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Background:
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants in many household items. Given concerns over their potential adverse health effects, we identified predictors and evaluated temporal changes of PBDE serum concentrations.
Methods:
PBDE serum concentrations were measured in young children (2-8 years old; N = 67), parents of young children (<55 years old; N = 90), and older adults (≥55 years old; N = 59) in California, with concurrent floor wipe samples collected in participants' homes in 2008-2009. We also measured serum concentrations one year later in a subset of children (N = 19) and parents (N = 42).
Results:
PBDE serum concentrations in children were significantly higher than in adults. Floor wipe concentration is a significant predictor of serum BDE-47, 99, 100 and 154. Positive associations were observed between the intake frequency of canned meat and serum concentrations of BDE-47, 99 and 154, between canned meat entrees and BDE-154 and 209, as well as between tuna and white fish and BDE-153. The model with the floor wipe concentration and food intake frequencies explained up to 40% of the mean square prediction error of some congeners. Lower home values and renting (vs. owning) a home were associated with higher serum concentrations of BDE-47, 99 and 100. Serum concentrations measured one year apart were strongly correlated as expected (r = 0.70-0.97) with a slight decreasing trend.
Conclusions:
Floor wipe concentration, food intake frequency, and housing characteristics can explain 12-40% of the prediction error of PBDE serum concentrations. Decreasing temporal trends should be considered when characterizing long-term exposure.
Human hair and indoor dust from urban, e-waste, and rural areas in south China were collected and analyzed for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFRs concentrations in hair from occupational e-waste recycling workers were higher than those from non-occupational exposed residents in other sampling areas. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) are two major BFRs in hair samples. The PBDE congener profiles in hair from the e-waste area are different from those from urban and rural areas with relatively higher contribution of lower brominated congeners. DBDPE, instead of BDE209, has become the major BFR in non-e-waste recycling areas. Significant correlations were found between hair level and dust level for DBDPE and BTBPE but not for PBDEs. The different PBDE congener profiles between dust and hair may suggest that exogenous exposure to the PBDE adsorbed on dust is not a major source of hair PBDEs.
There is increasing evidence that in utero growth has both immediate and far-reaching influence on health. Birth weight and length are used as surrogate measures of in utero growth. However, these measures poorly reflect neonatal adiposity. Air-displacement plethysmography has been validated for the measurement of body fat in the neonatal population.
The goal of this study was to show the normal reference values of percentage body fat (%BF) in infants during the first 4 days of life.
As part of a large population-based birth cohort study, fat mass, fat-free mass, and %BF were measured within the first 4 days of life using air-displacement plethsymography. Infants were grouped into gestational age and gender categories.
Of the 786 enrolled infants, fat mass, fat-free mass, and %BF were measured in 743 (94.5%) infants within the first 4 days of life. %BF increased significantly with gestational age. Mean (SD) %BF at 36 to 37⁶/⁷ weeks' gestation was 8.9% (3.5%); at 38 to 39 weeks' gestation, 10.3% (4%); and at 40 to 41⁶/⁷ weeks' gestation, 11.2% (4.3%) (P < .001). Female infants had significantly increased mean (SD) %BF at 38 to 39⁶/⁷ (11.1% [3.9%] vs 9.8% [3.9%]; P = .012) and at 40 to 41⁶/⁷ (12.5% [4.4%] vs 10% [3.9%]; P < .001) weeks' gestation compared with male infants. Gender- and gestational age-specific centiles were calculated, and a normative table was generated for reference.
%BF at birth is influenced by gestational age and gender. We generated accurate %BF centiles from a large population-based cohort.
The objective of this study was to investigate the concentration level, the mass distribution based on dust particle size, and the associated human exposure of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in indoor dust. The total concentration of 13 PBDEs Sigma(13)(BDEs) was found to be 500-6,944 ng/g in indoor dusts, 4,000 ng/g in car interior dust, 260-300 ng/g in outdoor ambient air particles, 30 ng/g in carpet fibers, and as high as 0.5% in carpet padding. Selected dust samples were fractionated based on particle size, and over 80% of the Sigma(13)BDEs were associated with particles < 150 mum in diameter. Mass ratios of BDE206/BDE209 are higher in both indoor and outdoor samples than in commercial deca products; and mass ratio BDE47/BDEs(85+99+100) was much higher in outdoor than in indoor samples. Using EPA software ProUCL, the exposure of Americans to PBDEs via hand-to-mouth transfer of house dust was estimated under the central tendency exposure and reasonable maximum exposure scenarios. The results suggest that ingestion of PBDE-laden house dust via hand-to-mouth contact is likely a significant exposure pathway, especially for children.
Fourteen PBDE congeners from mono- to deca-BDE were determined in breast milk of primiparous mothers from two locations in East China, i.e. Nanjing (n=9), an urban area, and Zhoushan (n=10), a semi rural coastal area. PBDEs were detected in all the human breast milk samples of the present study, indicating that general population in these two locations are widely exposed to these pollutants. Relatively higher concentrations of PBDEs were found in the milk of mothers from Nanjing than Zhoushan, suggesting the existence of significant sources of PBDEs in urban areas. PBDE levels in the present study were similar to those in European countries, but one or two orders of magnitude lower than in North America. Except for BDE-3, all congeners from di- to deca-BDE were detected in the samples of the present study. BDE-209, a congener considered to have less bioavailability, was detected in about 50% of the samples at concentrations higher than that of other congeners. Other higher brominated congeners, such as BDE-153, -197 and -207, were also prominent in the present study, which is different from the pattern generally observed in previous studies on human milk as well as biota samples. These results may indicate that the inhabitants of Nanjing and Zhoushan are exposed to location specific sources of PBDEs.
