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Spatial perception of whole-body orientation depends on gymnasts’ expertise
Abstract
The perception of spatial orientation of the body is a fundamental process in the precise performance of complex motor tasks, such as those found in acrobatic sports. While visual information is thought to be an important informational source when performing gymnastics skills, it is still questionable, which role visual information plays in the perception of spatial orientation in matters of gymnastics expertise and task specificity. Thus, this study targets the question, which role visual information plays in the perception of spatial orientation as a function of specific task demands and gymnastics expertise. High-skilled and low-skilled gymnasts were compared in their estimation of body tilt while being rotated about the transverse axis and the anterior-posterior axis in a human gyroscope with either full visual information available or occluded visual information. Results revealed that high-skilled gymnasts exhibited a better estimation of body tilt as compared to low-skilled gymnasts. Estimated tilt angles varied as a function of rotation axis and expertise, but not as a function of visual information. It was concluded that an increased spatial orientation ability may result from an increased sensitivity in individual sensory systems, and/or from an optimized processing of interacting sensory information that is specific to gymnasts' experience with particular motor tasks and the corresponding task demands.
... Some studies have manipulated visual behaviour by asking the gymnasts to fixate their gaze into a specific area (Heinen, Jeraj, Vinken, & Velentzas, 2012) or have occluded visual (Heinen, Koschnick, Schmidt-Maaß, & Vinken, 2014), (Luis and Tremblay, 2008) and auditory (Heinen et al., 2014) cues from the environment. Other studies measured gaze behaviour indirectly (not using an eyetracker) and the tasks chosen were performed in isolation and not in a sequence as it is typical in training or competition contexts (Luis and Tremblay, 2008) (Heinen, Walter, Hennig, & Jeraj, 2018), (Davlin et al., 2001), (Bardy & Laurent, 1998), (Sato, Torii, Sasaki, & Heinen, 2017). Although this studies contribute to scientific knowledge in this domain, by evidencing a relationship between gaze behaviour and movement kinematics, analyze visual perception in real environment with direct instruments (ecological perspective), will provide more reliable details on visual patterns and on how gymnasts visually adapt to different contextual constraints. ...
... This fact led them to be more effective in selecting to where to look and for how long, in order to pick the relevant visual information (Raab, de Oliveira, & Heinen, 2009). Heinen et al., (2018) concluded that an increased in spatial orientation ability results from an optimized processing of sensory information that is dependent on gymnasts' experience. This supports that during flight phase, elite gymnasts may use other senses to obtain spatial information when vision is not available. ...
Visual system provides information from the environment, leading gymnasts to improve performance. The question of what sources of visual information from the environment contribute to performance, remains unclear. This study aims to analyse visual behaviour, as areas of interest, fixated by Teamgym elite gymnasts during the performance of techniques on mini-trampoline and mini-trampoline with vaulting table. We hypothesised that: a) gymnasts would fixate areas of interest in the environment to visually perceive relevant information, b) fixations on the area of interest “landing mat” would occur during the last part of flight phase and landing. Three teamgym elite gymnasts performed three tasks on mini-trampoline and one task on mini-trampoline with vaulting table. The variables were: fixation duration (FD), areas of interest (AOIs), ratio between total fixation duration and total task duration (TFD/TD) and ratio between total fixation duration per AOI and total fixation duration (TFDA/TFD). Results showed that TFD/TD increased with the decreased of complexity degree for all tasks. Mini-trampoline was the most fixated AOI (except for straight barani out on mini-trampoline) while wall was the less fixated. The run-up zone was the most fixated zone. For the task on mini-trampoline with vaulting table, participants reduced the time spent fixating run-up zone and increased time spent fixating mini-trampoline and vaulting table. Landing mat was the only AOI that was fixated during the flight phase. Results suggest that gymnasts may adapt their visual strategy to the degree of complexity of the task, as reflected in the results of TFD/TD and TFDA/TFD
... Thus, in artistic gymnastics, both postures may be considered as key-positions to be reached in the frontal and the sagittal planes. Relative to the upright posture, the postures obtained in the frontal and sagittal planes after rotation at 0° and 180°, but not after 90°, might constitute key-references acquired by the Art subjects through training 52,53 . This might explain why the Art subjects were found to have faster log RTs in the 180° condition than in the 90° one. ...
