to produce will be imported from
economically-stable countries (Rivera-Batiz,
2013).
Textiles and Clothing industries havebeen
characterized by low wages and bad working
environment. Trade liberalization is aimed to
reach the maximum capacity of those resources.
In the global industrialized society, trade
liberalization has created the now labor force due
to the investment. However, at the same time, the
businessis still had to follow the rule of efficiency.
Those conditions above havebeen formulated
as follows: How the two countries deliver their
policy responses to overcome the impact of trade
liberalization in textiles and clothing on women
workers between 2010-2015?
OVERVIEW ON INDONESIA AND BANGLADESH
T&C INDUSTRIES
Indonesia is ranked as the fourth most
populous country with nearly 240 million of its
inhabitants. Indonesia is also become one of the
biggest economic power, alongside with the other
G20 members. The dynamics of theT&C industry
in Indonesia cannot be separated from the
changing in global economy structure, including
the Asia Financial Crisis in the late 1990s. The
Crisis affected national economy most
destructively. Unemployment has become
inevitable, as well as the lowering of thewage
rate, and worsened working environment
(Robertson, Sitalaksmi, Ismalina, & Fitrady,
2009).
T&C industries have been around for years,
even during the Dutch Colonization (Hill, 1997). It
continued to growth under New Order regime,
before the adjustmentcomesinto effect in the mid-
1980s. T&C industries are divided into three
subsectors: spinning and syntheticfiber, weaving
and fabric production, and garment (ready-
made). Spinning and Synthetic Fibre has slightly
different characteristic compared to the other
two; theytend to be more capital intensive rather
than labor intensive (Yastuti, 2004).
There are several milestones that we need to
know to understand the rise of T&C industry in
Indonesia. The structural adjustment that took
place in 1970-1980 in manufacturing, agriculture,
and services has set as the important stage.
Before the adjustment happened, Indonesia’s
economy is relied on oil and gas industry, when
the price of oil and gas was weakened in the mid-
1980s, it has damaged the economy. Economic
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
293
growth has fallen into only 3,7%. It was a very
significant changed compared to 7,5% growth in
1975-1980 (Basri & Soesastro, 2005). The
government responded quickly to tackle those
issues, one of the notable policy was outward-
looking trading policy. The primary priority is set
to gain more investment in non-traditional
sectors, besides oil and gas (Basri & Soesastro,
2005).
The outward-looking policy has changed the
structure of thenational economy. Before the
policy was implemented, trade is heavily
protected, and when the policy has been made
the paradigm has shifted from import
substitution industry to exporting manufacture
products. Indonesia also went through financial
deregulation, which invested became easier.
Robetson, Sitalaksmi, Ismalina, & Fitrady
(2009) has classified those changes into four
waves, as follows: (1) The First Wave 1980-1990,
during this time the Government tried to
diversified the economy, with focus on three
aspects: trade liberalization, investment reform,
and changing industrial policy. (2) The Second
Wave 1994-1995, during this phase Indonesia
has become the biggest 12 countries in securing
foreign direct investment. T&C industries are one
of the popular, with chemical and metal
manufactures. (3) The Third Wave 1997-1999,
the crisis happened, followed by capital flow,
which hasstruck badly. (4) The Fourth Wave
2000-2006, this phase could be remembered as
economic recovery. T&C industries affected quite
bad, yet they reclaimed their position as popular
investment sectors.
The numbers of women workers in were
getting higher by the time being. As Blackburn
(2004) mentioned from 1971-1995, there was a
significant growth from 37% to 47%. Those
numbers indicated that even during the
repressive regime, women had influenced the
economic development and the economic growth.
Women workers are still the backbone, during
2008-2010 around 78% of their workers are
women, and nearly 80% are young women from
21-35 years old (Utomo, 2013).