Gas chromatographic analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) has been evaluated in an attempt to achieve better control of the separation process, especially for highly substituted congeners. Use of a narrow-bore capillary column enabled adequate determination of tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona and decaBDE congeners in only one chromatographic run while maintaining resolution power similar to that of conventional columns. A micro electron-capture detector (GC–μECD) was used. Chromatographic conditions were optimized by multifactorial experimental design, with the objective of obtaining not only high sensitivity but also good precision. In this way two different approaches to maximizing response and minimizing variability were tested, and are fully discussed. These optimum chromatographic conditions were then used to determine PBDEs extracted from domestic dust samples by microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MASE). Quantitative recovery (90–108%) was achieved for all the PBDEs and method precision (RSD < 13%) was satisfactory. Accuracy was tested by use of the standard reference material SRM 2585, and sub-ng g−1 limits of detection were obtained for all compounds except BDE-209 (1.44 ng g−1). Finally, several samples of house dust were analysed by use of the proposed method and all the target PBDEs were detected in all the samples. BDE-209 was the predominant congener. Amounts varied from 58 to 1615 ng g−1 and the average contribution to the total PBDE burden of 52%. The main congeners of the octaBDE mixture (BDE-183, BDE-197, BDE-207 and BDE-196) also made an important contribution (29%) to the total. These are the first data about the presence of these compounds in European house-dust samples. Finally, the sum of the main congeners in the pentaBDE commercial mixture (BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-100) contributed 14% to the total.
Figure
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in House Dust
Tri-decabrominated diphenyl ethers and 21 other flame retardants were determined in matched serum samples from 24 Swedish mothers (Uppsala county) and their toddlers (11-15 months of age). The median concentrations of individual polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) ranged from 0.036 to 0.95 ng/g lipid in mothers and from 0.057 to 1.5 ng/g lipid in toddlers. BDE-209 was detected in all but one sample. BDE-153 was the predominant congener in the mothers while in toddlers, BDE-209 was found in the highest concentrations. The levels of BDE-47, -100, -207, -208 and -209 in toddlers were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in their mothers. Dechlorane Plus (anti- and syn-) and α- and β-tetrabromoethylcyclohexane were detected in a few (2-4) serum samples from both mothers and toddlers. This study also reports concentrations of α-HBCD and eight emerging brominated flame retardants (EBFRs) in the standard reference material serum (SRM 1958, NIST). Lack of correlations between the matched serum samples indicate different exposure routes for octa-decaBDEs in mothers versus toddlers. Congener-to-congener correlations within the mother or toddler cohorts suggest diet as an important exposure pathway for tetra-nonaBDEs for mothers, breastfeeding as a predominant exposure pathway for tetra-hexaBDEs and dust for octa-decaBDEs for toddlers.
Few studies have measured the flame retardants polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor environment. Here, we report measurements of PBDEs in house dust samples collected from the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area in the United States. Dust samples were analyzed for 22 individual PBDE congeners and our results found PBDEs present in every sample. Concentrations of total PBDEs ranged from 780 ng/g dry mass to 30 100 ng/g dry mass. The dominant congeners observed in the dust samples were congeners associated with the pentaBDE and decaBDE commercial mixtures. Ancillary data were collected on the homes and examined for any correlations with total PBDE concentrations. No correlations were observed with year of house construction, type of flooring (i.e., hardwood vs carpet) or the number of television sets or personal computers in the home. However, a significant inverse correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between the area of the home and the contribution of BDE 209 to the total PBDE concentration in dust. Using estimates of inadvertent dust ingestion (0.02-0.2 g/day) by young children (ages 1-4), we estimate ingestion of total PBDEs to range from 120 to 6000 ng/day. Clothes dryer lint was also sampled and analyzed for PBDEs from five of the homes and were present in all five samples ranging from 480 to 3080 ng/g dry mass. This study demonstrates that PBDEs are prevalent at relatively high concentrations within homes where people, and particularly young children, may be susceptible to exposure.
In the present study, settled workplace dust (n=55) from commercial offices, secondary schools, shopping malls, hospitals, electronic factories and manufacturing plants in Hong Kong and settled home dust (n=23) from Hong Kong, Shenzhen and Guangzhou, around the Pearl River Delta were collected. Chemical analyses showed that the total PBDEs in workplace dust ranged from 397 to 40,236ngg−1, with the dust samples from electronic factories having the highest levels (2122–40,236ngg−1), and dust from homes ranging from 685 to 18,385ngg−1. The most abundant BDE congeners found were BDE-209 in both workplace dust and home dust, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. No significant correlations were observed between total PBDE concentrations in home dust and the age or the house (p>0.05), concentrations of BDE-99+BDE-47 and the number of furniture containing foam (p>0.05), and concentrations of BDE-209 and the number of electronic appliances (p>0.05). BDE-47, -99, -100 and -183 were found in most of the hair samples collected from occupants of these homes with BDE-47 being the dominant congener (0.86–5.24ngg−1). The BDE-183 concentration in home dust was significantly correlated with that in human hair (r=0.55, p
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are present in many consumer goods. There is evidence that PBDEs are toxic to humans, particular young children. The purpose of this study was to assess indoor dust as an exposure source for PBDEs. Concentrations of 16 PBDEs were determined in dust samples from 33 households in New Zealand, and in breast milk samples from 33 mothers living in these households. Associations between dust and breast milk PBDE concentrations were assessed, and children's PBDE intake from breast milk and dust estimated. Influences of household and demographic factors on PBDE concentrations in dust were investigated. Indoor dust concentrations ranged from 0.1ng/g for BDE17 to 2500ng/g for BDE209. Breast milk concentrations were positively correlated (p<0.05) with mattress dust concentrations for BDE47, BDE153, BDE154, and BDE209 and with floor dust for BDE47, BDE183, BDE206, and BDE209. The correlation for BDE209 between dust and breast milk is a novel finding. PBDE concentrations in floor dust were lower from households with new carpets. The estimated children's daily intake of PBDEs from dust and breast milk was below U.S. EPA Reference Dose values. The study shows that dust is an important human exposure source for common PBDE formulations in New Zealand.
