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Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management
Research
The influence of expatriate spouses’ coping strategies on expatriate and spouse
adjustment: An interdependence perspective
Yu-Ping Chen, Margaret Shaffer,
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expatriate and spouse adjustment: An interdependence perspective", Journal of Global Mobility:
The Home of Expatriate Management Research, Vol. 6 Issue: 1, pp.20-39, https://doi.org/10.1108/
JGM-07-2016-0032
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The influence of expatriate
spouses’coping strategies on
expatriate and spouse adjustment
An interdependence perspective
Yu-Ping Chen
Department of Management, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada, and
Margaret Shaffer
Division of Management & International Business, University of Oklahoma,
Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Abstract
Purpose –Drawing upon Folkman and Lazarus’(1984) coping framework and interdependence theory
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), the purpose of this paper is to investigate how expatriate spouses’coping
strategies (problem-focused and emotion-focused) affect expatriate spouse adjustment and expatriate
adjustment. In addition, the authors also examine the mediating effect of expatriate adjustment on the spouse
coping strategies-spouse adjustment relationship.
Design/methodology/approach –To test these relationships, the authors collected multi-source data from
191 expatriate spouses and their expatriate partners living in 37 countries.
Findings –The results revealed that problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies positively and
negatively, respectively, influenced all types of spouse adjustment: personal, interaction, and cultural.
Both forms of spouse coping also influenced expatriate adjustment. The authors also found that expatriate
adjustment mediated the relationship between expatriate spouses’coping strategies and spouse adjustment.
Practical implications –The results suggest that multinational organizations should pay equal attention
to the adjustment of both their expatriates and their spouses. Both expatriates and their spouses should be
included in the initial selection process and in pre-departure training to get well equipped before the
international assignment. Training spouses to adopt problem-focused coping strategies would help to
facilitate the effective adjustment of both spouses and expatriates.
Originality/value –The research provides one of the first examinations that investigate expatriate spouses’
coping strategies and their impact on expatriate and expatriate spouse adjustment. This research also
highlights the interdependency of expatriates and their spouses.
Keywords Expatriate adjustment, Coping strategies, Expatriate spouse, Spouse adjustment
Paper type Research paper
Consistent with expatriate research spanning the last three decades, about 80 percent of
today’s expatriates relocate with a spouse or partner (Brookfield Global Relocation Services,
2015). Expatriate spouses represent an important asset or liability for multinational
organizations (Arthur and Bennett, 1995; Davies et al.,2015),andtheimportanceoftheir
adjustment and their international assignment experience has been well documented.
For example, spouse adjustment can positively affect expatriate’s adjustment and performance
(Caligiuri et al., 1998; Van Erp et al., 2014), and spouse maladjustment can significantly
influence expatriate premature return and psychological withdrawal (Forster, 1997; Takeuchi
et al., 2002), and may even lead to marriage dissatisfaction and divorce (McNulty, 2015). Indeed,
research has shown that a happy and supportive spouse is one of the most important success
criteria for both male and female expatriates (McNulty, 2005; Teague, 2015).
Previous research has mainly investigated the issue of assignment failure from the
expatriate’s perspective (Arthur and Bennett, 1995; Caligiuri, 2000; Mendenhall and
Stahl, 2000). Organizations have also tended to ignore spouses’adjustment issues and the
Journal of Global Mobility
Vol. 6 No. 1, 2018
pp. 20-39
© Emerald Publishing Limited
2049-8799
DOI 10.1108/JGM-07-2016-0032
Received 26 July 2016
Revised 1 July 2017
18 July 2017
11 September 2017
Accepted 12 September 2017
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/2049-8799.htm
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consequences of poor spouse adjustment on expatriate failure (Bauer and Taylor, 2001;
Cole, 2011; Lauring and Selmer, 2010; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001) even though research has
indicated that expatriate spouses play a critical role in terms of expatriates’willingness to
accept the assignment, assignment completion, expatriate adjustment, and expatriate
performance (Lazarova et al., 2010). While there has been a tremendous increase in
research on expatriate adjustment, we still know relatively little about the adjustment of
expatriate spouses –the forgotten partners of international assignments (Shaffer and
Harrison, 2001; Takeuchi, 2010). Only a few studies to date (Black et al., 1991; Shaffer
and Harrison, 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2002; Van Erp et al., 2014) have empirically examined the
antecedents of expatriate spouse adjustment and identified a variety of precursors such as
expatriate spouses’self-efficacy, intercultural personality, language proficiency as well
as organizational support, family support, social network, and environmental factors
(Black and Gregersen, 1991; Gupta et al., 2012; Malek et al., 2015; Shaffer and Harrison, 2001;
Van Erp et al., 2014). Little is known, however, about how spouses cope with the
uncertainties and stressors of an international assignment.
Based on the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model (FAAR) (Patterson,
1988), expatriates and their families encounter three main sources of demands: stressors
(i.e. discrete events such as moving abroad), strains (i.e. ongoing unresolved tensions as a
result of stressors or of not meeting demands), and daily hassles (i.e. trouble with neighbors,
traffic problems, unpleasant air quality). The FAAR model also proposes that if the family’s
capabilities suffice to address the demands experienced, adjustment will occur (Haslberger and
Brewster, 2008). Of all family members who embark on an international assignment, it is the
expatriate spouse who tends to experience more difficulties, including stressors, strains, and
daily hassles (Cole, 2011). Research has demonstrated that the experiences of expatriate
spouses differ markedly from that of expatriates both in nature and degree (Black and
Gregersen, 1991; Black and Stephens, 1989). According to Andreason (2008), expatriate
spouses have the most difficult role of any family member during the international assignment
because they are often more immersed in the host country culture than either the expatriate or
the children. Whereas expatriates have the organization and job structure that continue from
the home country to the host country, and children have the continuity and routine of school,
expatriate spouses often leave behind many of the most important aspects of their lives,
including friends, relatives, and even their careers. In addition, many expatriate spouses
experience major interruptions to or loss of their career, leaving them feeling diminished and
unrecognized. Due to the loss of their social identity, social support, and even decreasing
self-efficacy, expatriate spouses might become victims who have the least capabilities/
resources but who have to cope with the most demanding foreign cultural situations.