On the other hand, Bangladesh is ranked as
the eighth most populous countries with 156
millioninhabitants. The capital Dhaka also has the
highest density in population, around 18 million
(Khan, 2015). Political instability during the
independence from Pakistan has pushed them to
take several policies, one of those was Golden
Bangladesh. It served as the main principle
towards industrialization period. Shortly after
independence, all of theeconomic sectors were
managed by thestate through economic
nationalization programs. This condition was
merely for a short period before the government
agreed to implement more outward-looking
economic policy. Therefore the private sectors
are back in business (Hassan, 2008).
The development of T&C industries has
changed the urban and rural landscapes in
Bangladesh. The opening of thenew industrial
zone and the EPZs meant the opening of new
labor forces. Urbanization became inevitable. As
mentioned above, the new labor forces are
predominantly women, comprised nearly 85% of
total (Khan, 2015), they have left their villages
then moved to Dhaka or Chittagong. This
phenomenon has aunique social impact before
the industrialization begin women are excluded
from economic-sphere, they did not have any
access to theformal economy. When the
industries growth, they became the backbone
(Lewis, 2011).
It took 15 years for Bangladesh to claim the
8th position of the biggest T&C producer
countries. Ahmed (2004) argued that it changed
the economic structure, Bangladesh has
transformed to proto-capitalist state. The
structuraladjustment that happened during
Golden Bangladesh era, relied on strategies such
as: devaluation, tariff reduction, tax holiday, and
expansion of EPZs.
Bangladesh is quite successfulin
combiningindustrialization and poverty
alleviation. Fukunishi & Yamagata (2014)
explained that T&C industries hadprovided
asignificant contribution to poverty alleviation,
women empowerment, and economic growth.
HOW ARE WOMEN AFFECTED BY TRADE
LIBERALIZATION IN T&C?
The relation between feminism and
international economy through international
trade regime (WTO) has become one of
theunderstudiedareas in feminism and politics.
International trade regime can be seen as non-
gendered discourse. Feminist critique towards
this argument stands on all the basic knowledge
about production, and productive action has been
identified as amale domain. While the
reproductive and domestic work were always
identified for female. Work cannot be understood
without examining how gender is embedded in all
social relations (Peterson, 2005). It has raised
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
294
some concerns, what kind of theoretical
framework we can use to analyze that kind of
relation? How are women affected by trade
liberalization?
Two main perspectives presented by
Mengesha (2008) are: state-market dichotomy
and the discriminatory nature of trade regime
against third world states. It may also include that
the incapacitate governments of poor states from
benefiting from trade and further from meeting
their obligations towards fulfilling the socio-
economic need of their citizens (Mengesha,
2008). She also indicates that the poor women
located mostly in developing and less developed
countries that shoulder the brunt of dislodging
effects of trade liberalization. In the developed
economies where liberalization has resulted in
adverse impacts, it is in the majority of cases poor
women concentrated in low paying jobs that are
dislocated from their livelihood (Mengesha,
2008).
Feminists have shown that the construction of
the market-state dichotomy is flawed and can be
challenged as non-existing. The market is not a
natural phenomenon but is rather a social
construction. Global trade increased the
vulnerability of women. In the face of such
consequences, state intervention becomes crucial
for dealing with inequalities (Mengesha,
2008).The marketis considered as apublic sphere
where all of the resources are being held by men.
Accordingly, women’s role and experiences are
being ignored. Without the state intervention in
themarket economy, the redistribution of
resources is not benefiting for women, since they
are economically marginalized. In the global
scale, trade liberalization increased the
vulnerability of women. The stateshouldtake
action. Why is it so? Using state-market logic,
women’s interest can be considered as
underrepresented. Women did not have sufficient
access and control to productive resources.
Inequal gender relation resulting the double-
burden for women workers (Mengesha, 2008)
In the critique to single undertaking regime, it
comprises into two separated groups: full
rejection, and thepossibilityof reforming. The first
groups appear to reject all trade reform since the
underlying principles of the trade regime are
inimical to the interest of women. As such, the
argument is that while the system is operating on
these fundamental bases, it will not be wise to
expect positive outcomes in the interest of
women from the regime (Mengesha, 2008).