Mental rotation (MR) is a spatial skill considered to be a key-component of intellectual ability. Studies have suggested that the response time (RT) in a MR task (MRt) might be influenced, with possible gender differences, by the practice of a physical activity (PA) and depending on the plane, direction, degrees of the MR and the frame of reference to perform it. The present study aimed at examining the respective influences of all these variables on the RT by developing a linear mixed-effect model from the RTs varying according to the MR plane, direction, degrees and frame of reference. The MRt was performed by 96 males and females, all undergraduate students, distributed in three groups (sedentary subjects, artistic gymnasts, and futsal players). The results showed that only gender had a main effect (faster log RT in males), probably task-dependent. The other variables interacted among them showing that: (a) the log RT may be influenced by rotations experienced during PA, in particular during the locomotion on a horizontal ground and (b) such influence mainly depends on the compatibility of the physical rotations experienced with the plane and the degrees of the MRt.
... It is hypothesized that trampolinists use feedforward and feedback controls to modify their motor patterns [10] to cope with perturbations. Indeed, athletes' responses to the sensory information are too complex to be reflexes [11,12]. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the internal processes aiming to determine the best response to perturbations can be modeled by optimization. ...
Aerial twisting techniques are preferred by trampoline coaches for their balanced landings. As these techniques are not intuitive, computer simulation has been a relevant tool to explore a variety of techniques. Up to now, twisting somersaults were mainly simulated using arm abduction/adduction only (2D). Our objective was to explore more complex (3D) but still anatomically feasible arm techniques to find innovative and robust twisting techniques. The twist rotation was maximized in a straight backward somersault performed by a model including arm abduction/adduction with and without changes in the plane of elevation. A multi-start approach was used to find a series of locally optimal performances. Six of them were retained and their robustness was assessed by adding noise to the first half of the arm kinematics and then reoptimizing the second half of the skill. We found that aerial twist performance linearly correlates with the complexity of arm trajectory. Optimal techniques share a common strategy consisting of moving the arm in a plane formed by the twisting and angular momentum axes, termed as the best tilting plane. Overall, 3D techniques are simpler and require less effort than 2D techniques for similar twist performances. Three techniques which generate ∼3 aerial twists could be used by athletes because kinematic perturbations do not compromise the performance and the landing.
Objectives
This cohort study reported descriptive statistics in athletes engaged in Summer and Winter Olympic sports who sustained a sport-related concussion (SRC) and assessed the impact of access to multidisciplinary care and injury modifiers on recovery.
Methods
133 athletes formed two subgroups treated in a Canadian sport institute medical clinic: earlier (≤7 days) and late (≥8 days) access. Descriptive sample characteristics were reported and unrestricted return to sport (RTS) was evaluated based on access groups as well as injury modifiers. Correlations were assessed between time to RTS, history of concussions, the number of specialist consults and initial symptoms.
Results
160 SRC (median age 19.1 years; female=86 (54%); male=74 (46%)) were observed with a median (IQR) RTS duration of 34.0 (21.0–63.0) days. Median days to care access was different in the early (1; n SRC =77) and late (20; n SRC =83) groups, resulting in median (IQR) RTS duration of 26.0 (17.0–38.5) and 45.0 (27.5–84.5) days, respectively (p<0.001). Initial symptoms displayed a meaningful correlation with prognosis in this study (p<0.05), and female athletes (52 days (95% CI 42 to 101)) had longer recovery trajectories than male athletes (39 days (95% CI 31 to 65)) in the late access group (p<0.05).
Conclusions
Olympic athletes in this cohort experienced an RTS time frame of about a month, partly due to limited access to multidisciplinary care and resources. Earlier access to care shortened the RTS delay. Greater initial symptoms and female sex in the late access group were meaningful modifiers of a longer RTS.