A potential resource for expatriate spouses, however, is the expatriate him/herself.
Before the international assignment, both expatriates and their spouses have their lives
intertwined with others such as colleagues, relatives, friends, and community contacts.
But this may all change upon arrival in the new country and expatriates and their spouses
find that they only have each other. In other words, they become more interdependent and
the attitudes and behaviors of each can more easily influence the attitudes and behaviors of
the other (McNulty, 2012). Indeed, the FAAR model indicates that the capabilities (e.g. skills,
coping behaviors) of one family member might facilitate the adjustment of other family
members (Patterson, 1988). While prior studies on the expatriate-spouse interface have
mostly focused on the effects of spouse adjustment on expatriate adjustment (e.g. Takeuchi
et al., 2002; Malek et al., 2015), we know much less about how the behaviors of spouses, such
as the coping strategies they adopt, influence expatriate adjustment and how expatriate
adjustment contributes to spouse adjustment.
The purpose of this study, therefore, is to understand the coping strategies that
expatriate spouses use when on an international assignment. Because expatriate spouses
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may have to deal with greater stressors, strains, and daily hassles on the foreign assignment
when compared to expatriates and because they generally have fewer organizational
resources available (Andreason, 2008; Konopaske et al., 2005; McNulty, 2012), our first
objective is to clarify which coping strategies are effective in facilitating expatriate spouse
adjustment. To achieve this, we draw on Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) coping framework
and examine the problem-solving and emotion-focused strategies adopted by expatriate
spouses. Also, given the interdependence of expatriates and spouses, our second objective is
to consider the influence of the spouse on expatriate adjustment and the influence of the
expatriate on spouse adjustment. To achieve this, we draw on interdependence theory
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) to assess the crossover effects (Westman and Vinokur, 1998)
between expatriates and their spouses as well as the mediating effects of expatriate
adjustment on the relationship between spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment.
Through this study, we endeavor to make three contributions. First, drawing on
Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) coping framework, we enhance our understanding of
expatriate spouses’adjustment by examining their use of coping strategies to deal with
the demands of an international assignment. This responds to the call from expatriate
researchers for more attention to be devoted to the expatriation experiences of multiple
international assignment stakeholders, including expatriate spouses (Reiche et al., 2014).
Second, drawing on the coping framework (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) and
interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), we examine the mechanism through
which expatriate spouses’coping strategies cross over to influence expatriate adjustment,
and how expatriate adjustment, in turn, contributes to spouse adjustment. This heeds a
recent call for understanding the dynamics and experiences of global employee families
including expatriates and their family members (Shaffer and Westman, 2015). Third, we
empirically test the proposed model using multi-source data from a diverse sample of
191 expatriates and their spouses working around the world. This not only increases
the generalizability of our results but also provides a more holistic view of the
expatriate-spouse interface during the international assignment.
Theoretical framework and hypotheses
Based on the model of spouse adjustment proposed by Shaffer and Harrison (2001), we
consider three different types of spouse adjustment: personal, interaction, and cultural.
Personal adjustment is defined as a sense of becoming part of, belonging to, or feeling at
home in a foreign environment. Interaction adjustment refers to the perceived comfort of
interacting and building relationships with host country nationals. Cultural adjustment
refers to adaptation to various foreign environmental and situational conditions,
such as local customs, transportation, and health systems. These latter two forms of
spouse adjustment parallel expatriate interaction and cultural adjustment (Black and
Stephens, 1989).
Although Shaffer and Harrison (2001) asserted that expatriate spouse adjustment
depends on their ability to cope with the stress of living in a foreign environment, they did
not explicitly assess spouses’coping behaviors. To clarify the role of coping strategies on
expatriate spouse adjustment, we apply Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) coping framework to
examine how expatriate spouses draw on problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies to
adjust to the international assignment. To extend this theory and consider possible
crossover effects from spouse coping strategies to expatriate adjustment and from
expatriate adjustment to spouse adjustment, we introduce interdependence theory (Thibaut
and Kelley, 1959) as an explanation for the dynamic interplay between expatriates and their
spouses. According to this theory, individuals who share a common social structure and
who are mutually dependent on each other will, through the process of interacting with each
other, influence each other’s outcomes (Kelley and Thibaut, 1978; Kelley et al., 2003).
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Westman (2001) refers to this as crossover, whereby the affect, attitudes, and behaviors of
one individual may influence those of another individuals. Thus, we contend that the coping
behaviors of spouses will affect the adjustment of their expatriate partners, and that
expatriate adjustment will directly influence spouse adjustment and play an intervening
role in the relationship between spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment.
The proposed model is depicted in Figure 1.
Expatriate spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment
Coping refers to an individual’s cognitive and behavioral efforts to regulate or reduce the
stress derived from environmental or internal demands, and the conflicts among them,
which tax or exceed an individual’s resources (Lazarus and Launier, 1978; Lazarus, 1980).
In the context of expatriation, coping refers to the techniques to manage the demands of
relocating and adapting to a foreign environment (Sanchez et al., 2000). For expatriate
spouses, coping consists of strategies they can use to manage, reduce, or overcome the
environmental demands (e.g. cultural novelty, visa restriction; underemployment) and
internal demands (e.g. identity disruption, feelings of isolation, lack of recognition) they
encounter during the international assignment.
According to Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) coping framework, there are basically two
types of coping strategies: problem-focused and emotion-focused. Individuals who engage in
problem-focused coping demonstrate coping behaviors aimed at changing the problematic
person-environment relationship that is perceived as the cause of the stress felt.
For example, an expatriate spouse who actively learns the host country language, expands
the social network in the host country, and tries to find a job to alleviate his/her perceived
lack of recognition is using problem-focused coping strategies. In this case, expatriate
spouses target the problem “head on”and seek out needed training, education, and
resources to solve the problem actively. On the other hand, individuals who engage in
emotion-focused coping aim to address the symptoms (i.e. stress) and regulate their
emotions that result from the stress. For example, an expatriate spouse could feel better
about his/her current situation during the international assignment by telling him/herself
that someday s/he will be returning to the home country or by spending most of the social
time with other expatriate spouses because of the fear of interacting with host country
nationals. Research investigating problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies
generally report positive and negative correlations between problem- and emotion-focused
Expatriate spouse
coping strategies
• Problem-focused
• Emotion-focused
Expatriate
adjustment
Spouse adjustment
• Personal
• Interaction
• Cultural
Figure 1.