Wedderburn & Jackson (2008) tried to
identify the gender implication from multilateral
economic agreement called Economic
Partnership Agreement (EPA) which bound
European Union (EU) and Carribean Community
(CARICOM) in 2008. In their research,
Wedderburn and Jackson explained that there
was a significant implication between trade
openness (liberalization) with thefeminization of
labors across sectors, as the specific outcomes of
trade agreements impact women and men
differently depending on their location in society
and the economy. These differential impact on
women and men are linked to socio-economic
aspects of their livelihoods because women and
men’s economic performance is influenced by
their gendered realities. Their capacity to benefit
from any opportunities associated with trade
liberalization requires analysis using gender lens,
to identify how their experiences differ, and how
their livelihoods affected (Wedderburn & Jackson,
2008, p.128).
Overworked and underpaid are two main
effects that women workers have suffered.
Bangladesh, for instance, according to
Bangladeshi law, workers are supposed to work
on eight-hour shift. However, garment workers
are forced to put extra hours on a daily basisto
meet the unrealistic production target set by
factory owners. (Alam & Blanch, 2011). Alam and
Blanch (2011) researched working condition in
thegarment industry in Bangladesh; the result
was harsh. The wages of 96% of the garment
workers they interviewed are depended on
meeting production targets. Extra hours worked
to meet production target are not considered
overtime. Therefore they are unpaid (Alam &
Blanch, 2011).
Employers claimed the production targets are
achievable in aneight-hour shift, but 64% of
women workers fail to meet their targets within
theallocated time. One in three of those
interviewed reported working an extra 11-20
hours per month to meet the target, and thereby
guarantee the basic salary, while 23% work 21-
30 hours extra (Alam & Blanch, 2011). Workers
are also put under particular pressure when the
date for shipment of an order is close. To meet
demanding shipment deadlines, workers are
persuaded by management to work until
midnight without a break.
Those terrible conditions are also happened in
Indonesia, although in theslightly different
environment. Unpaid overtime can be considered
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
295
as the most common thing that ever happened in
T&C industries. Women workers had suffered
from economic exploitation. According to
Government Regulation No.78 Year 2015, women
workers shall enjoy their reproductive rights,
such as menstrual leave, and maternity leave.
However, the rules are not yet implemented by
the industries, in the name of productivity,
workers’ right isbeing neglected.
POLICY RESPONSES FROM INDONESIA AND
BANGLADESH: ADDRESSING THE IMPACT
Industrialization and trade liberalization has
raised the new class of women factory workers.
The government of Indonesia and Bangladesh
had tackled the economy with determination,
assisted by foreign aid and investment. It had
remarkable success in promoting economic
stability and growth, yet in the process, it
eliminated several workers’ rights.
Minimum wage policy has become the
determining factorto address the impact of
liberalization. The minimum wage is an
attractive policy tool for poverty reduction and
improving social justice. It ita complex yet
feasible way for the government to show their
commitment to support those at the bottom of
income distribution, requiring no significant
direct government expenditures, and can easily
be targeted to the working poor.
The minimum wage concept had been
originated in New Zealand, followed by Australia
in the late 19th Century in response to public
demands for social justice among workers. Since
that time, many other industrialized countries, as
well as some developing countries had also
carried out experiments with minimum wage
regulations for the protections for the vulnerable
workers(BILS, 2015). There is no universal
definition of national minimum wage. It is usually
considered as the most successful labor market
intervention that improves the income of low
earners. At first, ILO introduces the minimum
wage regulation for ensuring workers’ reasonable
standard of life, yet none of its term defines it.