ABSTRACT The authors' main purpose was to determine whether learning of a real-world sport skill (basketball free throws) is specific to the sources of afferent visual information available during practice. Twenty-eight male high school students (inexperienced in the experimental task) were randomly assigned to a full vision or target only vision group. Participants trained under full vision or target only condition for 15 sessions. Following training, in immediate tests, they were examined under full vision and then under target only conditions. Ten days later, in delayed tests, they performed the task under full vision and then under target only conditions. Results showed both groups performed the task similarly across the experimental period. Interestingly, it was found that immediate and delayed retention performance is specific to the training visual context. The groups' performances dropped significantly when we tested them at a visual condition that differed from what they had experienced while learning the task. Performance of the task seemed to have integrated with the visual information available during the task acquisition. These findings provide evidence for the specificity of practice hypothesis in the field of motor learning and control.
Rotational Preference in Gymnastics
In gymnastics, most skills incorporate rotations about one or more body axes. At present, the question remains open if factors such as lateral preference and/or vestibulo-spinal asymmetry are related to gymnast's rotational preference. Therefore, we sought to explore relationships in gymnast's rotation direction between different gymnastic skills. Furthermore, we sought to explore relationships between rotational preference, lateral preference, and vestibulo-spinal asymmetry. In the experiment n = 30 non-experts, n = 30 near-experts and n = 30 experts completed a rotational preference questionnaire, a lateral preference inventory, and the Unterberger-Fukuda Stepping Test. The results revealed, that near-experts and experts more often rotate rightward in the straight jump with a full turn when rotating leftward in the round-off and vice versa. The same relationship was found for experts when relating the rotation preference in the handstand with a full turn to the rotation preference in the straight jump with a full turn. Lateral preference was positively related to rotational preference in non-expert gymnasts, and vestibulo-spinal asymmetry was positively related to rotational preference in experts. We suggest, that gymnasts should explore their individual rotational preference by systematically practicing different skills with a different rotation direction, bearing in mind that a clearly developed structure in rotational preference between different skills may be appropriate to develop more complex skills in gymnastics.
This study investigated long-term adaptations of smooth pursuit eye movement characteristics in high-level gymnasts and compared these responses to those of nonathletes. Gymnasts were selected because of their exceptional ability to spatially orient during fast, multiaxial whole body rotations. Participants were tested with standardized and supra-maximal sinusoidal smooth pursuit measurements. The results showed significantly higher gain values in top-level gymnasts, followed by young federal team gymnasts, followed by the nonathlete control group. By testing participants over the course of three years and also after periods of abstinence from training, changes to patterns of smooth pursuit over time are revealed. These results have interesting implications for understanding the characteristics of eye-movements in expert populations as well as understanding the general principles that underlie oculomotor adaptation.
The effect of field size, velocity, and visual fixation upon the perception of self-body rotation and tilt was examined in a rotating furnished room. Subjects sat in a stationary chair in the furnished room which could be rotated about the body roll axis. For full-field conditions, complete 360 degrees body rotation (tumbling) was the most common sensation (felt by 80% of subjects). Constant tilt or partial tumbling (less than 360 degrees rotation) occurred more frequently with a small field of view (20 deg). The number of subjects who experienced complete tumbling increased with increases in field of view and room velocity (for velocities between 15 and 30 degrees s-1). The speed of perceived self-rotation relative to room rotation also increased with increasing field of view.
Errors in statistical analysis of multiple dependent variables and in documenting the size of effects are common in the scientific and biomechanical literature. In this paper, I review these errors and several solutions that can improve the validity of sports biomechanics research reports. Studies examining multiple dependent variables should either control for the inflation of Type I errors (e.g. Holm's procedure) during multiple comparisons or use multivariate analysis of variance to focus on the structure and interaction of the dependent variables. When statistically significant differences are observed, research reports should provide confidence limits or effect sizes to document the size of the effects. Authors of sports biomechanics research reports are encouraged to analyse and present their data accounting for the experiment-wise Type I error rate, as well as reporting data documenting the size or practical significance of effects reaching their standard of statistical significance.
