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Biculturals' Flexible Identity Facilitates Variation in the Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories: An Online Replication of Wang (2008)
Abstract
The current study is a conceptual replication of Wang (2008) using a pretest-posttest design and an online sample through Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Seventy-one Asian-Americans recalled a recent memory before and after being primed as either Asian or American. On pre-prime memories, conditions did not significantly differ. However, on post-prime memories, participants primed as American recalled more self-focused memories than relationally focused memories and those primed as Asian recalled more relationally focused memories than self-focused memories. In addition, memories of Asian-Americans primed as American consisted of a smaller proportion of social interaction instances than those primed as Asian. In total, 6 of the 8 effects found in Wang (2008) were replicated. We discuss the implications that the current results and past studies have on our understanding of how culture influences memory encoding and retrieval.
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People from different cultures often tell diverse stories about their past experiences. Research in the past two decades has revealed systematic differences in the content (self-focus vs other-focus), structure (specific vs general), valence (positive vs negative), accessibility (memory density and detailedness), developmental origin (age and density of earliest childhood memories), and functional usage (self-definition, relationship maintenance, behavioral guidance, and emotion regulation) of autobiographical memory across cultures. I outline a cultural dynamic theory of autobiographical memory that aims to synthesize the findings and provide a coherent guide to future investigation. The theory posits that (1) autobiographical memory takes place in the dynamic transaction between an active individual and his or her changing environment; (2) it is situated in culturally conditioned time and space over a multitude of timescales; and (3) it develops in the process of children acquiring cultural knowledge about the self and the purpose of the past through early socialization. I further discuss how the theory can provide insights into collective memory and future simulation.
Empirically analyzing empirical evidence
One of the central goals in any scientific endeavor is to understand causality. Experiments that seek to demonstrate a cause/effect relation most often manipulate the postulated causal factor. Aarts et al. describe the replication of 100 experiments reported in papers published in 2008 in three high-ranking psychology journals. Assessing whether the replication and the original experiment yielded the same result according to several criteria, they find that about one-third to one-half of the original findings were also observed in the replication study.
Science , this issue 10.1126/science.aac4716
The study addresses cultural and person-level factors contributing to emerging adult’s use of memory to
serve adaptive functions. The focus is on three functions: self-continuity, social-bonding and directing behaviour. Taiwanese (N = 85, 52 women) and American (N = 95, 51 women) emerging adults
completed the Thinking about Life Experiences scale, and measures of trait personality, self-concept
clarity and future time perspective. Findings show that individuals from both cultures use memory to
serve these three functions, but Taiwanese individuals use memory more frequently than Americans to
maintain self-continuity. Culture also interacted with person-level factors: in Taiwan, but not America,
memory is more frequently used to create self-continuity in individuals high in conscientiousness. Across
cultures, having lower self-concept clarity was related to greater use of memory to create self-continuity.
Findings are discussed in terms of how memory serves functions in context and specific aspects of the
Taiwanese and American cultural context that may predict the functional use of memory in emerging
adulthood.
Biculturalism (having two cultures) is a growing social phenomenon that has received considerable attention in psychology in the last decade; however, the issue of what impact (if any) biculturalism has on individuals’ adjustment remains empirically unclear. To answer this question, we conducted a meta-analysis that included 83 studies, 322 rs, and 23,197 participants. Results based on the random-effects approach show a significant, strong, and positive association between biculturalism and adjustment (both psychological and sociocultural). This biculturalism- adjustment link is stronger than the association between having one culture (dominant or heritage) and adjustment. Thus, our results clearly invalidate early sociological accounts of this phenomenon, which portrayed bicultural individuals as “marginal” and stumped between two worlds. Analyses also indicate that the association between biculturalism and adjustment is moderated by how acculturation is measured, the adjustment domain, and sample characteristics.