Increased use of flame-retardants in office furniture may increase exposure to PBDEs in the office environment. However, partitioning of PBDEs within the office environment is not well understood. Our objectives were to examine relationships between concurrent measures of PBDEs in office air, floor dust, and surface wipes.We collected air, dust, and surface wipe samples from 31 offices in Boston, MA. Correlation and linear regression were used to evaluate associations between variables. Geometric mean (GM) concentrations of individual BDE congeners in air and congener specific octanol–air partition coefficients (Koa) were used to predict GM concentrations in dust and surface wipes and compared to the measured concentrations.GM concentrations of PentaBDEs in office air, dust, and surface wipes were 472 pg/m3, 2411 ng/g, and 77 pg/cm2, respectively. BDE209 was detected in 100% of dust samples (GM = 4202 ng/g), 93% of surface wipes (GM = 125 pg/cm2), and 39% of air samples. PentaBDEs in dust and air were moderately correlated with each other (r = 0.60, p = 0.0003), as well as with PentaBDEs in surface wipes (r = 0.51, p = 0.003 for both dust and air). BDE209 in dust was correlated with BDE209 in surface wipes (r = 0.69, p = 0.007). Building (three categories) and PentaBDEs in dust were independent predictors of PentaBDEs in both air and surface wipes, together explaining 50% (p = 0.0009) and 48% (p = 0.001) of the variation respectively. Predicted and measured concentrations of individual BDE congeners were highly correlated in dust (r = 0.98, p
Increased levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) can occur particularly in dust and soil surrounding facilities that recycle products containing PBDEs. This may be the source of increased exposure for nearby workers and residents. To investigate, we measured PBDE levels in soil, office dust and blood of workers at the closest workplace (i.e. within 100m) to a large automotive shredding and metal recycling facility in Brisbane, Australia. The workplace investigated in this study was independent of the automotive shredding facility and was one of approximately 50 businesses of varying types within a relatively large commercial/industrial area surrounding the recycling facility. Concentrations of PBDEs in soils were at least an order of magnitude greater than background levels in the area. Congener profiles were dominated by larger molecular weight congeners; in particular BDE-209. This reflected the profile in outdoor air samples previously collected at this site. Biomonitoring data from blood serum indicated no differential exposure for workers near the recycling facility compared to a reference group of office workers, also in Brisbane. Unlike air, indoor dust and soil sample profiles, serum samples from both worker groups were dominated by congeners BDE-47, BDE-153, BDE-99, BDE-100 and BDE-183 and was similar to the profile previously reported in the general Australian population. Estimated exposures for workers near the industrial point source suggested indoor workers had significantly higher exposure than outdoor workers due to their exposure to indoor dust rather than soil. However, no relationship was observed between blood PBDE levels and different roles and activity patterns of workers on-site. These comparisons of PBDE levels in serum provide additional insight into the inter-individual variability within Australia. Results also indicate congener patterns in the workplace environment did not match blood profiles of workers. This was attributed to the relatively high background exposures for the general Australian population via dietary intake and the home environment.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are one of the most common types of brominated flame retardants applied to foams, plastics and textiles to prevent fires. These flame retardants are now regulated and are either banned or being voluntarily phased. However, as these chemicals are persistent humans continue to be exposed. Dust has been identified as an important source of exposure and hence residential concentrations are of interest. The aim of this paper was to determine the concentrations of PBDEs in samples of residential dust from the homes of pregnant women in Western Australia. Thirty residential dust samples were analysed for concentrations of 32 PBDE congeners. Samples were collected from urban and rural areas. PBDEs were detected in all residential dust samples with the sum of the most common PBDEs (Σ(7) of BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183 and 209) ranging from 60.4 to 82400ngg(-1) (median 571ngg(-1)). DecaBDE makes up the highest proportion of PBDEs in residential dust, on average 66% of Σ(32)PBDEs. We did not find a relationship between housing characteristics nor the presence of appliances and PBDE concentrations. Dust from urban areas had significantly higher concentrations of BDE-209 and Σ(32)PBDEs than dust from rural areas of Western Australia (p values 0.01 and 0.03 respectively). PBDEs were present in residential dust in Western Australia at concentrations higher than reported previously in Australia. Further investigation of sources with a larger sample size is required to determine associations between PBDE concentrations and potential exposure sources and geographical regions.
Paired human breast milk and scalp hair samples (n=30) were obtained in 2008 from primipara and multipara mothers living in two locations in the Philippines viz., Payatas, a waste dumpsite, and Malate, a non-dumpsite. Samples were analyzed for three groups of organohalogenated compounds, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs). PCBs were the predominantly identified compounds (median: 70ng/g lipid wt.) in all the breast milk samples. In the human milk, CB-153 was the most dominant PCB congener (17-44% contribution to the sum PCB), closely followed by CB-138 (12-35%), CB-118 (4-12%), CB-180 (2-13%), CB-187 (3-13%), and CB-170 (1.5-10%). Levels of PBDEs (median: 3.0ng/g lipid wt.) in human milk samples from the Philippines were similar to other Asian or European countries. BDE-47, -99, -100 and -153 were the major PBDE congeners. For HBCDs, the α-isomer was predominant followed by the γ-HBCD isomer in the both locations. PBDE levels in human milk were significantly higher in the dumpsite (3.9ng/g lipid wt.) than in the non-dump site (2.2ng/g lipid wt.). PBDE concentrations (including BDE-209) were significantly higher (median: 70ng/g hair) than those of PCBs (median: 30ng/g hair) and HBCDs (median: 1.0ng/g hair) in all the scalp hair samples. To our knowledge, this is the first report on HBCDs in human scalp hair. PBDE congeners in scalp hair were dominated by BDE-209 and BDE-47. On a congener basis, the levels of PBDEs found in scalp hair were higher than those in Spain (children and adults) and China (general people). PCB levels found in scalp hair were higher than those in Greece, Romania and Belgium, but lower than those in China. In this study, there were no significant differences in the concentration of PCBs and HBCDs in human milk; and PCBs, HBCDs and PBDEs in human scalp hair from the two different locations. No significant correlations were observed between PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs levels and age of mothers in this study, which may be due to the small number of samples. Furthermore, there was no correlation between milk and hair levels for more persistent compounds (PCB-153, PCB-138, or BDE-47), and thus it is worthy to follow-up in future studies along with more number of samples. This is the first report to provide measurement data for PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in paired milk and hair of populations in the Philippines.
The levels and profiles of 16 polybrominated diphenyl ethers congeners (PBDEs), three isomers of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and other six "alternative" brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in dust collected in 25 Czech households and 27 car interiors were investigated. The Σ16 PBDEs contents varied widely with maximum concentrations reaching up to 5896 and 33728μg/kg in house and car dust, respectively. The highest concentrations of PBDEs were observed for BDE 209, which was found almost in all samples and exceeded concentrations of other PBDEs even by one order of magnitude. The profile and levels of Penta-, Octa-, and DecaBDE obtained within this study were comparable to those presented in other studies worldwide and confirmed lower contamination of dust from Europe compared to North America. From the group of "alternative" BFRs, suitable for commercial applications as an alternative to banned PBDEs, mainly decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and HBCD were detected in the concentration ranges <20-3567 and <0.3-950μg/kg, respectively. γ-HBCD was dominating, forming up to 70% of ΣHBCD. Using the measured concentrations and estimates of dust ingestion rates it was estimated that toddlers had a higher exposure than adults for all compounds investigated.