A mediated model of
expatriate spouses’
coping strategies on
spouse adjustment
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strategies, respectively, and individual well-being (Sonnentag and Frese, 2003). It is typically
believed that active attempts to change the environment (problem-focused coping) could
lessen or eliminate the cause of the stress, while passive efforts to handle negative
consequences of stress (emotion-focused coping) may drain a person’s energy without
affecting or eliminating the source of the problem (Feldman and Thomas, 1992).
Most of the research on the use of coping strategies within the expatriation context has
examined expatriate’s coping strategies and consequent expatriate outcomes such as
expatriate adjustment and intention to remain on the assignment. Selmer (1999), in a study
of expatriate managers in the People Republic of China, found that expatriates engaging
in problem-focused coping strategies were better adjusted than their counterparts
engaging in emotion-focused coping strategies. In addition, on the basis of a survey of US
expatriates in more than 50 countries, Tung (1998) reported that problem-focused
strategies were more useful in improving adjustment to a host culture when compared
with emotion-focused strategies. In a study by Selmer and Leung (2007), the use of
emotion-focused coping strategies had an adverse effect on the socio-cultural adjustment
of female expatriates. Herman and Tetrick (2009) also studied repatriate adjustment and
found that problem-focused coping was related to better adjustment on return, while
emotion-focused coping was related to poorer adjustment. In addition, in a study of British
expatriates in Singapore, approach (problem-focused) and avoidance (emotion-focused)
strategies, respectively, were positively and negatively related to psychological
adjustment (Ward and Kennedy, 2001). Taken together, these results provide some
preliminary support that problem-focusedcopingstrategies have a positive influence on
expatriate adjustment, whereas emotion-focused coping strategies have a negative
influence. Results from all these studies suggest that expatriates or repatriates who used
problem-focused coping strategies were better adjusted, regardless of whether they were
abroad or when they returned to the home country.
While we are unaware of any study that examines the impact of coping strategies on
expatriate spouses, the domestic literature suggests that individuals who applied
problem-focused coping strategies tend to have positive emotional and psychological
well-being and individuals who applied emotion-focused coping are more likely to
experience emotional burnout and other types of psychological ill-being (e.g. frustration)
in different contexts such as salespeople (Lewin and Sager, 2008), teachers
(Gustems-Carnicer and Calderón, 2013), and customer service providers (Ben-Zur and
Yagil, 2005). Following the same vein, we expect that expatriate spouses will have more
positive emotions and experience psychological well-being when using problem-focused
coping, but they will experience more negative emotions and psychological ill-being when
using emotion-focused strategies. Based on the theoretical framework and the above
arguments, we offer the following:
H1. Problem-focused coping strategies will be positively associated with expatriate spouse
(a) personal adjustment, (b) interaction adjustment, and (c) cultural adjustment.
H2. Emotion-focused coping strategies will be negatively associated with expatriate
spouse (a) personal adjustment, (b) interaction adjustment, and (c) cultural adjustment.
Expatriate spouse coping strategies and expatriate adjustment
During the international assignment, expatriate families often become more isolated from
their psychological and physical support systems (e.g. relatives, friends, and colleagues)
they had in the home country and this isolation constitutes an important loss of support for
both expatriates and their spouses (Guzzo and Noonan, 1994; Harvey and Buckley, 1998;
Van Erp et al., 2014). This loss of support is especially critical for spouses who often fall
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under the radar of organizational support systems. Given that expatriates and their
spouses are isolated from most of their external support systems, they are more likely to
depend on one another for support and they are strongly influenced by each other’s
psychological well-being because partners’lives become more interdependent in the
host-country situation (Haslberger and Brewster, 2008). From an interdependence
perspective (Van Lange and Rusbult, 2012), this mutual dependence creates a stronger
context in which the expatriates’(spouses’) experiences and emotion can easily crossover to
their spouses (expatriates).
Crossover, a key element in interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), is the
term used to describe the contagion of positive as well as negative experiences between
individuals in the same social environment (Bakker et al., 2009; Westman, 2001).
With respect to positive crossover experiences, Bakker et al. (2005) found that work
engagement crosses over from husband and wife and vice versa in different occupational
settings. Couples also have experienced negative crossover experiences such as
anxiety (Westman, Etzion and Horovitz, 2004), burnout (Bakker and Schaufeli, 2000),
and depression (Howe et al., 2004). From an interdependence theory perspective (Kelley and
Thibaut, 1978; Kelley et al., 2003), we expect that the behaviors or coping responses of
expatriate spouses, either positive or negative, will cross over and influence expatriates’
adjustment. For example, expatriate spouses who adopt problem-focused coping strategies
will more effectively navigate the stresses of the international assignment; in so doing, they
become a resource for their expatriate partner’s adjustment. In contrast, expatriate spouses
who respond to the challenges of the international assignment with emotion-focused
behaviors are more likely to become a stressor that adversely affects their expatriate
partner’s adjustment. Thus, we offer the following:
H3a. Expatriate spouses’utilization of problem-focused strategies will be positively
associated with expatriate adjustment.
H3b. Expatriate spouses’utilization of emotion-focused strategies will be negatively
associated with expatriate adjustment.
Expatriate adjustment and spouse adjustment
Just as spouse behaviors may influence relevant expatriate outcomes, we anticipate that
expatriate experiences (i.e. adjustment) will cross over to contribute to spouse adjustment
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959). Due to spouses’personal status (e.g. unable to work due to
immigration visa) and lack of access to resources (relative to expatriates), expatriate spouses
may not have enough resources to adapt to international assignment stress. So who can come
to the rescue? Van Erp et al. (2014) found a resource compensation effect in that when
expatriates or expatriate spouses have insufficient resources at their disposal, they will
attempt to utilize external resources, such as their partner’s intercultural personality, to obtain
better cross-cultural adjustment. Specifically, these authors found that expatriates or
expatriate spouses’intercultural traits (emotional stability, social initiative, open-mindedness)
may facilitate their partner’s adjustment. Briefly, Van Erp and her co-authors (2014) found
that open and curious expatriates will provide a less open-minded partner with essential
information and support to adjust effectively and sociable expatriates will also facilitate their
spouses to receive easy access to socio-cultural interactions.