A modified version of Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's Self Memory System (SMS) account of autobiographical memory and the self is introduced. Modifications include discussion of a fundamental tension between adaptive correspondence (experience-near sensory-perceptual records of goal activity) and self-coherence (a more abstracted and conceptually-rich long-term store of conceptual and remembered knowledge). This tension is examined in relation to each SMS component - the episodic memory system, long-term self, and the working self. The long-term self, a new aspect of the model, consists of the interaction of the autobiographical knowledge base and the conceptual self. The working self, depending on goal activity status, mediates between episodic memory and the long-term self. Applications of the SMS to personality and clinical psychology are provided through analysis of self-defining memories and adult attachment categories, as well as case histories of traumatic memory. The SMS's role in imagination is examined through a brief discussion of Wordsworth's poetry.
The authors propose that cultural frame shifting—shifting between two culturally based interpretative lenses in response to cultural cues—is moderated by perceived compatibility (vs. opposition) between the two cultural orientations, or bicultural identity integration (BII). Three studies found that Chinese American biculturals who perceived their cultural identities as compatible (high BII) responded in culturally congruent ways to cultural cues: They made more external attributions (a characteristically Asian behavior) after being exposed to Chinese primes and more internal attributions (a characteristically Western behavior) after being exposed to American primes. However, Chinese American biculturals who perceived their cultural identities as oppositional (low BII) exhibited a reverse priming effect. This trend was not apparent for noncultural primes. The results show that individual differences in bicultural identity affect how cultural knowledge is used to interpret social events.
For bicultural individuals, visual cues of a setting's cultural expectations can activate associated representations, switching the frames that guide their judgments. Research suggests that cultural cues may affect judgments through automatic priming, but has yet to investigate consequences for linguistic performance. The present studies investigate the proposal that heritage-culture cues hinder immigrants' second-language processing by priming first-language structures. For Chinese immigrants in the United States, speaking to a Chinese (vs. Caucasian) face reduced their English fluency, but at the same time increased their social comfort, effects that did not occur for a comparison group of European Americans (study 1). Similarly, exposure to iconic symbols of Chinese (vs. American) culture hindered Chinese immigrants' English fluency, when speaking about both culture-laden and culture-neutral topics (study 2). Finally, in both recognition (study 3) and naming tasks (study 4), Chinese icon priming increased accessibility of anomalous literal translations, indicating the intrusion of Chinese lexical structures into English processing. We discuss conceptual implications for the automaticity and adaptiveness of cultural priming and practical implications for immigrant acculturation and second-language learning.
GPOWER is a completely interactive, menu-driven program for IBM-compatible and Apple Macintosh personal computers. It performs
high-precision statistical power analyses for the most common statistical tests in behavioral research, that is,t tests,F tests, andχ
2 tests. GPOWER computes (1) power values for given sample sizes, effect sizes andα levels (post hoc power analyses); (2) sample sizes for given effect sizes,α levels, and power values (a priori power analyses); and (3)α andβ values for given sample sizes, effect sizes, andβ/α ratios (compromise power analyses). The program may be used to display graphically the relation between any two of the relevant
variables, and it offers the opportunity to compute the effect size measures from basic parameters defining the alternative
hypothesis. This article delineates reasons for the development of GPOWER and describes the program’s capabilities and handling.
In this study, we explored whether developmental changes in the structure and coherence of preschoolers′ personal narratives might provide some clues about childhood amnesia. In particular, we hypothesized that early memories may not be organized as coherent narratives and would therefore become less accessible and less likely to be integrated into the autobiographical life story that each of us creates. Preschoolers′ narratives about personally experienced events were assessed longitudinally at 40, 46, 58, and 70 months of age. Surprisingly, even at the earliest age studied, children were able to recount reasonably long and coherent narrative. But their narratives become more complex, more coherent, and more detailed over time. Additional analyses on the same events recalled repeatedly indicated that recall was stable over long delays. In fact, there was some evidence that children′s narratives about the same event became more elaborate and more complex over time, particularly between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Implications of these results for childhood amnesia are discussed.