Human serum and mother's milk are frequently used to assess exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), including transplacental transfer to the foetus. However, little is known about the kinetics of PBDEs, especially the highly brominated BDE congeners.
In this pilot study, maternal serum samples were collected from 10 women at delivery and five to six weeks post partum. Umbilical serum was also obtained. Milk was donated two to five days, and five to six weeks after delivery. The amount of PBDEs in these samples was determined using liquid–liquid extraction and GC/MS.
Low, moderately and highly brominated diphenyl ethers were present in umbilical cord serum, indicating placental transfer. The lipid-adjusted levels of BDE-47, BDE-207 and BDE-209 were similar in maternal and umbilical cord serum, whereas the cord serum levels for the penta- to octa-BDEs quantified were lower than in maternal serum.
Marked changes were seen in the congener pattern in breast milk during the first month of lactation, whereas maternal serum levels did not change significantly. The general pattern was an enrichment of low to moderately brominated congeners (i.e. from BDE-17 to BDE-154, with the exception of BDE-28) in colostrum compared with maternal serum. In contrast, more highly brominated congeners were found at similar, or lower levels in colostrum than in maternal serum. After the transition from colostrum to mature milk, the levels of BDE-153 and BDE-209 were substantially reduced, and BDE‐209 was below the limit of detection in 6 out of 9 samples.
A literature review on the design and reporting of studies on the transfer of PBDEs from mother to infant revealed a lack of transparency in many cases. The use of the recently published STROBE-ME guidelines is therefore recommended.
The increasing time spent indoors combined with the abundant usage of diverse indoor chemicals led to concerns involving the impact of these compounds on human health. The current study focused on two groups of important indoor contaminants i.e. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). Concentrations of both compound classes have been measured in Flemish indoor dust samples from homes and offices. ΣPolybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (BDE 47, 99, 100, 154, 153, 197, 196 and 203) and BDE 209 in homes ranged between 4–1214 ng g−1 dw (median 35) and <5–5295 ng g−1 dw (median 313), respectively. Hexabromocyclododecane (ΣHBCD) levels ranged from 5 to 42 692 ng g−1 dw (median 130), with α-HBCD being the major isomer (mean 59%). In addition, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) ranged between <3 and 419 ng g−1 dw (median 12). For all BFRs, median levels in office dust were up to an order of magnitude higher than in home dust. ΣPFCs (sum of perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA)) concentrations in homes ranged from 0.2 to 336 ng g−1 (median 3.0 ng g−1). Levels in office dust were higher (p < 0.01) than in house dust with ΣPFCs ranging between 2.2 and 647 ng g−1 (median 10 ng g−1) and median (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate values of 2.9 and 2.2 ng g−1, respectively. The congener pattern was dominated by PFOA, followed by PFOS. Calculated human exposure was below the reference dose values set by the US-EPA for BDE 209, HBCD and below the provisional tolerable daily intakes proposed by European Food Safety Authority for PFOS and PFOA.
Assessment of indoor exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) requires a critical examination of methods that may influence exposure estimates and comparisons between studies. We measured PBDEs in residential dust collected from 20 homes in Boston, MA, to examine 5 key questions: 1) Does the choice of dust exposure metric—e.g., concentration (ng/g) or dust loading (ng/m2)—affect analysis and results? 2) To what degree do dust concentrations change over time? 3) Do dust concentrations vary between rooms? 4) Is the home vacuum bag an acceptable surrogate for researcher-collected dust? 5) Are air and dust concentrations correlated for the same room? We used linear mixed-effects models to analyze the data while accounting for within-home and within-room correlations. We found that PBDE dust concentration and surface loading were highly correlated (r = 0.86–0.95, p < 0.001). Average dust concentrations did not significantly differ over an 8-month period, possibly because home furnishings changed little over this time. We observed significant differences between rooms in the same home: PBDE concentrations in the main living area were 97% higher than the bedroom for decaBDE (p = 0.02) and 72% higher for pentaBDE (p = 0.05). Home vacuum bag dust concentrations were significantly lower than researcher-collected dust and not strongly correlated. Air (vapor and particulate phase) and dust concentrations were correlated for pentaBDE (p = 0.62, p < 0.01), but not for decaBDE (p = 0.25). In addition, potential markers of BDE 209 debromination (BDE 202 and the BDE197:BDE201 ratio) were also observed in household dust samples. One vacuum bag sample contained the highest concentrations of BDE 209 (527,000 ng/g) and total PBDEs (544,000 ng/g) that have been reported in house dust.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are compounds that are used as flame retardants. Human exposure is suggested to be via food, dust and air. An assessment of PBDE exposure via indoor environments using samples of air, dust and surface wipes from eight sites in South East Queensland, Australia was conducted. For indoor air, ΣPBDEs ranged from 0.5–179 pg/m3 for homes and 15–487 pg/m3 for offices. In dust, ΣPBDEs ranged from 87–733 ng/g dust and 583–3070 ng/g dust in homes and offices, respectively. PBDEs were detected on 9 out of 10 surfaces sampled and ranged from non-detectable to 5985 pg/cm2. Overall, the congener profiles for air and dust were dominated by BDE-209. This study demonstrated that PBDEs are ubiquitous in the indoor environments of selected buildings in South East Queensland and suggest the need for detailed assessment of PBDE concentrations using more sites to further investigate the factors influencing PBDE exposure in Australia.
Unlabelled:
Household dust from 19 Swedish homes was collected using two different sampling methods: from the occupant's own home vacuum cleaner after insertion of a new bag and using a researcher-collected method where settled house dust was collected from surfaces above floor level. The samples were analyzed for 16 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners and total hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). Significant correlations (r = 0.60-0.65, Spearman r = 0.47-0.54, P < 0.05) were found between matched dust samples collected with the two sampling methods for ∑OctaBDE and ∑DecaBDE but not for ∑PentaBDE or HBCD. Statistically significantly higher concentrations of all PBDE congeners were found in the researcher-collected dust than in the home vacuum cleaner bag dust (VCBD). For HBCD, however, the concentrations were significantly higher in the home VCBD samples. Analysis of the bags themselves indicated no or very low levels of PBDEs and HBCD. This indicates that there may be specific HBCD sources to the floor and/or that it may be present in the vacuum cleaners themselves. The BDE-47 concentrations in matched pairs of VCBD and breast milk samples were significantly correlated (r = 0.514, P = 0.029), indicating that one possible exposure route for this congener may be via dust ingestion.