In a similar vein, we expect expatriate adjustment will be an important resource for
expatriate spouses. Specifically, expatriates who are more adjusted to the international
assignment will be more capable of providing relevant and culture-specific information to their
spouses. Expatriate spouses, after receiving the support from their expatriate partners, will
have more resources to manage the stress they encounter during the international assignment.
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Thus, in line with interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959) and consistent
with Takeuchi et al.’s (2002) finding with respect to the crossover of expatriate spouse
adjustment to expatriate adjustment, we expect a positive crossover of expatriate adjustment
to spouse adjustment:
H4. Expatriate adjustment will be positively associated with expatriate spouses’
(a) personal adjustment, (b) interaction adjustment, and (c) cultural adjustment.
Mediating effects of expatriate adjustment during the crossover process
According to interdependence theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), crossover is one
mechanism whereby the attitudes and behaviors of one individual influence those of
another. Elaborating on this notion, Westman and Vinokur (1998) specified three main
mechanisms, one of which is an indirect mediating interaction process whereby an indirect
crossover occurs when a stressor (resource) increases the strain (well-being) of a partner
(Westman and Vinokur, 1998). Based on the mechanism, we argue that expatriate
adjustment acts as a bridge between spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment.
We expect that when expatriate spouses use problem-focused coping strategies, the positive
consequences such as confidence and perceived control will facilitate their interpersonal
interactions with their expatriate partner, and this will facilitate expatriate adjustment.
Expatriate adjustment will, in turn, contribute to spouse adjustment. However, when
expatriate spouses use emotion-focused coping strategies, the negative consequences such
as spouses’increasing levels of frustration and lack of control could increase the strain of
expatriates which leads to maladjustment of expatriates. The maladjustment of expatriates
might then initiate or exacerbate a negative interpersonal interaction sequence with their
spouses and lead to spouse adjustment problems. Some empirical results support how
distress could increase conflict-based interactions (Schaefer et al., 1981; Westman, Vinokur,
Hamilton and Roziner, 2004), which, in turn, augment depression and marital problems
between couples. Thus, we hypothesize the following:
H5. Expatriate adjustment mediates the relationship between expatriate spouses’use of
problem-focused coping strategies and expatriate spouse (a) personal, (b)
interaction, and (c) cultural adjustment.
H6. Expatriate adjustment mediates the relationship between expatriate spouses’use of
emotion-focused coping strategies and expatriate spouse (a) personal, (b) interaction,
and (c) cultural adjustment.
Methods
Data collection and sample characteristics
To test our hypotheses, we used the purposeful sampling approach and collected data from
191 expatriate spouses and their partners originally from 24 countries and assigned with
their expatriates to 37 countries around the world. The surveys were first developed in
English and then translated into Japanese and German and back-translated to English.
To collect the data, we sent the self-administrated surveys to both expatriates and spouses
via two main sources: first, seven American multinational firms who coordinated the
distribution and return of questionnaires for their expatriates and accompanying spouses
while on international assignments, and second, members of American, Australian, German,
and Japanese associations (social organizations for expatriates and spouses) and the
American Women’s Association in Hong Kong. German and Japanese-language surveys
were sent to members of the German and Japanese associations, respectively. All others
received English-language surveys.
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We sent expatriate and spouse surveys to members of the different organizations and
asked the recipients to forward the appropriate survey to their spouse/partner. Of the
600 surveys distributed by the MNCs, we received 172 from expatriates and 27 from
spouses; of these we matched 15 expatriate-spouse dyads. For the English-speaking social
organizations, we sent 1,500 surveys and received 171 from expatriates and 126 from
spouses; we matched 108 dyads. To members of the Japanese association, we sent
800 surveys and received 105 expatriate surveys and 65 spouse surveys; we matched
58 dyads. For the German association we sent 350 surveys and received 75 from
expatriates and 15 from spouses; we matched ten dyads. In total, we distributed
2,250 surveys to expatriates and received completed surveys from 523, for a response rate
of 23 percent. We also received completed surveys from 233 spouses and we were able to
match 191 of these with the expatriate. Thus, 36.5 percent of the participating expatriates
were matched with their spouse.
Among the 191 expatriate spouses, only 11 were male and the rest female (94 percent).
Average age was 42 years old and only 20.7 percent were employed, with the remaining
79.3 percent unemployed. More than 50 percent had at least a bachelor’s degree.
Among the expatriates, the average age was about 44 years and approximately
90 percent of them had a bachelor degree or higher. The demographics of spouses and
expatriates are comparable to those of previous studies (e.g. Shaffer and Harrison, 1998,
2001; Van Erp et al., 2014).
Measures
All constructs were measured with previously published and validated scales (see Table I
for a summary). Spouses provided ratings of their coping strategies and adjustment.
Expatriates provided ratings of their own adjustment.
Coping strategies. The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman and Lazarus, 1988) was
used to measure various coping strategies. We used 28 items to assess problem-focused
coping and 22 items to measure emotion-focused coping. Expatriate spouses rated the
extent to which they had used certain coping strategies to deal with stressful situations
during the past few weeks when they were on the international assignment. Sample items of
problem-focused coping are “Talked to someone who could do something concrete about the
problem”and “Came up with a couple of different solutions to the problem.”Sample items of
emotion-focused coping are “I made a promise to myself that things would be different next
time”and “Accepted sympathy and understanding from someone.”Responses for both
problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies were made by expatriate spouses on a
four-point scale (0 ¼does not apply/not used to 3 ¼used a great deal). Cronbach’sαfor
problem-focused coping is 0.90 and Cronbach’sαfor emotion-focused coping is 0.88.