Current research on culture focuses on independence and interdependence and documents numerous East-West psychological differences, with an increasing emphasis placed on cognitive mediating mechanisms. Lost in this literature is a time-honored idea of culture as a collective process composed of cross-generationally transmitted values and associated behavioral patterns (i.e., practices). A new model of neuro-culture interaction proposed here addresses this conceptual gap by hypothesizing that the brain serves as a crucial site that accumulates effects of cultural experience, insofar as neural connectivity is likely modified through sustained engagement in cultural practices. Thus, culture is "embrained," and moreover, this process requires no cognitive mediation. The model is supported in a review of empirical evidence regarding (a) collective-level factors involved in both production and adoption of cultural values and practices and (b) neural changes that result from engagement in cultural practices. Future directions of research on culture, mind, and the brain are discussed.
Three studies show that the retrieval process itself causes long-lasting forgetting. Ss studied 8 categories (e.g., Fruit). Half the members of half the categories were then repeatedly practiced through retrieval tests (e.g., Fruit Or_____). Category-cued recall of unpracticed members of practiced categories was impaired on a delayed test. Experiments 2 and 3 identified 2 significant features of this retrieval-induced forgetting: The impairment remains when output interference is controlled, suggesting a retrieval-based suppression that endures for 20 min or more, and the impairment appears restricted to high-frequency members. Low-frequency members show little impairment, even in the presence of strong, practiced competitors that might be expected to block access to those items. These findings suggest a critical role for suppression in models of retrieval inhibition and implicate the retrieval process itself in everyday forgetting.
Most theories of spoken word identification assume that variable speech signals are matched to canonical representations in memory. To achieve this, idiosyncratic voice details are first normalized, allowing direct comparison of the input to the lexicon. This investigation assessed both explicit and implicit memory for spoken words as a function of speakers' voices, delays between study and test, and levels of processing. In 2 experiments, voice attributes of spoken words were clearly retained in memory. Moreover, listeners were sensitive to fine-grained similarity between 1st and 2nd presentations of different-voice words, but only when words were initially encoded at relatively shallow levels of processing. The results suggest that episodic memory traces of spoken words retain the surface details typically considered as noise in perceptual systems.
The authors describe a model of autobiographical memory in which memories are transitory mental constructions within a self-memory system (SMS). The SMS contains an autobiographical knowledge base and current goals of the working self. Within the SMS, control processes modulate access to the knowledge base by successively shaping cues used to activate autobiographical memory knowledge structures and, in this way, form specific memories. The relation of the knowledge base to active goals is reciprocal, and the knowledge base "grounds" the goals of the working self. It is shown how this model can be used to draw together a wide range of diverse data from cognitive, social, developmental, personality, clinical, and neuropsychological autobiographical memory research.
This study examined the emergence of cultural self-constructs as reflected in children's remembered and conceptual aspects of the self. European American and Chinese children in preschool through 2nd grade participated (N = 180). Children each recounted 4 autobiographical events and described themselves in response to open-ended questions. American children often provided elaborate and detailed memories focusing on their own roles, preferences, and feelings; they also frequently described themselves in terms of personal attributes, abstract dispositions, and inner traits in a positive light. Chinese children provided relatively skeletal accounts of past experiences that centered on social interactions and daily routines, and they often described themselves in terms of social roles, context-specific characteristics, and overt behaviors in a neutral or modest tone. Findings are discussed in light of the self as a constructed meaning system of culture that emerges early in life.
Do differences in individualism and collectivism influence values, self-concept content, relational assumptions, and cognitive style? On the one hand, the cross-national literature provides an impressively consistent picture of the predicted systematic differences; on the other hand, the nature of the evidence is inconclusive. Cross-national evidence is insufficient to argue for a causal process, and comparative data cannot specify if effects are due to both individualism and collectivism, only individualism, only collectivism, or other factors (including other aspects of culture). To address these issues, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the individualism and collectivism priming literature, with follow-up moderator analyses. Effect sizes were moderate for relationality and cognition, small for self-concept and values, robust across priming methods and dependent variables, and consistent in direction and size with cross-national effects. Results lend support to a situated model of culture in which cross-national differences are not static but dynamically consistent due to the chronic and moment-to-moment salience of individualism and collectivism. Examination of the unique effects of individualism and collectivism versus other cultural factors (e.g., honor, power) awaits the availability of research that primes these factors.