Practical implications:
The statistically significant correlations found for several individual polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners, ∑OctaBDE and ∑DecaBDE between the two dust sampling methods in this study indicate that the same indoor sources contaminate both types of dust or that common processes govern the distribution of these compounds in the indoor environment. Therefore, either method is adequate for screening ∑OctaBDE and ∑DecaBDE in dust. The high variability seen between dust samples confirms results seen in other studies. For hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), divergent results in the two dust types indicate differences in contamination sources to the floor than to above-floor surfaces. Thus, it is still unclear which dust sampling method is most relevant for HBCD as well as for ∑PentaBDE in dust and, further, which is most relevant for determining human exposure to PBDEs and HBCD.
This study investigated the status of contamination of organohalogen compounds (OCs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardant (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in human milk samples from several locations in India. The levels of OCs were significantly higher in the milk of mothers living in and near municipal dumping site than other locations indicating that the open dumping sites for municipal wastes act as potential sources of these contaminants in India. The PCB concentrations observed in this study tended to decrease compared to those in the matched locations reported previously, probably due to the restriction of technical PCB usage in India. PBDE levels in human milk were two to three folds lower than those of PCBs in all the sampling locations investigated. Congener profiles of PCBs and PBDEs were different between samples from the dumping site mothers and general populations in other areas suggesting the presence of region-specific sources and pathways. HBCDs were detected in human milk from only two sites, with much lower concentrations and detection frequencies compared to PCBs and PBDEs. When hazard quotients (HQs) of PCBs and PBDEs were estimated for infant health risk, the HQs in some milk samples from the dumping site exceeded the threshold value (HQ>1) of PCBs, indicating the potential risk for infants in the specific site.
Indoor air (gas and particle phase) and dust samples were collected from 10 houses, 44 apartments, 10 day care centers, 10 offices, 17 new cars and two car dealership halls from Stockholm, Sweden, and analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). Median ΣPBDE concentrations in air were 330, 58, 4000, 14000 and 510 pg/m(3) in houses, apartments, day care centers, offices and cars, respectively. Median ΣPBDE concentrations in dust were 510, 1400, 1200, 1200 and 1400 ng/g in houses, apartments, day care centers, offices and cars, respectively. HBCD was detected in most dust samples (median range, 45-340 ng/g) but only in a few air samples (median range, <1.6-2.0 pg/m(3)). For all microenvironments, the brominated flame retardant (BFR) found in highest concentration in air was ΣDecaBDE, primarily BDE-209, followed by ΣPentaBDE, and in dust, ΣDecaBDE, followed by HBCD (offices, day care centers, cars) or ΣPentaBDE (houses, apartments). Positive correlations were found between matched air and dust samples for ΣPentaBDE, but not for ΣDecaBDE.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) as ubiquitous persistent organic pollutants have attracted much attention in recent years. Exposure to PBDEs could induce a high health risk for children. The aim of this study was to investigate the PBDEs exposure of children (9-12 years) from Taizhou, China. Fifty-eight blood samples were collected in one school in a mountainous area in Taizhou. The concentrations of sigma9PBDEs (sum of BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, -197 and -209) ranged from 2.66 to 33.9 ng/g lipid wet (lw) with a median of 7.22 ng/g lw. These concentrations were lower than those of children in USA, but close to European and Asian general population levels. The results showed that children in Taizhou countryside were at a low level of PBDEs exposure. The predominant congener was BDE-209, followed by BDE-28, -47, -197 and -153. High abundance of BDE-209 was consistent with the pollution background of PBDEs in China characterized by high brominated congeners as main pollutants.
In vivo studies have demonstrated that prenatal or neonatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) causes developmental neurotoxicity. However, there is a lack of human data. Our hypothesis was that PBDEs would result in lower infant neurodevelopment scores. This is a post hoc analysis of previous studies. Fourteen PBDEs in 70 breast milk were analyzed using a high-resolution gas chromatograph/high-resolution mass spectrometer. Infant neurodevelopment at the age of 8-12 mo was determined using the Bayley Scales of Infants and Toddlers Development, third edition (Bayley-III). The median of Σ14 PBDEs (the sum of 14 PBDE congeners) was 2.92 ng/g lipid. The Σ14 PBDE concentrations were not correlated with Bayley-III scores on cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, or adaptive behavior scales. A significantly inverse association between brominated diphenyl ether (BDE)-209 and the cognitive scale was found after multivariate stepwise linear regression analyses (B = -0.007, adjusted R = -0.224, p = 0.032). In contrast, the language scale was positively correlated with BDE-196 (B = 0.096, adjusted R = 0.315, p = 0.002). Our results are consistent with most in vivo studies, suggesting that prenatal or postnatal exposure to BDE-209 potentially delays the neurological development.
Breast milk has been widely used as a bioindicator to assess the extent of human exposure to PBDEs via various exposure routes. In this study, 48 breast milk samples were collected from primiparous women in Shanghai city, and 14 PBDEs congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, -196, -197, -203, -206, -207, -208, and -209) were quantified using gas chromatography-electron capture negative ionization-mass spectrometry. The mean concentration of total PBDEs was 8.6 ng/g lipid weight, and ranged from 1.8 to 26.7 ng/g lipid weight. These concentration levels were similar to those reported in Europe and Asia, but one order of magnitude lower than those in North America. The congener profiles in this study exhibited a specific pattern in human milk found worldwide, BDE-153 and BDE-28 accounted for a relatively higher proportion of lower brominated BDEs (from tri- to hepta-BDEs), whereas higher brominated BDEs (from octa- to deca-BDEs) contributed more than 70% of the total PBDEs. The Spearman's correlation coefficient among higher brominated BDEs showed a positive relationship, and concentration levels of higher brominated BDEs were statistically different between office workers and housewives. Due to relatively higher proportion of PBDEs from octa- to deca-BDEs were detected, air inhalation and dust ingestion might be the major exposure routes of higher brominated BDEs. Further research is needed to clarify the major exposure route of higher brominated BDEs to humans.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used as flame retardants in textiles, polyurethane foams, and plastics. PBDEs exert toxic effects in various organisms, including humans, and are ubiquitous in the outdoor and indoor environment. Here we estimate total daily PBDE doses received by consumers in North America and Europe, along with the most important pathways and congeners, and derive PBDE elimination half-lives for chronic exposure. We estimate distributions for all parameters (PBDE concentrations in exposure media, food consumption rates, etc.) and conduct a probabilistic exposure assessment. We find that Americans are exposed the most, likely due to stricter fire regulations, followed by consumers from the UK and Continental Europe. In the central quantiles of the exposure distributions derived, food is the dominant pathway; in the upper quantiles either food or oral and dermal exposure to dust. This reflects the lipophilic and persistent nature of PBDEs and their use in products for indoor-use. Median elimination half-lives are in a range of 1-3 years except for BDE-153 with about seven years and BDE-209 with 4-7 days.