Minimal measurement error (reliability) during the collection of interval- and ratio-type data is critically important to sports medicine research. The main components of measurement error are systematic bias (e.g. general learning or fatigue effects on the tests) and random error due to biological or mechanical variation. Both error components should be meaningfully quantified for the sports physician to relate the described error to judgements regarding 'analytical goals' (the requirements of the measurement tool for effective practical use) rather than the statistical significance of any reliability indicators. Methods based on correlation coefficients and regression provide an indication of 'relative reliability'. Since these methods are highly influenced by the range of measured values, researchers should be cautious in: (i) concluding acceptable relative reliability even if a correlation is above 0.9; (ii) extrapolating the results of a test-retest correlation to a new sample of individuals involved in an experiment; and (iii) comparing test-retest correlations between different reliability studies. Methods used to describe 'absolute reliability' include the standard error of measurements (SEM), coefficient of variation (CV) and limits of agreement (LOA). These statistics are more appropriate for comparing reliability between different measurement tools in different studies. They can be used in multiple retest studies from ANOVA procedures, help predict the magnitude of a 'real' change in individual athletes and be employed to estimate statistical power for a repeated-measures experiment. These methods vary considerably in the way they are calculated and their use also assumes the presence (CV) or absence (SEM) of heteroscedasticity. Most methods of calculating SEM and CV represent approximately 68% of the error that is actually present in the repeated measurements for the 'average' individual in the sample. LOA represent the test-retest differences for 95% of a population. The associated Bland-Altman plot shows the measurement error schematically and helps to identify the presence of heteroscedasticity. If there is evidence of heteroscedasticity or non-normality, one should logarithmically transform the data and quote the bias and random error as ratios. This allows simple comparisons of reliability across different measurement tools. It is recommended that sports clinicians and researchers should cite and interpret a number of statistical methods for assessing reliability. We encourage the inclusion of the LOA method, especially the exploration of heteroscedasticity that is inherent in this analysis. We also stress the importance of relating the results of any reliability statistic to 'analytical goals' in sports medicine.
The main aim of this study was to determine how gymnasts are affected by the removal of vision when executing simple moves. A secondary aim was to establish whether crucial sensory cues exist for blindfolded gymnasts. Eight expert gymnasts were asked to maintain a straight displacement during three types of blindfolded locomotion: walking, steering a wheelchair and verbally ordering a second person pushing their wheelchair. In the first two conditions, active displacement made proprioceptive cues available to update the body trajectory. In the last condition, however, proprioceptive cues were greatly reduced, since the gymnasts displaced passively. The performance of the gymnasts was compared to that of eight experts in other non-gymnastic sports (control group). The results showed that the participants veered in all conditions. However, except in the verbal condition, the gymnasts departed less from linearity than the controls. We conclude that: (1) even for a simple motor task, gymnasts' performance is altered by eliminating vision; (2) compared with other sportsmen and women, gymnasts are better able to deal with the absence of vision when proprioceptive cues are available. These findings suggest two possible explanations: (1) gymnasts are more able to 'pick up' crucial information and (2) a gymnast's proprioceptive system is more sensitive.
The purpose of this study was to investigate how experts in motor skills requiring a fine postural control perceive their body orientation with few gravity based sensory cues. In Experiment 1, expert gymnasts and controls had to detect their body tilt when pitching at a velocity of 0.05 deg.s(-1), in two conditions of body restriction (strapped and body cast altering the somatosensory cues). Contrary to the experts, the controls exhibited a larger body tilt when totally restrained in the body cast. In Experiment 2, subjects had to estimate their Subjective Postural Vertical (SPV) starting from different angles of pitch tilt. The controls exhibited significant errors of SPV judgement whereas the experts were very precise. These results suggest that 1) somatosensory cues are more informative than otolithic cues for the perception of body orientation, and 2) the efficiency of otolithic and/or interoceptive inputs can be improved through a specific training to compensate for the lack of somatosensory cues.
Differing viewpoints concerning the specificity and generality of motor skill representations in memory were compared by contrasting versions of a skill having either extensive or minimal specific practice. In Experiments 1 and 2, skilled basketball players more accurately performed set shots at the foul line than would be predicted on the basis of the performance at the nearby locations, suggesting considerable specificity at this distance. This effect was replicated even when the lines on the court were obscured (in Experiment 2). However, the effect was absent when jump shots were executed in Experiment 3. The authors argue that massive levels of practice at 1 particular member of a class of actions produce specific effects that allow this skill to stand out from the other members of the class, giving it the status of an especial skill. Various theoretical views are proposed to account for the development of these skills.