This chapter investigates the role of narrative in the relationship between individuals and their cultural worlds. Drawing on assumptions of interpretive cultural psychology and a Wittgensteinian concept of narrative as a cultural form of life, it proposes a culturally thick notion of narrative. At the heart of this notion is the idea of narrative as a cultural practice, a practice of meaning construction. This argument is developed in discussions of five traditions of research that have explored the nature of narrative (1) in contexts of cultural traditions and (2) socialization, (3) as a "form of life," (4) with respect to fictional and nonfictional genres, and (5) as an instrument and practice of folk psychology. The resulting outline of a culturally thick notion of narrative is further elaborated by arguments from narratology, discussions on narrative in the light of evolutionary anthropology, and interpretive approaches to narrative in philosophy and the social sciences.
This study investigated the influence of the language dependent recall effect on the number of memory items recalled in bilingual adults autobiographical memories. Thirty-nine Spanish-English bilinguals were randomly assigned to receive task instructions and write one childhood memory (before age 10) and one recent memory (from the last five years) in either Spanish (Bi-Sp) or English (Bi-Eng). Twenty English monolinguals served as a control group. Memory items were coded by calculating the proportion of nouns, verbs, and adjectives relative to the total word count. When recalling childhood memories, but not recent memories Bi-Sp participants were more likely to experience a match between encoding and retrieval linguistic contexts than Bi-Eng participants. Consequently, Bi-Sp participants recalled a significantly greater proportion of nouns than Bi-Eng participants. In contrast, there were no significant differences in recent memories. These findings suggest that match between encoding and retrieval linguistic contexts afford better retrieval than a mismatch.
Memory researchers collect data using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (AMT). Despite numerous reports documenting the reliability of data collected on this web site, no study of its uses for narrative memory research has been published. Participants reported narratives of stressful events and were recruited via AMT and in various formats with college students, including completing Internet surveys, typing in the presence of an experimenter, and verbal reports to the experimenter. Data were compared on linguistic indicators, event type reported, and questionnaire responses about these event narratives. AMT participants reported shorter event narratives than all groups of college students but reported stressful events that they self-reported as more difficult than college students reporting via the Internet and used proportionally more negative emotion terms than college students reporting verbally to an experimenter. Factors such as context and demographics are considered, and recommendations are made for researchers using this web site. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We investigated the dependence of retrieval-induced forgetting of verbal material from influences of word representations in semantic memory. Participants learned novel words, that is, letter strings that were non-words. These items were grouped into different artificial categories during learning. Subsequently, participants retrieval-practiced subsets of items from a part of the categories. This selective retrieval enhanced the recall of practiced items in a final memory test, but impaired memory for non-retrieved items belonging to the same categories. Retrieval-induced forgetting occurred with regard to the number of recalled items, as well as with regard to response times. The results show that episodic associations suffice for selective retrieval of verbal material to entail retrieval-induced forgetting independent of association strength between items and categories in semantic memory. The relevance of this finding for the postulate of interference dependence within the inhibitory account of retrieval-induced forgetting is discussed.