Human milk samples were collected from 50 breast-feeding mothers in Shijiazhuang, 60 in Tianjin and 48 in Yantai from November 2006 to April 2007. The three areas are located in northern China. We selected randomly 20 samples from each area for detection of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/frans (PCDD/Fs), polycholorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS). Our results show the average concentrations of PCDD/Fs plus dl-PCBs were 6.24 TEQ pg g(-1)fat, 7.54 TEQ pg g(-1)fat and 6.69 TEQ pg g(-1) fat in human milk from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. The average concentrations of PBDEs were 3.71 ng g(-1) fat, 3.42 ng g(-1) fat and 4.16 ng g(-1) fat in human milk from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. Among congeners of PBDEs, the high and low brominated congeners BDE209, BDE207, BDE197, BDE153, BDE15, BDE28 and BDE47 were the predominant PBDE congeners, accounting for 91%, 90% and 84% of total PBDEs in samples from Shijiazhuang, Tianjin and Yantai, respectively. Based on the results of an in-person interview of mothers using a questionnaire, freshwater fish consumption was found to correlate with total mono-ortho dl-PCBs (mo-PCBs) and sea fish consumption was found to correlate with total non-ortho dl-PCBs (no-PCBs) of human milk in these areas. However, no correlation was found between concentrations of total PBDEs and total TEQ of PCDD/Fs plus dl-PCBs and food consumption. Continuous surveillance on dioxins and dl-PCBs levels in human milk is needed to correctly evaluate both the environmental impact and human health risk in China.
While young children are rarely included in biomonitoring studies, they are presumed to be at greater risk of ingesting environmental contaminants-particularly those that accumulate in foods or shed from consumer products. The widely used fire retardants polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are ubiquitous contaminants in the indoor environment and are widely detected at higher levels in Americans than in individuals from other countries. However, there are only three studies of PBDEs in U.S. children. We hypothesized that PBDEs are present in higher concentrations in young children than their mothers. PBDEs were assessed in blood samples collected concurrently from 20 mothers and their children, ages 1.5 to 4 years. The chemical analyses were performed by GC/MS applying selected ion monitoring. The samples were analyzed for 20 PBDE congeners; 11 were detected. SigmaPBDEs for children were typically 2.8 times higher than for mothers, with median child:mother ratios varying from 2 to 4 for individual congeners. In 19 of 20 families studied, children had higher SigmaPBDE concentrations than their mothers with significant (p < 0.01) concentration differences for five of the PBDE congeners. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) was quantitated in 13 children and 9 mothers. Other studies indicate PBDEs are not elevated at birth, suggesting that early life is an intense period of PBDE intake. Children's increased hand-to-mouth activity, dietary preferences, and exposures from breast milk may result in greater ingestion of PBDEs than adults. These findings suggest that measurements from adults likely do not reflect exposures to young children despite sharing homes and similar diets.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been measured in the home environment and in humans, but studies linking environmental levels to body burdens are limited. This study examines the relationship between PBDE concentrations in house dust and serum from adults residing in these homes. We measured PBDE concentrations in house dust from 50 homes and in serum of male-female couples from 12 of the homes. Detection rates, dust-serum, and within-matrix correlations varied by PBDE congener. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.65-0.89, p < 0.05) between dust and serum concentrations of several predominant PBDE congeners (BDE 47, 99, and 100). Dust and serum levels of BDE 153 were not correlated (r < 0.01). The correlation of dust and serum levels of BDE 209 could not be evaluated due to low detection rates of BDE 209 in serum. Serum concentrations of the sum of BDE 47, 99, and 100 were also strongly correlated within couples (r = 0.85, p = 0.0005). This study provides evidence that house dust is a primary exposure pathway of PBDEs and supports the use of dust PBDE concentrations as a marker for exposure to PBDE congeners other than BDE 153.
Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are now ubiquitous contaminants with large reservoirs and high concentrations in buildings. Most of the information documenting BFR levels has been obtained in residences, and other environments that can lead to exposure have received relatively little attention, including offices that contain numerous BFR sources and where individuals spend considerable time. The aim of this study is to characterize BFR concentrations, potential emission sources, and migration pathways in office environments. We measure BFR levels in floor dust, indoor air, ventilation filter dust, and carpets in ten commercial and institutional buildings in Michigan, U.S.A. The median concentration of total BDEs in settled dust was 8754 ng g(-1), at the upper range of levels previously reported. Especially elevated levels were found in offices in buildings that contained known or likely BFR sources, e.g., computer servers. A trends analysis in a newly constructed building showed remarkable increases in concentrations of BFRs in settled dust and indoor air, and apparent steady-state levels were reached 5 to 8 months after building completion, a particularly striking finding given that the building was constructed and furnished several years after the voluntary phase-out of the penta- and octa-mixtures. Airborne particulate matter collected in a building's HVAC system filters contained PBDEs, including BDE-209, at levels exceeding the concentration of floor dust. In conjunction with estimates of building air flow rates, filter efficiency and other parameters, mass balance calculations for this building were used to estimate the emission rates and reservoirs of PBDEs. The widespread distribution of BFRs found in offices in both new and old buildings suggests the significance of workplace exposures, the need for controls to minimize human exposure, intra-building migration, and environmental releases of these chemicals, and the need for monitoring in new buildings to confirm the effectiveness of the PBDE phase-out.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in floor dust from U.K. child daycare center and primary school classrooms (n = 43, 36 for PCBs). Concentrations of HBCDs exceeded significantly (p < 0.05) those reported previously for U.K. houses and offices, while those of TBBP-A exceeded significantly those in U.K. cars and offices. PCB concentrations were statistically indistinguishable from those in U.K. house dust but lower than in U.S. classroom dust, while BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153, 196, 197, 203, and 209 in classrooms were significantly below concentrations in U.K. cars. Exposure of young U.K. children via classroom dust exceeds that of U.K. adults via office dust for all contaminants monitored. Overall dust exposure of young U.K. children was estimated including car, classroom, and house dust. Exposure to TBBP-A was well below a U.K. health-based limit value (HBLV). Though no HBLVs exist for non-dioxin-like PCBs and HBCDs; dust exposure to PCBs fell well below U.K. dietary and inhalation exposure. Contrastingly, a high-end estimate of HBCD dust exposure exceeded U.K. dietary exposure substantially. Moreover, high-end estimates of dust exposure to BDE-99 and BDE-209 (4.3 and 13000 ng/kg bw/day, respectively) exceeded HBLVs of 0.23-0.30 and 7000 ng/kg bw/day respectively.