Expatriate adjustment. Expatriate adjustment was measured with an overall scale
comprised of the14 items developed by Black et al. including three items for work
adjustment, seven items for cultural adjustment, and four items for interaction adjustment.
Variable Measure Coefficient α
Coping strategies Folkman and Lazarus (1988) Problem-focused: 0.90
Emotion-focused: 0.88
Expatriate adjustment Black and Stephens (1989) 0.87
Spouse adjustment Black and Gregersen (1991) and Shaffer and Harrison (2001) Personal: 0.89
Interaction: 0.88
Cultural: 0.89
Cultural novelty Torbiom (1982) 0.77
Table I.
Summary of measures
used in this study
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A sample item of work adjustment is “How adjusted or unadjusted are you to specific job
requirements,”a sample item of cultural adjustment is “How adjusted or unadjusted are you
to the living conditions in general,”and a sample item of interaction adjustment is
“How adjusted or unadjusted are you to interacting with host country nationals on a
day-to-day basis.”Responses were rated by expatriates and were made on a seven-point
Likert scale (1 ¼extremely unadjusted to 7 ¼extremely adjusted). Cronbach’sαfor the
overall assessment of expatriate adjustment is 0.87.
Spouse adjustment. Spouse adjustment was measured with a three-dimensional spouse
adjustment scale modified from Black and Stephens (1989) and validated by Shaffer and
Harrison (2001). It includes a three-item personal adjustment subscale, a two-item
interaction adjustment subscale, and a seven-item cultural adjustment subscale.
For personal adjustment, we asked respondents to indicate the extent to which they
“belonged,”“were comfortable with,”and “felt at home”in the host country. Sample items
for interaction adjustment and cultural adjustment are, respectively, “How adjusted or
unadjusted are you to interacting with host country nationals on a day-to-day basis”and
“How adjusted or unadjusted are you to the living conditions in general.”Responses for
personal adjustment were made on a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼strongly disagree to
5¼strongly agree) and those for interaction and cultural adjustment were on a
seven-point scale ranging from 1 (extremely unadjusted) to 7 (extremely adjusted).
We also conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the dimensionality of the
spouse adjustment measure. Cronbach’sαs for spouse personal, interaction, and cultural
adjustment are 0.89, 0.88, and 0.89, respectively.
Control variables. We controlled for several factors that had the potential to confound this
study’s hypotheses. Given the negative association of cultural novelty, the unfamiliarity of
host country culture, with expatriate/spouse adjustment (Selmer, 2006), we controlled for
cultural novelty. This variable was measured with a seven-item scale modified from
Torbiom (1982). A sample item of cultural novelty is “Compared to your home country, how
similar or different are everyday customs that must be followed.”Responses for cultural
novelty were made by expatriate spouses on a five-point Likert scale (1 ¼very similar to
5¼very different). Cronbach’sαfor cultural novelty is 0.77. We also controlled for
assignment duration (expatriate spouses were asked to report how many months they
had been on their assignment), expatriate spouse age (in terms of years), and gender
(male ¼0 and female ¼1).
Data analysis and results
Means, standard deviations, estimated reliabilities, and correlations between all of the
variables are presented in Table II. As can be seen, all of the measures had acceptable
internal reliabilities (above 0.70) and correlations between variables are consistent with their
theoretical prediction. In addition, given that spouse coping strategies and spouse
adjustment data were cross-sectional and from a single source, to alleviate the concern of
common method variance, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis by confining all
spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment items into two factors. Results showed that
spouse coping variables and spouse adjustment variables loaded on their designated
factors. We conducted confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the overall model fit for the
full measurement model including six latent variables ( problem-focused coping, emotion-
focused coping, expatriate adjustment, spouse personal adjustment, spouse interaction
adjustment, and spouse cultural adjustment) that were assessed by different sets of
indicators. This measurement model provided an acceptable fit ( χ
2
(961) ¼1,935.89,
po0.001, CFI ¼0.92, NFI ¼0.91, RMSEA ¼0.06), so we proceeded to examine the data
and test our hypotheses. We used hierarchical regression analyses to test the first four
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Variables MSD12345678910
1. Spouse personal adjustment (spouse ratings) 3.29 1.15 (0.89)
2. Spouse interaction adjustment (spouse ratings) 4.94 1.59 0.45** (0.88)
3. Spouse cultural adjustment (spouse ratings) 5.18 1.19 0.58** 0.63** (0.89)
4. Problem-focused coping (spouse ratings) 1.22 0.57 0.36** 0.31** 0.39* (0.90)
5. Emotion-focused coping (spouse ratings) 1.88 0.45 −0.31** −0.27** −0.31** −0.53** (0.88)
6. Expatriate adjustment (expat ratings) 4.93 0.90 0.34** 0.30** 0.28** 0.31** −0.22* (0.87)
7. Cultural novelty 4.45 0.81 −0.28** −0.29** −0.32** −0.05 0.27** −0.29** (0.77)
8. Age (spouse) 41.54 8.15 0.04 0.21* 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.05 –
9. Gender (spouse) 0.94 0.24 0.02 0.12 −0.05 0.03 −0.04 0.02 −0.04 0.02 –
10. Length of stay (months) 31.19 33.71 0.16* 0.21** 0.21** 0.12 0.09 0.34** −0.01 0.14 −0.02 –
Notes: Internal reliabilities (Cronbach’sα) are in parentheses on the diagonal. *po0.05; **po0.01
Table II.
Means, standard
deviations, reliabilities,
and intercorrelations
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hypotheses that examine the direct effects between variables. We then applied Preacher and
Hayes’(2008) SPSS Macro to examine the mediation hypothesis.
H1a-c predicted the direct effect of expatriate spouses’problem-focused coping on
spouse adjustment. The results from Table III indicate significant positive relationships of
expatriate spouses’problem-focused coping and spouse personal adjustment ( β¼0.25,
po0.01), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼0.26, po0.01), and spouse cultural adjustment
(β¼0.28, po0.01) which supports H1a-c.H2a-c predicted the negative effect of expatriate
spouses’emotion-focused coping on spouse adjustment. The results from Table III provide
support for negative relationships between emotion-focused coping and spouse personal
adjustment ( β¼−0.22, po0.05), spouse personal adjustment ( β¼−0.27, po0.01), and
spouse personal adjustment ( β¼−0.26, po0.01), which supports H2a-c.