Bangladesh does not have a minimum wage
act, but a Minimum Wage Board has been in
existence since 2006 when the Labor Act was
adopted. In 2013, Labor Act was succeeded by the
Bangladesh Labor Amendment Act. The Minimum
Wage Board determines the minimum wage. It it
comprised of four members appointed by the
government: a chairperson, employers
representatives, workers’ representatives, and an
independent member. Minimum wages in
Bangladesh must be increased at least every five
years (Clean Clothes Campaign, 2017).
The point above is the majordifferent, while in
Indonesia, the minimum wages are revised
annually. There are several regulations on this
issue: (1) Regulation of the Ministry of Manpower
and Transmigration No. 7 Year 2013 concerning
Minimum Wage; (2) Presidential Instruction No.9
Year 2013 on Minimum Wage Fixing Policy
Framework for Improved Business Continuity
and Workers Welfare; (3) Regulation of Ministry
of Manpower and Transmigration No.13 Year
2012 on Decent Living Standards; (4)
Government Regulation No.78 Year 2015 on
Remuneration; (5) Gubernatorial Regulation in
each provinces.
The minimum wage was increased around
15% in average annually, compared to
Bangladesh which only increased 25% in five
years period (5% p.a), even the number was
seemingly high, the annual increase has not been
keeping up with the annual inflation which
ranges from 7-12% p.a. (Clean Clothes Campaign,
2017). Therefore, at this point, workers in
Indonesia seemingly have afinancial safety. The
Government of Bangladesh did not pay much
attention to address the impact on this issues. It
reflected on how they managed the minimum
wage policy, which did not consider the annual
inflation rate. The government is also reluctant to
address the impact of economic exploitation on
women workers.
Nevertheless, the increased wage could be a
burden for labor-intensive industries, such as
T&C. Before the Government Regulation 78/2015
was adopted, the minimum wagewas determined
under political pressure, which resulted in the
weak rule of law and threatening business
continuity. Indonesia also has National Wage
Board, a tripartite non-structural institution
which comprised of state, business, and workers.
They also have independent members from
universities and experts.
Workers Unions are constantly demand to
revise the decent live standards which be used as
the basic argumentation when formulating the
minimum wage; they argued that those numbers
not add up. The Decent Living Standard was
standardized by the needs of a single worker.
Some of the workers argued that discriminate
them when they are already starting a new
family.
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
296
It also raised some critique from women
workers union, which stated that their needs as
women have not yet fulfilled by the rules in
Government Regulation 78/2015.At first, the
regulation was aimed to achieve the decent living
for workers, including the women workers.There
was animprovement, when we talked about the
menstrual leave. Women workers are granted 2
days off when they need to take the menstrual
leave, or they still granted three months for
maternity leave. The rules are not enough;
women workers are still facing discrimination.
Mostwomen workers in T&C did not get equal
chance to prove their quality to be promoted
tosupervisor because the company thinks that
when women workers will stop working when
they are getting married. So, the company thinks
that there are no urges to improve their working
conditions.
Contrary to the fact, Bangladesh Government
is eagerly awaiting to increase the investment
through the expansion of EPZs. There are
currently 8 EPZs throughout the country:
Adamjee, Chittagong, Comilla, Dhaka, Ishwardi,
Karnaphuli, Mongla, and Uttara. The government
provides various incentives for investors when
they are agreed to open new factories in EPZs.
The company will be granted5 years tax-free.
Also, they will be safe from workers’ union
demand since the Union is banned inside the
EPZs. Furthermore, the government of
Bangladesh had already approved 37-new
authorized economic zones all over the
country.From this notion, we can conclude that
the government of Bangladesh are likely to
expand their production basis rather than
empowering their workers.
The policy responses between Indonesia and
Bangladesh relied on thevery basic question:
Which side are youon? The Government of
Indonesia are likely to choose the populist way,
tried to get the workers attention by favoring
their needs through Government Regulation
78/2015, eventhough there is always a debate on
whether those regulation arefavoring the
workers or not. On the other side, the
Government of Bangladesh is likely to side with
the business. The expansion of EPZs with all of
the incentives within implied that the
government is still reluctant to empower their
workers.Alas, thestate-business relation is getting
more complicated from time to time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahmed, F. E. (2004). The Rise of the Bangladesh
Garment Industry: Globalization, Women
Workers, and Voice. NSWA Journal, 34-
55.