This chapter begins by drawing distinctions between indexical and allophonic variability and between episodic and abstractionist theories of lexical form. The authors argue that evidence for episodic theories comes primarily--although not exclusively--from research on indexical variability, whereas research on allophonic variability suggests the operation of more abstract codes. The authors conclude by arguing for a mixed representational model in which differential effects of abstract and episodic codes are predictable based on the processing time considerations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Where in the brain are the self and significant others (e.g. mother) represented? Neuroscientists have traced self-representation to the ventral medial prefrontal cortex for both Westerners and East Asians. However, significant others were represented alongside the self in the same brain area for East Asians but not for Westerners. In this experiment, Westernized bicultural Chinese were scanned using functional magnetic reso-nance imaging while performing trait judgments that referenced the self, mother, or a non-identified person (NIP) after Western or Chinese culture priming. Consistent with Western independent self-construals and Chinese interdependent self-construals, Western priming increased, whereas Chinese priming decreased the neural differentiation of mother and NIP from self. Key words: culture priming, independent self-construal, interdependent self-construal, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), medial prefrontal cortex, self-inclusiveness.
This is the report of an experiment that emphasized how variability in voice characteristics will affect a listener's ability to process sentences. Consideration is also given to the description of a possible model for the processing of continuous speech. As part of the experiment, use was made of a number of speakers, each of whom recorded the same set of sentences. The recorded sentences were used in order to form a pair of experimental tapes. On one tape, sentences were arranged randomly such that the listener could predict neither the content of a sentence nor the voice of the speaker who had produced it. On a second tape, sentences were arranged in blocks by speakers such that there was uncertainty as to content but not with respect to voice. Four groups of subjects listened to these tapes, with each tape being processed under a low and high condition of background noise. In interpreting the data, emphasis was placed on the idea that the speech signal contains a variety of characteristics or features and that these features are processed by three interacting subsystems. One is a prosodic system, responsible for the segmentation of continuous speech into sentences, phrases, and words. It attempts to establish a context within which a second system, responsible for the processing of words and syllables, can operate. However, this pair of systems is speaker-dependent in that it makes use of features that need to be adjusted on the basis of an assessment of voice characteristics. Thus, the model also provides for the inclusion of a third system, responsible for the assessment of voice characteristics. In effect, this third subsystem is responsible for training the two primary systems in order to normalize for differences in individual voice characteristics. We had predicted that performance would be uniformly more accurate in the blocked condition than in the unblocked condition since one type of uncertainty would have been eliminated. The results confirm this hypothesis only in part since there is an interaction with variations in backgroud noise. However, a plausible explanation is offered for these findings and for a variety of related results.
Four experiments investigated memory for timbre using the interpolated-tone paradigm [Deutsch, Science 168, 1604-1605 (1970)], in which participants discriminate pairs of tones (standard and comparison) separated by intervening (interpolated) tones. Interpolated tones varied from the standard tone in spectral similarity (within-dimensional variation), fundamental frequency (cross-dimensional variation), and repetition frequency. While the latter two variables had negligible effects on timbre memory, interference with timbre memory increased with the spectral similarity of the interpolated tones to the standard tone. The findings closely parallel those found for pitch memory, and suggest that memory interference depends on perceptual similarity in both cases.
Vivid memories of personal experiences provide models for present activities and contribute to successful problem solving and adaptation. The memories serve important directive functions: they inform, guide, motivate, and inspire. Yet directive functions have received less emphasis in the research literature than social or self functions. Explanations for this relative neglect are explored. Case studies and systematic research illustrate the prominence of memory directives in everyday life. Empirical studies that have compared memory functions are examined critically, reasons why directive functions may be underestimated using existing methods are discussed, and ideas for future research are outlined.
Studies of autobiographical memory have shown that the degree to which individuals focus on themselves vs. social relations in their memories varies markedly across cultures. Do the differences result from differing cultural self-views (i.e., an autonomous vs. a relational sense of self), as often suggested in the literature? Experimental evidence is required to answer this question. In the present study, Asian American participants (N=118) were primed to focus on their American or Asian self prior to recalling important autobiographical events, and participants in a control group described things in nature prior to the memory recall. Those whose American self was activated recalled more self-focused and less socially oriented memories than those whose Asian self was made salient, with the control group falling in between. The findings shed light on the mechanism underlying cultural influences on autobiographical remembering. They further highlight the dynamic nature of the memory-self interplay in cultural contexts.
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