The aim of this study was to increase our understanding of postural regulation by analysing an arbitrary posture - the handstand. We assessed the relative influence of peripheral vision and central visual anchoring on the postural balance of gymnasts in the inverted-stand posture. Displacements of the centre of pressure, the angles between the body segments, and the gymnast's height in the handstand were analysed. Postural regulation in the handstand appeared to be organized according to a system similar to that in erect posture, with three articular levels suggesting the existence of a typical organization of human posture. Moreover, both intra-modal (central and peripheral vision) and inter-modal sensory systems (vision and other balance systems) contributed to the postural regulation. The results are interpreted in terms of an ecological approach to posture in which postural regulation can be considered as an emergent phenomenon.
Research has shown that perceiving and predicting the actions of others differs as a function of motor expertise. The aim of this study was to address the question if participants who successfully acquired a handspring over a vaulting box exhibit changes in predicting handspring performances of other people. It was hypothesized that participants who successfully acquired the handspring over a vaulting box should outperform participants of a control group in predicting the landing positions of handspring performances in a computer-based perception test. Participants of an experimental group learned the handspring over a vaulting box following a methodical progression. No treatment was given to the participants of a control group. Landing position predictions were evaluated in a computer-based visual perception test prior to, and at the end of the methodical progression. Results revealed that the participants of the experimental group predicted landing positions more precisely in the posttest compared to the pretest. Furthermore, participants predicted landing positions more precisely when video sequences were occluded earlier, arguing in favor of an optimal information density when predicting landing positions in handsprings. It is stated, that as a learner acquires a motor skill in gymnastics, this changes the way the learner perceives that skill.
focused primarily on the potential role played by visual information regarding a self-performed ongoing movement under normal afference / selectively review some studies in which the availability of visual information for the control of various types of movement has been manipulated
report some of the results obtained in various types of aiming tasks, as well as in the "ball catching" task / focus on the results obtained by researchers who have used a transfer paradigm to assess the effects of different sources of afference on movement learning and control
shed some new light on the role played by visual information for movement control as a particular individual's expertise increases / shown that withdrawing a source of information after extended practice caused a larger error than when that information was withdrawn after modest or moderate practice
propose a theoretical interpretation of the presented results (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This is an upper-level undergraduate or graduate textbook for courses in human movement and skill acquisition. A professional reference for movement practitioners and scientists, including teachers, coaches, physical educators, physical therapists, rehabilitation specialists, sport scientists, psychologists, biomechanists, and physiologists. The book provides a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of the constraints-led perspective, a recognized theory in motor learning and control. It outlines the development of a conceptual model of coordination and control within a multidisciplinary framework, capturing the various interlocking scales of analysis (e.g., neural, behavioral, psychological) and the many subsystems (e.g., perceptual and movement) involved in producing behavior. A conceptual model of coordination and control is important not just for designing learning environments, but it is also important for ensuring that learners gain positive experiences when acquiring motor skills. Practitioners and students will appreciate the applied focus which outlines a model of human movement with specific constraints-led approach strategies that address skill acquisition across a variety of professions, including teaching, coaching, and rehabilitation. By learning both the theoretical origins and applications for implementing a constraints-led approach to movement skill acquisition, readers will gain insight into how the informed organization of learning and rehabilitation environments produces more effective and efficient use of practice and therapy time.
Contents: Traditional theories of skill acquisition -- Physical constraints on coordination : dynamical systems theory -- Informational constraints on coordination : an ecological perspective -- Redefining learning : a constraints-led approach -- Understanding the dynamics of skill acquisition -- Dealing with individual differences : implications for a nonlinear pedagogy -- Organizing practice to optimize learning -- Using verbal guidance as an informational constraint on learners -- Observational learning as directed search -- Implementing the constraints-led approach: case studies.
This chapter examines the question of how people perceive and generate options. Although most current theoretical approaches explain option perception and option generation as requiring extensive and costly cognitive processes, we will argue that people perceive their possibilities for action and generate options without such elaborate means. Borrowing from the contributions of direct perception and bounded rationality, we present and analyze data from three sports tasks: the basketball jump shot, ball allocation in handball, and trampoline somersaulting. Data from kinematics, eye-tracking, and choice behavior experiments are presented and reanalyzed to draw the parallels and distinctions between the two approaches. In conclusion, integrating research on perception, action, and cognition provides a promising description of the bidirectional link between mind and motion.