Alam, K., & Blanch, L. (2011). Stitched Up: Women
Workers in the Bangladeshi Garment
Sector. London: War on Want.
Basri, M. C., & Soesastro, H. (2005). The Political
Economy of Trade Policy in Indonesia.
CSIS: Economics Working Paper Series, 1-
29.
BILS. (2015). National Minimum Wage for
Bangladesh's Workers: Rational Standard
and Rationality of National Minimum.
Dhaka: Bangladesh Institute of Labor
Studies.
Blackburn, S. (2004). Women and State in Modern
Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Clean Clothes Campaign. (2017). Wage Struggle
in Bangladesh. Dhaka: Clean Clothes
Campaign.
Fukunishi, T., & Yamagata, T. (2014). The
Garment Industry in Low-income
Countries: An Entry Point of
Industrialization. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gelinas, J. B. (2005). Juggernaut Politics:
Understanding Predatory Globalisation.
New York: Zed Books.
George, C. (2010). The Truth About Trade: The
Real Impact of Liberalization. London:
Zed Books.
Hale, A. (2002, February). Trade Liberalisation in
The Garment Industry: Who Is Really
Benefitting? Development in Practice,
12(1), 33.
Hermawan, I. (2011). Analisis Dampak Kebijakan
Makroekonomi Terhadap Perkembangan
Industri Tekstil dan Produk Tekstil
Indonesia. Buletin Ekonomi Moneter dan
Perbankan, 374.
Heron, T. (2012). The Global Political Economy of
Trade Protectionism and Liberalization:
Trade Reform and Economic Adjustment
in Textiles and Clothing. London:
Routledge.
Hill, H. (1997). Indonesia's Industrial
Transformation. Singapore: ISEAS.
Khan, A. R. (2015). The Economy of Bangladesh: A
Quarter Century of Development. London:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Mengesha, E. (2008). Rethinking the Rules and
Principles of The International Trade
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
297
Regime: Feminist Perspectives.Agenda:
Empowering Women for Gender Equity,
13-26.
Naumann, E. (2006). The Multifibre Agreement -
WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing.
TRALAC.
Peterson, V. S. (2005). How (The Meaning of)
Gender Matters in Political Economy.
New Political Economy.
Rice, J. S. (2010). Free Trade, Fair Trade, Gender
Inequality in Less Developed Countries.
Sustainable Development Journals.
Rodrik, D. (2007). One Economics, Many Recipes:
Globalization, Institutions, and Economic
Growth. New Jersey: Princeton University
Press.
Sally, R., Alves, P., & Draper, P. (2009). The
Political Economy of Trade Reform in
Emerging Markets: Crisis or Opportunity?
United Kingdom: Edward Elgar
Publishing Ltd.
Septi, D. (2016, Maret 3). Buruh Perempuan dan
Kawasan Industri Rumah Pabrik dan
Serikat Buruh. Dipetik November 11,
2016, dari Majalah Sedane:
http://majalahsedane.org
Sudrajat, U. A. (2008). Country Reports on
Coping with Restrictive Policies and
Maintaining Competitiveness: Indonesia.
Dalam E. a. (ESCAP), Unveiling
Protectionism: Regional Responses to
Remaining Barriers in the Textiles and
Clothing Trade (hal. 204-2013). Thailand:
United Nations.
Underhill, G. R. (1998). Industrial Crisis and the
Open Economy: Politics, Global Trade, and
the Textile Industry in the Advanced
Economies. London: Macmillan.