H3a and H3b predicted the direct effect of expatriate spouses’coping strategies on
expatriate adjustment. As shown in Table IV, expatriate spouses’problem-focused coping is
positively related to expatriate adjustment ( β¼0.30, po0.01). On the other hand,
expatriate spouses’emotion-focused coping is negatively related expatriate adjustment
(β¼−0.23, po0.05). Thus, H3a-H3b are both supported.
H4a-c predicted the direct effect of expatriate adjustment on three dimensions of expatriate
spouse adjustment. As shown in Table V, expatriate adjustment is positively related to spouse
Variables Model 1 Model 2
Control variables
Cultural novelty −0.14 −0.11
Age 0.03 0.11
Gender 0.01 0.01
Length of stay 0.04 0.05
Independent variables
Problem-focused coping 0.30**
Emotion-focused coping −0.23*
Overall R
2
0.09 0.24
Adjusted R
2
0.07 0.22
Overall F5.54** 6.97**
df 4,186 6,184
Notes: *po0.05; **po0.01
Table IV.
Results of regression
analyses for coping
strategies –expatriate
adjustment
Variables Personal adjustment Interaction adjustment Cultural adjustment
Control variables
Cultural novelty −0.13 −0.05 −0.07 −0.10 −0.19** −0.15
Age −0.04 −0.10 0.15 0.07 0.07 0.06
Gender 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.01 −0.02 −0.04
Length of stay 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.10 0.08
Independent variable
Problem-focused coping 0.25** 0.26** 0.28**
Emotion-focused coping −0.22* −0.27** −0.26**
Overall R
2
0.16 0.24 0.06 0.26 0.09 0.27
Adjusted R
2
0.14 0.22 0.04 0.14 0.06 0.24
Overall F3.78* 8.75** 2.99* 8.13** 3.72* 9.12**
df 4,186 6,184 4,186 6,184 4,186 6,184
Notes: *po0.05; **po0.01
Table III.
Results of regression
analyses for coping
strategies –spouse
adjustment
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personal adjustment ( β¼0.32, po0.01), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼0.30, po0.01),
and spouse cultural adjustment ( β¼0.27, po0.01). Thus, H4a-c are all supported.
According to H5a-c and H6a-c, expatriate adjustment will mediate the effects of
expatriate spouses’problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies on all three dimensions
of spouse adjustment. We employed an SPSS Macro approach recommended by Preacher
and Hayes (2008) that uses a bootstrapping method (95% confidence interval (CI) based on
10,000 bootstrapping sample) to examine the mediation effects. If zero does not fall between
the resulting CI of the bootstrapping method, one can conclude that there is a significant
mediation effect (different from zero) to report. Results from the bootstrapping analyses
indicated that expatriate adjustment mediated the relationships between problem-focused
strategies and spouse personal adjustment (95% CI: 0.0378 to 0.1422), spouse interaction
adjustment (95% CI: 0.0266 to 0.1741), and spouse cultural adjustment (95% CI: 0.0290 to
0.1959). In addition, results from the bootstrapping analyses indicated that expatriate
adjustment mediated the relationships between emotion-focused strategies and spouse
personal adjustment (95% CI: −0.0751 to −0.1002) and spouse cultural adjustment (95% CI:
−0.0448 to −0.1223), but not spouse interaction adjustment. Therefore, H5a-c and H6a and
H6c are supported, but H6b is not supported.
Discussion
Drawing upon Folkman and Lazarus’(1988) coping framework and interdependence theory
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), this study provides a theoretical explanation for the direct
influences of expatriate spouses’coping strategies on their own adjustment to the
international assignment and for the indirect effects through the mediating mechanism of
expatriate adjustment.
Two major findings accrued from this study. First, in line with Folkman and Lazarus’
(1988) coping framework, we found that expatriate spouses’utilization of problem-focused
coping strategy positively related to their own and their expatriate partner’s cross-cultural
adjustment while the use of emotion-focused coping had a negative influence (Feldman and
Thomas, 1992; Selmer and Leung, 2007; Tung, 1998). In addition, highlighting the
importance of interdependence (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), we found that expatriate
adjustment positively influences expatriate spouse adjustment. The first finding regarding
the direct effects contributes to the literature in several ways. Although researchers
(i.e. Chen et al., 2015) have alluded to the issue of stress and resource crossover, many
previous works have focused only on the crossover effect of negative states and strains.
Our study examined both the positive and negative crossover of expatriate spouses’coping
Variables Personal adjustment Interaction adjustment Cultural adjustment
Control variables
Cultural novelty −0.13 −0.04 −0.06 0.06 −0.22** −0.19
Age −0.02 −0.13 0.19* 0.11 0.09 0.03
Gender 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.04 −0.05 −0.05
Length of stay 0.03 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.10 0.09
Independent variable
Expatriate adjustment 0.32** 0.30** 0.27**
Overall R
2
0.19 0.25 0.06 0.23 0.07 0.22
Adjusted R
2
0.18 0.21 0.03 0.20 0.0 0.17
Overall F3.17* 8.42** 3.01* 7.59** 3.22* 6.42**
df 3,187 4,186 3,187 4,186 3,187 4,186
Notes: *po0.05; **po0.01
Table V.
Results of regression
analyses for
expatriate adjustment –
expatriate spouse
adjustment
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strategies and the positive crossover of expatriate adjustment, which responds to the call to
investigate the possibility of positive crossover (Guttermann et al., 2017).
More specifically, this study also demonstrated that stressors and resources associated
with closely related persons can transfer to the well-being of the respective partner.
Therefore, the results of this study are consistent with the principles of interdependence
theory (Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), which explains the crossover of attitudes and/or
behaviors from one individual to another.
