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Perceived cultural distance and international destination choice: The role of destination familiarity, geographic distance, and cultural motivation
Abstract
Cultural distance is a key factor in international tourism. This study aims to use the perceptual measure of cultural distance to investigate 1) the impact of destination familiarity and geographic distance on perceived cultural distance (PCD); and 2) the moderating effect of cultural motivation on PCD and Chinese potential outbound tourists’ international destination choices. Findings reveal that while destination familiarity and geographic distance are important antecedents of PCD, PCD has no significant impact on international destination choice. When moderated by cultural motivation, however, PCD exerts a positive impact on destination choice for respondents with a higher level of cultural motivation and a negative impact on those with a lower level of cultural motivation. In closing, theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... The DSGE model has been widely used to explain economic growth and simulate the impact of policy interventions. Following Liu et al. (2018) and Liu and Wu (2019), this study will include three types of agents (households, firms and the government) and three sectors (tourism, nontourism and public services) in the economy. Official statistics and data from the compiled TSA in the previous stage will be used in the modelling framework. ...
... On the contrary, "pull" factors are recognized as the tangible and intangible resources or images of specific destinations (Sirakaya, Sheppard, & McLellan, 1997), such as quality of service (Seddighi & Theocharous, 2002), market access (McKercher, 1998) and perceived image Hong, Kim, Jang, & Lee, 2006) of destination. Sociopsychological and demographical factors, such as gender (Ryan, Henley, & Soutar, 1998), cultural distance between tourist and society of the destination (Liu, Li, Cárdenas, & Yang, 2018;Seddighi, Nuttall, & Theocharous, 2001), safety and security of destination (Armstrong & Mok, 1995;Sirakaya et al., 1997), are found to impose potential influence on tourist destination choice. ...
... The influence factors of tourist intra-destination choice have not yet been investigated. Effects of the underlying factors that widely concerned in previous studies of tourist destination choice, e.g., geographical distance (Cao, Zhang, Wang, Hu, & Yu, 2019;Liu et al., 2018), trip characteristics (Moscardo, Morrison, Pearce, Lang, & O'Leary, 1996), repeat visitation (Oppermann, 2016a(Oppermann, , 2016b and sociodemographic status , await investigation under the context of intra-city travelling. ...
This paper first expounds the connotation of entrepreneurship education and the significance of offering entrepreneurship education courses in tourism management majors.Then take Baicheng Normal University as an example to conduct a questionnaire survey on the effect of entrepreneurship education in tour management major, and analyze the corresponding conclusions. Finally, the idea of promoting the entrepreneurship education of tourism management major in local undergraduate colleges is proposed
... The DSGE model has been widely used to explain economic growth and simulate the impact of policy interventions. Following Liu et al. (2018) and Liu and Wu (2019), this study will include three types of agents (households, firms and the government) and three sectors (tourism, nontourism and public services) in the economy. Official statistics and data from the compiled TSA in the previous stage will be used in the modelling framework. ...
... On the contrary, "pull" factors are recognized as the tangible and intangible resources or images of specific destinations (Sirakaya, Sheppard, & McLellan, 1997), such as quality of service (Seddighi & Theocharous, 2002), market access (McKercher, 1998) and perceived image Hong, Kim, Jang, & Lee, 2006) of destination. Sociopsychological and demographical factors, such as gender (Ryan, Henley, & Soutar, 1998), cultural distance between tourist and society of the destination (Liu, Li, Cárdenas, & Yang, 2018;Seddighi, Nuttall, & Theocharous, 2001), safety and security of destination (Armstrong & Mok, 1995;Sirakaya et al., 1997), are found to impose potential influence on tourist destination choice. ...
... The influence factors of tourist intra-destination choice have not yet been investigated. Effects of the underlying factors that widely concerned in previous studies of tourist destination choice, e.g., geographical distance (Cao, Zhang, Wang, Hu, & Yu, 2019;Liu et al., 2018), trip characteristics (Moscardo, Morrison, Pearce, Lang, & O'Leary, 1996), repeat visitation (Oppermann, 2016a(Oppermann, , 2016b and sociodemographic status , await investigation under the context of intra-city travelling. ...
... Cultural distance has been acknowledged as the extent to which a tourist's home country's culture is different from or similar to that of a destination [37]. According to Crompton [17], international tourists have two common reasons for travelling: escape from their everyday environment and the search for novelty. ...
... That means, other conditions being equal, Spain could attract more Chinese tourists because of its close to optimal cultural distance. Other researchers like Liu et al. [37] reported that perceived cultural distance does not significantly impact international destination choice except when cultural motivation moderates. Specifically, people with higher levels of cultural motivation to travel were more likely to visit culturally distant destinations. ...
... The first variable was estimated with three items: (1) I intend to visit Spain in the future; (2) I want to visit Spain, and (3) It is likely that I will visit Spain in the future [47,48]. The recommendation variable was measured by asking the respondents to answer: (1) I will recommend Spain to my friends or family as an ideal travel destination; (2) I would say positive things about Spain to other people; (3) I will encourage my friends or family to visit Spain [37,49]. All items were scored on a five-point Likert Scale, measuring whether the respondents' agreed or disagreed with each statement. ...