Utomo, H. K. (2013). Dampak Liberalisasi Industri
Tekstil Terhadap Kesejahteraan
Perempuan Buruh di Industri Tekstil
Nasional Pada Masa Pemerintahan
Suharto dan Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono,
62. Depok, Indonesia.
Wedderburn, J., & Jackson, J. (2008). Gender and
the Economic Partnership Agreement: An
Analysis of the Potential Gender Effects of
the CARIFORUM-EU. Carribean
Development Report.
Yastuti, T. I. (2004). Dampak Penghapusan
Kebijakan Kuota MFA (Multi-Fibre
Arrangement) terhadap Daya Saing dan
Pemasaran Sektor Tekstil dan Produk
Tekstil. Skripsi. Bogor: Institut Pertanian
Bogor.
Yunus, M., & Yamagata, T. (2014). Bangladesh:
Market Force Supersedes Control. Dalam
T. Fukunishi, & T. Yamagata, The Garment
Industry in Low-Income Countries: An
Entry Point of Industrialization (hal. 77-
103). Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 136
298
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Article
Full-text available
Textile and textile’s product play an important role in the Indonesian economy. During the last five years, however, share of these industries and commodities to gross domestic product tend to decrease. The objectives of this study are to analyze factors affecting Indonesian textile and textile’s product, and the prospect of Indonesian textile and textile’s product in the future. Results of the study show that domestic textile production was affected by world cotton price and wage rate, while the domestic garment production was affected by wage rate in the garment sector. Indonesia’s textile export to world market was influenced by domestic textile price, and Indonesia’s export garment was influenced by exchange rate (Rp/US$). Indonesian textile demand was affected by wage rate and domestic garment demand was affected by income per capita of Indonesia. In general, the prospect of Indonesian textile and textile’s product seems not too good. In fact, Indonesian textile and textile’s product had depended on high import cotton, investment, and exchange rate. So why, economy policies are still needed to accelerate Indonesian textile and textile’s product development. JEL Classification: C53, E60, F43, and F4. Keywords: export, open economy, forecasting, simulation, textile and textile’s product.
Book
In the quarter century since its emergence from military rule and integration into the global economy, Bangladesh's economy has achieved high growth, reduced aid dependence and made remarkable improvement in social indicators while at the same time it continues to suffer from increasing inequality. This book analyses these successes and failures.
Book
'That trade liberalization is good for emerging market economies, and not just for the rich ones, is now widely accepted by both economists and policy-makers. But the question remains: how can these reforms be implemented in practice? The answer to that important question lies in understanding the political economy of each reforming country. This book makes a splendid contribution to our understanding of this issue by examining the experience of several countries. It is therefore an important book to be read by, not just students and researchers, but also policy-makers worldwide.' © Peter Draper, Philip Alves and Razeen Sally 2009. All rights reserved.
Article
In the first study of the kind, Susan Blackburn examines how Indonesian women have engaged with the state since they began to organise a century ago. Voices from the women's movement resound in these pages, posing demands such as education for girls and reform of marriage laws. The state, for its part, is shown attempting to control women. The book investigates the outcomes of these mutual claims and the power of the state and the women's movement in improving women's lives. It also questions the effects on women of recent changes to the state, such as Indonesia's transition to democracy and the election of its first female president. The wider context is important. On some issues, like reproductive health, international institutions have been influential and as the largest Islamic society in the world, Indonesia offers special insights into the role of religion in shaping relations between women and the state.
Article
World trade is increasingly conditioned by the rules of the World Trade Organisation. In the case of the garment industry this means the phasing out of the Multifibre Arrangement, which has dominated trade in textiles and garments since 1974. This phase-out is seen as benefiting developing countries and criticism focuses on the manner in which the USA and Europe are holding up the process. However, it is important to look at who exactly will gain or lose. Not all poor countries will benefit. Furthermore, the main profits from garment production go to the Northern companies who control the industry. These companies will benefit from more open markets and associated competition between global suppliers. Meanwhile, for workers North and South, this increased competition brings insecurity and the threat of deteriorating conditions of work.