In addition, because expatriate spouses have long been considered the “forgotten
partners”of international assignments (Shaffer and Harrison, 2001), how they deal with
stressful situations encountered during the international assignment has not received much
attention. Thus, this study also contributes to expatriate research by identifying how
expatriate spouses cope with the stressful international assignments they encounter and
how their coping strategies influence their own adjustment as well as that of their expatriate
partners. In general, expatriate spouses who used the constructive approach of applying
problem-focused coping strategies tend to facilitate their own adjustment and expatriate
adjustment. However, expatriate spouses’attempts to regulate their feelings by applying
emotion-focused coping strategies to minimize anxieties not only have a negative influence
on their own adjustment but also negatively influence the cross-cultural adjustment of their
expatriate partners.
The second major finding in this study is that, drawing on interdependence theory, we
identify expatriate adjustment as a mediator between expatriate spouses’utilization of
coping strategies and their own adjustment. This deepens our understanding of the
expatriate-expatriate spouse interface by examining the crossover mechanism of their
well-being not just from the expatriate’s perspective. This finding corresponds to previous
research on the mediating role of interpersonal exchange in the context of crossover effects
(Westman and Vinokur, 1998) in the expatriation research domain.
Taken together, this study suggests that for expatriate spouses, employing a coping
strategy (e.g. problem-focused coping) that directly aims at changing the problematic
person-environment relation that is perceived as the cause of the stress will bring them and
partners more positive outcomes compared to expatriate spouses who attempt to minimize
anxieties through physical or mental withdrawal from the situation or by avoiding the
problem (e.g. emotion-focused coping). Moreover, our research indicates that getting
adjusted abroad for both expatriates and their spouses is not only a matter of who you are,
but also who you are with on the assignment. Unlike most expatriate studies that focused on
expatriates as the major stakeholder, this study suggests that expatriate spouses and their
utilization of coping strategies can have a direct influence on expatriate adjustment. On the
other hand, in line with the resource compensation perspective (Van Erp et al., 2014), our
results suggest that expatriate spouses can also rely on their partners’cross-cultural
adjustment to obtain more resources to facilitate their own adjustment. Specifically, in the
situation that an expatriate spouse’s own coping resources do not suffice, high levels of their
partner’s resources (i.e. expatriate adjustment) may act as a complementary external
resource to benefit one’s adjustment. Along the same line with interdependence theory
(Thibaut and Kelley, 1959), this study also suggests the importance of a mutually dependent
and significant other for the adjustment of expatriates and their spouses. Specifically,
expatriates and their spouses who are interdependent tend to experience less cultural stress
and show better cross-cultural adjustment, especially when problem-focused coping
strategies are used.
Practical implications for organizations
This research has important implications for multinational organizations and their overseas
subsidiaries. Our findings indicate that when expatriate spouses are able to actively deal
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with the causes of the problem, this action can facilitate cross-cultural adjustment for
expatriates and themselves. By providing extra resources (such as extra guidance in finding
a job, and social contacts) to help expatriate spouses actively cope with stress, organizations
can influence the adjustment of expatriates and their spouses.
The positive crossover effect of expatriate adjustment on spouses’cross-cultural
adjustment also underscores the importance of expatriates’adjustment as a
complementary coping resource for their spouses. Given the large investment loss
regarding expatriate failure and the strong influence that expatriate spouse adjustment
has on expatriate success, we suggest that multinational organizations should pay closer
and equal attention to the adjustment of both expatriates and their spouses. Instead of
focusing on expatriates only, expatriates and spouses should be included in the initial
selection process and in pre-departure training to get well equipped before the
international assignment. Specifically, pre-screening and selecting expatriates and
spouses who have certain personality (e.g. open-mindedness, cultural intelligence and
emotional stability) might ensure that they both have more personal resources to actively
cope with stressors when they are on an international assignment (Van Erp et al., 2014).
Providing language training and realistic previews regarding foreign countries’
customs and living conditions might also help expatriates and their spouses better
equip themselves before departure and, thus, have more resources to implement
problem-focused coping strategies. It is also essential to provide various support systems
to both expatriates and their spouses during the international assignment (e.g. sponsoring
participation in expatriate associations or assigning an expatriate with more experience/a
host country national to expatriates and their spouses as a mentor, and providing extra
guidance in finding a job for the expatriate spouse to rebuild their self-identity) may also
be very useful to help both expatriates and their spouses (Teague, 2015). Surprisingly,
although researchers have long advocated for more attention to be given to expatriate
spouses, it seems that support is still primarily aimed at the expatriate and not the
expatriate spouse (Cole, 2011). We also encourage organizations to implement training
for expatriate spouses, not just expatriates, to help them develop more problem-focused
approaches to the demands of an international assignment. This could be done by
providing them with information about available resources in the host country
(language training, counseling service, etc.) as well as ensuring a contact person for them
in the host country.
Limitations and suggestions for future research
As with any empirical studies, our study has several limitations. First, a major limitation of
this study is that the data are cross-sectional and correlational, increasing the probability of
tentative causal conclusions. It is particularly important to understand the effect of time lag
in human behavior studies (McGrath and Kelly, 1986). For example, how long does it take
for different kinds of spouses’coping strategies to influence expatriate adjustment? Along
the same vein, researchers also claimed that acculturative stress and adaptation is a process
characterized by phases of stress and adjustment (Berry, 2006; Demes and Geeraert, 2015).
Thus, future research should incorporate longitudinal designs to investigate the causal
relationships proposed in this study.
Second, we measured expatriate adjustment as a combined global construct, and we
only examined two broad types of coping strategies. Researchers have long suggested
that more attention be paid to the dimensionality of the criterion domain (Austin and
Villanova, 1992). While the use of global measure of adjustment is not uncommon in
expatriate research (e.g. Malek et al., 2015) and the purpose of this study is to examine
whether expatriate adjustment overall can serve as a coping resources to facilitate
expatriate spouse adjustment, future research with a larger sample size should still
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incorporate different dimensions of expatriate adjustment (e.g. work, cultural, and
interaction). Similarly, the two categories of coping strategies, although descriptive, do not
completely reflect the complexity and richness of the unique coping strategies comprising
each category. For example, research by Lazarus et al. identified a variety of more specific
coping strategies included within these two major categories. Problem-focused strategies
include confrontive coping, planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, and seeking
social support; emotion-focused strategies include distancing, self-controlling, accepting
responsibility, and escape avoidance, Thus, it would be insightful for future research to
further investigate the diverse effects of coping strategies and their influence on
expatriate adjustment[1].