Our objective was to investigate congener-specific body burden levels and possible determinants of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the Japanese human population.
We conducted a cross-sectional study on 72 participants aged 15-74 years; subjects were not occupationally exposed to PBDEs or dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs). Participants lived in two urban areas and two fishing villages. Twenty-seven PBDE congeners, PCB-126, PCB-118, PCB-156, and biochemical factors were determined in fasting blood. A questionnaire survey on life-style was also conducted.
More than half of the PBDE values for 14 congeners were below the levels of detection (LODs). The median concentration of total PBDEs was 3.6 ng g(-1) lipid. The most abundant congener was BDE-209 (median concentration, 0.90 ng g(-1) lipid), followed by BDE-153, BDE-207, and BDE-47 in the given order. Most PBDE congeners with < or = 6 bromine atoms had significant positive associations with the concentrations of the three DL-PCBs (suggesting common routes of exposure) and with plasma concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), biological markers of fish intake. These associations did not change substantially after adjustment for age, sex, and log(body mass index). These positive associations with the concentrations of DL-PCBs or EPA/DHA were not found in analyses of high-brominated PBDE congeners with > or = 8 bromine atoms.
Fish consumption may be a major contributor to the accumulation of PBDE congeners with 6 bromine atoms among the general Japanese population. In contrast, the main exposure routes to high-brominated PBDEs in humans are probably not associated with fish consumption.
Dust is the repository of various compounds including flame retardants. In this study an analytical method based on PLE extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was selected for the analysis of 16 PBDEs congeners in house and car dust samples collected in Portugal. The analytical performance of the method was validated using standard reference material (SRM); values from 90% to 109% and from 2% to 11% were obtained for recovery and precision, respectively. The PBDE congeners distribution in whole and sieved fractions of the dust samples, as well as influence of the source on the levels of these contaminants, were obtained. The wide range of PBDEs contents found in the dust samples indicates heterogeneous levels of contamination in these matrices. The clearest feature of the results obtained was that Deca-BDE was the main PBDE in both house and car dust samples. The total PBDEs measured in house dust (ranging from 34 to 1928 ng g(-1)) was lower than those found in car dust (ranging from 193 to 22955 ng g(-1)). However, house dust provides a major contribution to human exposure due to the time spent there, much higher than in cars.
In 2006, 128 serum samples were collected from three populations in Tianjin, China: office cleaners, university students, and policemen. These samples were all analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and for other brominated flame retardants (BFRs). The median concentration of total PBDEs (sum of 41 congeners) was 7.1 ng/g lipid, ranging from 0.48 to 1980 ng/g lipid. Among these PBDE congeners, the median sum of the tri- to hepta-PBDE (SigmaPBDE3-7) congener concentrations was 2.9 ng/g lipid, ranging from 0.48 to 20 ng/g lipid. The most common tri- to heptabrominated congeners were BDE-47 (30% of total), BDE-99 (24%), BDE-183 (15%), BDE-153 (12%), BDE-28 (9.5%), and BDE-100 (6.2%). These levels of SigmaPBDE3-7 were similar to those observed in Europe and Asia but were much lower than those observed in North America. Highly brominated BDE congeners were detected in some serum samples. In particular, BDE-209 was detected in 28 samples; the median BDE-209 concentration in these samples was 42 ng/g lipid, ranging from ND to 1770 ng/g lipid. The total PBDE levels in office cleaners were significantly higher than in university students and policemen. In addition, we also measured several other BFRs. Hexabromobenzene (HBB) was identified in 26 samples with a median concentration of 0.27 ng/g lipid, ranging from 0.11 to 1.50 ng/g lipid. Pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) were not detected in any of these samples.
In the frame of a French monitoring program, tri- to deca- polybromodiphenylethers (PBDE) have been measured in maternal and cord serum, adipose tissue, and breast milk samples, collected from 93 volunteer women during caesarean deliveries. The seven major tri- to heptaBDE (BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183) were detected in adipose tissue and breast milk with cumulated median values of 2.59 and 2.51 ng g(-1) l w. Nine highly brominated octa- to decaBDE (BDE-196, 197, 201, 202, 203, 206, 207, 208 and 209) was performed in the same samples, with cumulated median values of 2.73 and 3.39 ng g(-1) l w in adipose tissue and breast milk, respectively. At this opposite, median levels of octa- to decaBDE in maternal and cord serum appeared significantly higher than the levels of tri- to heptaBDE in the same matrices, i.e. 8.85 and 12.34 versus 0.98 and 0.69 ng g(-1) l w, respectively.
Levels of tri- to decabrominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) and 1,2-bis(pentabromophenyl)ethane (DeBDethane) were determined in air, sedimentary dust and human plasma from five households in Sweden. The levels of the individual BDEs in the plasma samples were in the same order of magnitude as in other studies of the general population in Scandinavia, and varied between non-detectable (<0.41 ng g(-1) l.w.) to 17 ng g(-1) (l.w.). BDE#28 and #47 were present in all air samples, with mean values of 0.015 and 0.12 ng m(-3), respectively, except for one sample where the BDE#47 concentration was below the limit of detection (<0.17 ng m(-3)). BDE#209 was found in one of the five air samples at a concentration of 0.26 ng m(-3). DeBDethane was also detected in one sample, in which the BDE#209 level was below LOD (<0.021 ng m(-3)), at a level of 0.023 ng m(-3). All the target compounds were found in the sedimentary dust samples at levels from 0.51 to 1600 ng g(-1), the highest concentration representing BDE#209. The most abundant components in plasma, air and dust were BDE#47, #99 and #209. In the plasma samples BDE#207 and #206 were also present at similar concentrations as BDE#47. In the sedimentary dust samples, DeBDethane was also among the most abundant BFRs. A positive relationship was found for the sumBDE concentrations in dust and plasma, although the relationship was strongly dependent on one of the five observations. BFR levels in dust and air were not dependent on the house characteristics such as living area, floor material or number of electronic devices.
Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) brominated flame retardants have recently been found to contaminate humans in the United States and other countries. U.S. human breast milk and blood levels of PBDEs are presently the highest in the world. U.S. cord blood samples tested positive for PBDEs, but until now there have been no peer-reviewed published data concerning levels of PBDEs in human tissue prior to and immediately after birth. Liver tissues were obtained from 4 stillborn fetuses and 7 liveborn infants, ranging from 20.5 to 39 wk gestational age; only 2 of the liveborn infants lived longer than 4 h and none were formula-fed or nursed, so tissue levels reflect intrauterine PBDE intake only. All samples were contaminated with PBDEs. Levels varied from 4 to 98 ppb, lipid. The mean level was 23.1 and the median 15.2 ppb, lipid. PBDE levels did not increase with gestational age. These data document the transfer of PBDEs from maternal to fetal tissue. PBDE concentrations are somewhat lower than those reported in adult blood or breast milk. The health consequences of prenatal contamination are not clear at present.
In P.R. China, electronic waste (e-waste) from across the world is dismantled and discarded. Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were measured in serum from residents of an e-waste dismantling region (Guiyu, South China), where 80% of families work in e-waste recycling, and compared to a matching cohort from a nearby region where the fishing industry dominates (Haojiang). Serum concentrations of PBDEs and OCPs, but not PCBs, were significantly different in the two regions: the median sigmaPBDE concentration was 3 times higher in Guiyu than Haojiang, whereas the opposite was true for dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). PBDEs typically accounted for 46% of the total organohalogen chemicals in samples from Guiyu, but 8.7% in Haojiang. The median BDE-209 concentration in Guiyu was 50-200 times higher than previously reported in occupationally exposed populations. The highest BDE-209 concentration was 3100 ng/g lipid, the highest yet reported in humans. Serum PBDE concentrations did not correlate with PCBs or OCPs, whereas PCBs and OCPs showed positive correlations, suggesting that sources of PBDEs to humans are different from PCBs and OCPs. The levels of PBDEs in individuals from Haojiang are possibly related to the recycling activity at Guiyu, through atmospheric transport.
Median concentration of total PBDEs in maternal serum, paternal serum, umbilical cord serum, and breast milk samples were 12, 12, 17, and 6.1 ng/g lipid weight (lw) in Vallecas and 9.7, 12, 15, and 5.5 ng/g lw in Getafe. The median value found in placentas was 1.9 ng/g lw (in Vallecas). BDE 47 was the predominant congener in serum samples (maternal, paternal, and umbilical cord), while BDE 209 was predominant in placenta and breast milk samples. BDEs 196 and 197 were detected in most of the placenta and breast milk samples. The results show that PBDEs, like other POPs, can cross the placenta barrier, although the speed of the process seems to differ for each PBDE congeners. The total PBDE concentrations found in this study are consistent with research reported elsewhere. They are in the same range as those recently reported by other European and Asian studies and lower than those conducted in the U.S.A. No significant differences were found (p > 0.05) between regions, sexes, and ages, while statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between maternal serum, umbilical cord serum, and breast milk samples. The presence of PBDEs in cord blood and placenta samples indicates that there is prenatal exposure of PBDEs, which could continue after birth via breast milk.
Bromodiphenyl ethers (BDEs) are a class of synthetic flame retardants and are widely present in the environment. Analysis of higher BDE congeners has proven to be a challenge. We report the development of a method that enhances their analysis by splitting the eluent of a gas chromatograph (GC) between an electron capture detector (ECD) and an ion trap mass spectrometer (ITMS): 1:10, ECD:ITMS. This allowed the quantitation of the lower molecular weight (MW) BDE congeners (Br1-Br7) with the ITMS and of the higher MW BDEs (Br8-Br10) with the highly sensitive ECD. The IT temperature, ionization mode, and MS/MS parameters (excitation amplitude and stability parameter) were optimized. This method took the advantages of the best detector for the different BDE homologues and was suitable for the analysis of BDEs in environmental and biological samples. Average recoveries were 52-112% for BDEs from spiked sand samples and 57-126% from spiked lard samples after accelerated solvent extraction followed by silica gel and alumina column clean-up. Average recoveries ranged from 51% to 130% for 13C-labeled BDEs spiked in the real and in matrix samples. The method detection limits for specific congeners were 0.18-120 pg/g of the BDEs in animal tissue samples, and 0.05-40 pg/g in soil and indoor dust samples. The utility of the method was demonstrated by analyzing actual harbor seal blubber, indoor dust and soil samples. The concentration of each BDE ranged from non-detectable (nd) to 41 ng/g in the dry soil sample, nd to 1042 ng/g in the indoor dust, nd to 15 ng/g wet weight in the Alaskan harbor seal blubber sample, and 0.02 to 11 ng/microL of the identified 23 of the 42 breakdown products from BDE-209 after zerovalent iron treatment. Finally, an interlaboratory comparison showed high correspondence between the GC/ITMS-ECD method and a GC high-resolution MS system for the analysis of BDEs in soil samples.
Breast-milk levels of polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in relation to women's age and pre-pregnant body mass index
- T W Koh
- Sc-C Chen
- G P Chang-Chien
- D Y Lin
- F A Chen
- H R Chao
Koh TW, Chen SC-C, Chang-Chien GP, Lin DY, Chen FA, Chao HR. 2010. Breast-milk levels of polybrominated
diphenyl ether flame retardants in relation to women's age and pre-pregnant body mass index. International journal of
hygiene and environmental health 213:59-65.
Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers among workers at an electronic waste dismantling region in Guangdong
- W Qu
- X Bi
- G Sheng
- S Lu
- H Fu
- J Yuan
- L Li
Qu W, Bi X, Sheng G, Lu S, Fu H, Yuan J, Li L. 2007. Exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers among workers at
an electronic waste dismantling region in Guangdong, China. Environment international 33:1029-1034.