To assess subjective postural orientation and the visual vertical during slow pitch tilt, subjects were seated, restrained and in darkness in a simulator. They estimated when they were tilted 0 degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees forwards and backwards during cycles of pitching tilted at 1 degree x s-1 and at the same time set a 5-cm luminous cube, cockpit-mounted at 60 cm from the nasium, to be Earth vertical. Experimental protocols assessed the following: 1) the effect on postural estimates of seeing the cube versus darkness; 2) comparison of visual vertical settings at actual 45 degrees and 90 degrees tilts; 3) the adaptive effect of repeating estimates and settings; 4) the effect of a prolonged tilt on subsequent postural and visual vertical estimates; and 5) the comparative effect of tilting the body in alignment.
Seated, subjects' estimates of postural tilt were consistently greater than machine tilt, and similar in darkness to when seeing the cube. Overestimations increased with preceding tilts in the opposite direction, particularly when tilting from forwards whence subjects estimated they were backwards when the machine was tilted forwards. Postural estimates became more accurate with repetition but visual verticals deteriorated. Duration of conditioning tilt did not effect estimates. Visual vertical settings were largely accurate throughout. Labyrinthine defective subjects performed similarly to normals. Subjects frequently reported they felt disoriented during tilting.
Seated subjects' postural estimates were 'accurate' if one assumes that the reference shifted from the head to a trunk-leg axis on backwards tilt, however, subjects were unaware of this. Postural and visual vertical estimates could have been based solely on proprioception. Shifts in reference for verticality could be a factor in misperception of attitude in air and ground vehicles when accelerating or climbing.
During a back tuck somersault, the angular velocity of the head is thought to surpass the visual system's ability to maintain a distinct and continuous picture of the environment. The primary objectives of this research were to determine if differences existed with regard to trunk and lower body kinematics, as well as landing balance, when gymnasts perform back tuck somersaults under different vision conditions. Ten female gymnasts (age = 11.6 +/- 2.67 years, competitive level = 8 +/- 1.15, and training time in gymnastics = 5.9 +/- 1.63 years) performed back tuck somersaults under 4 vision conditions while wearing electromagnetic sensors that allowed automatic digitizing. Although no significant differences were found between vision conditions with regard to timing, joint angles, and joint angular velocities, gymnasts were more stable at landing under conditions that allowed vision during either the entire somersault or the last half of the sumersault.
Many current neurophysiological, psychophysical, and psychological approaches to vision rest on the idea that when we see, the brain produces an internal representation of the world. The activation of this internal representation is assumed to give rise to the experience of seeing. The problem with this kind of approach is that it leaves unexplained how the existence of such a detailed internal representation might produce visual consciousness. An alternative proposal is made here. We propose that seeing is a way of acting. It is a particular way of exploring the environment. Activity in internal representations does not generate the experience of seeing. The outside world serves as its own, external, representation. The experience of seeing occurs when the organism masters what we call the governing laws of sensorimotor contingency. The advantage of this approach is that it provides a natural and principled way of accounting for visual consciousness, and for the differences in the perceived quality of sensory experience in the different sensory modalities. Several lines of empirical evidence are brought forward in support of the theory, in particular: evidence from experiments in sensorimotor adaptation, visual "filling in," visual stability despite eye movements, change blindness, sensory substitution, and color perception.
The number of researchers studying perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is increasing. The intention in this paper is to review the currently accepted framework for studying expert performance and to consider implications for undertaking research work in the area of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport. The expert performance approach presents a descriptive and inductive approach for the systematic study of expert performance. The nature of expert performance is initially captured in the laboratory using representative tasks that identify reliably superior performance. Process-tracing measures are employed to determine the mechanisms that mediate expert performance on the task. Finally, the specific types of activities that lead to the acquisition and development of these mediating mechanisms are identified. General principles and mechanisms may be discovered and then validated by more traditional experimental designs. The relevance of this approach to the study of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is discussed and suggestions for future work highlighted.
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