Third, common method bias may be a concern, especially with respect to the direct
relationships between spouse coping strategies and spouse adjustment. However, we relied
on multi-source data to examine the crossover effects. Specifically, spouse-rated coping
strategies predicted expatriate-rated expatriate adjustment and expatriate-rated expatriate
adjustment predicted spouse-rated spouse adjustment. As such, common method bias might
not be a serious issue in our study. However, to alleviate potential concern, we followed
recommendations by Podsakoff et al. (2003) and calculated a confirmatory factor analysis
letting all measurement items load on one single factor. The result provided a worse fit
(χ
2
(1,022) ¼2,277.14, po0.001, CFI ¼0.76, NFI ¼0.82, RMSEA ¼0.19). Thus, common
method bias might not be a serious issue to influence the validity of this study.
Last, Lazarus et al. argued that the outcome of any coping strategy is highly context
dependent and not inherently effective or ineffective. Stahl and Caligiuri (2005) also
found that the effectiveness of expatriate coping strategies was contingent on the role of
cultural distance during the international assignment. Future research should also
consider the role of international assignment context (e.g. time on assignment, assistance
from host country nationals) and type of international assignment (e.g. traditional
expatriates, self-initiated expatriates) on the relationship among spouses’utilization of
coping strategies, expatriate adjustment, and spouse adjustment (Baker and Cluk, 2015).
For example, while spouses of traditional expatriates are vulnerable, self-initiated
expatriate spouses may be in an even worse situation given that self-initiated expatriates
as well as their spouses generally receive very limited or insufficient assistance from
employers (Howe-Walsh and Schyns, 2010). In this circumstance, the support from the
organization would become more important.
Conclusion
Our finding that expatriate spouses’utilization of problem-focused coping strategies leads
to better spouse and expatriate adjustment reveals a very important message that
expatriate spouses who are able to proactively cope with stress will facilitate their own
cross-cultural adjustment as well as that of their expatriate partners. The positive crossover
effect of expatriate adjustment on expatriate spouse adjustment also highlights the critical
supporting role of expatriates on their spouses. To conclude, findings from this study imply
that multinational companies should deal with expatriate adjustment issues in a more
comprehensive dynamic perspective by considering the needs of both expatriates and their
spouses. This will not only help multinational organizations to better predict and
understand how expatriate couples will successfully adjust abroad but also prepare
expatriate couples for the challenges they will face together.
Note
1. We indeed attempted to address this void by conducting a post-hoc regression analysis between
different types of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies on expatriate
adjustment. While our small sample size does not allow us to provide sufficient effect sizes, the
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preliminary result demonstrated some preliminary results indicating that planful problem solving,
defined as deliberate problem-focused, analytical efforts to alter the situation or solve the problem,
positively influenced spouse personal adjustment ( β¼0.23, po0.01), spouse interaction
adjustment ( β¼0.23, po0.01), spouse cultural adjustment ( β¼0.19, po0.05), and expatriate
adjustment ( β¼0.32, po0.01). Positive re-appraisal, which describes efforts to create positive
meaning by focusing on personal growth, also positively influenced spouse personal adjustment
(β¼0.21, po0.01), spouse cultural adjustment ( β¼0.20, po0.05), and expatriate adjustment
(β¼0.24, po0.05). We also find that seeking social support positively influenced spouse personal
adjustment ( β¼0.26, po0.01), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼0.17, po0.05), spouse cultural
adjustment ( β¼0.20, po0.05), but not expatriate adjustment. Interestingly, confrontive coping,
defined as aggressive efforts to alter the situation and suggests some degree of hostility and risk
taking, negatively influenced spouse personal adjustment ( β¼−0.21, po0.05), spouse interaction
adjustment ( β¼−0.18, po0.05), spouse cultural adjustment ( β¼−0.23, po0.01), and expatriate
adjustment ( β¼−0.18, po0.05). This result might imply that when expatriate spouses are lack of
coping resources, dealing with stressors aggressively will bring them more frustration. In terms of
emotion-focused coping, we found that accepting responsibility, which acknowledges one’s own
role in the problem with a concomitant theme of trying to put things right, negatively predicted
spouse personal adjustment ( β¼−0.22, po0.05), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼−0.24,
po0.01), spouse cultural adjustment ( β¼−0.25, po0.01), and expatriate adjustment ( β¼−0.29,
po0.01). We also found that escape-avoidance, which describes wishful thinking and behavioral
efforts to escape or avoid the problem, negatively influenced spouse personal adjustment
(β¼−0.27, po0.01), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼−0.29, po0.01), spouse cultural
adjustment ( β¼−0.31, po0.01), an d exp atriate adjustment ( β¼−0.36, po0.01). Last,
We found that distancing, which describes cognitive efforts to detach oneself and to minimize
the significance of the situation, negatively influenced spouse personal adjustment ( β¼−0.26,
po0.01), spouse interaction adjustment ( β¼−0.27, po0.01), spouse cultural adjustment
(β¼−0.17, po0.05), and expatriate adjustment ( β¼−0.36, po0.01). Thus, though we are not
able to make a solid conclusion due the statistical power, we recommend researchers who plan to
conduct similar studies to consider the multi-dimensionality of coping strategies when developing
and examining their research model. We also reported the internal reliability for each coping items
as follows: confrontive coping (6 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.76). Seeking social support (6 items;
Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.77). Planful problem solving (6 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.81). Positive
re-appraisal (6 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.81). Distancing (6 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.70).
Self-controlling (7 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.73). Accepting responsibilities (4 items; Cronbach’s
alpha ¼0.62). Escape avoidance (8 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼0.76).
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Further reading
Tabachnick, B.G. and Fidell, L.S. (2001), Using Multivariate Statistics, Allyn & Bacon, Needham
Heights, MA.
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Corresponding author
Yu-Ping Chen can be contacted at: yu-ping.chen@concordia.ca
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