Language barriers have always been considered as constraints on tourists’ intentions to visit an overseas destination. However, little research has focused on how learning the destination language could affect tourists’ behavioral intentions. This study attempts to fill this gap by analyzing the moderating effect of Spanish language proficiency on young Chinese travelers’ intentions to visit Spain. A quantitative research method was adopted involving data collection through a structured questionnaire survey. A total of 642 Chinese university students were used as the sample in this study. The relationships between motivation, perceived cultural distance, destination image, and future behavioral intention were examined using the Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis. The moderating effects of Spanish-language proficiency on these relationships were tested through MICOM and multi-group PLS-SEM analysis. The results show that Spanish-language proficiency could moderate four hypothesized relationships in the model. Hence, this study contributes to tourism literature by highlighting the role of potential tourists’ destination-language proficiency on their future behavioral intentions. Additionally, practical implications are also provided for DMOs to attract more Chinese young travelers in the recovery process from COVID-19.
... Cultural distance has been acknowledged as the extent to which a tourist's home country's culture is different from or similar to that of a destination [37]. According to Crompton [17], international tourists have two common reasons for travelling: escape from their everyday environment and the search for novelty. ...
... That means, other conditions being equal, Spain could attract more Chinese tourists because of its close to optimal cultural distance. Other researchers like Liu et al. [37] reported that perceived cultural distance does not significantly impact international destination choice except when cultural motivation moderates. Specifically, people with higher levels of cultural motivation to travel were more likely to visit culturally distant destinations. ...
... The first variable was estimated with three items: (1) I intend to visit Spain in the future; (2) I want to visit Spain, and (3) It is likely that I will visit Spain in the future [47,48]. The recommendation variable was measured by asking the respondents to answer: (1) I will recommend Spain to my friends or family as an ideal travel destination; (2) I would say positive things about Spain to other people; (3) I will encourage my friends or family to visit Spain [37,49]. All items were scored on a five-point Likert Scale, measuring whether the respondents' agreed or disagreed with each statement. ...
The language barrier has been typically studied as a constraint in international tourism. Little research has focused on how learning the destination language could affect the potential tourists’ motivations, perceptions, and intentions. This paper investigates this topic through a survey aimed at Chinese university students as potential visitors to Spain. The primary objective is to explore how these differences influence their travel motivation, perceived cultural distance, perceived destination image of Spain, and behavioural intentions to visit Spain. Statistical analyses, including exploratory factor analysis and one-way ANOVA tests, were conducted to examine these factors. Our findings reveal the statistically significant differences among the students with different Spanish language proficiency. Practical implications are provided for Spanish destination management on attracting more Chinese tourists after the pandemic of COVID-19.
... Previous surveys have shown that many tourists prefer familiar environments, although new destinations may offer greater tourist-friendliness and ecological sustainability (H. Liu et al., 2018). Destination familiarity enhances the connection between PEC and emotional experience. ...
... The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) indicates that tourist behaviour affects travel decisions (H. Liu et al., 2018). Those with less familiarity often depend on experts, highlighting familiarity's significance in distinguishing between tourists and linking emotional experiences to intentions to revisit (Zheng et al., 2019). ...
This research examines how perceived environmental concern (PEC) and emotional experience influence tourists’ intention to revisit destinations in China. It also explores how familiarity with the destination influences the relationships of emotional experience, PEC, and intentions of revisiting. Using convenience sampling, 392 responses were collected, and later, Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modelling was used to analyse. Results showed that PEC positively impacts revisit intention, with emotional experience mediating this relationship. Additionally, emotional experience directly and positively influences revisit intention. This research is unique in its focus on revisit intention and provides valuable insights for policymakers and destination stakeholders to develop strategies to boost tourist revisit intention.
... Perceived cultural distance has a negative effect on tourism destination's choice [7]. Similarly, it has been found that perceived cultural distance has an insignificant negative effect on Chinese tourists' choice of international tourism destination by Logit analysis and regress analysis [38,39]. However, cultural distance has positive effects on short-haul overnight tourism demand in Hong Kong [8]. ...
... Although the role of culture and institution on international tourism is really important, there are only handfuls of empirical studies [5,7,8,34,39,40,42,47]. The most previous studies centered on the effect of cultural distance on inbound tourism, and found that cultural distance has a negative effect on inbound tourism or tourism demand. ...
In the post-epidemic era, the restart of China’s inbound tourism is imminent. However, there are gaps in our current understanding of how distance perception dynamically affects inbound tourism in China. In order to understand the past patterns of inbound tourism in China, we mapped the data of 61 countries of origin from 2004 to 2018 into a dynamic expanding gravity model to understand the effects of cultural distance, institutional distance, geographical distance, and economic distance on inbound tourism in China and revealed the dynamic interaction mechanism of non-economic distance perception on inbound tourism in China. Our research results show that cultural distance has a positive impact on China’s inbound tourism, while institutional distance has a negative impact. The significant finding is that the dynamic interaction of the above two kinds of perceived distance can still have a positive impact on China’s inbound tourism. Its practical significance is that it can counteract the influence of institutional distance by strengthening the cultural distance. Generally speaking, geographical distance and institutional distance restrict China’s inbound tourism flow, while cultural distance, economic distance, and interactive perceptual distance promote China’s inbound tourism flow.
... Furthermore, Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Baglou et al. (2014), Liu et al. (2018) and Szubert et al. (2022) note that a significant factor influencing the image and tourist attractiveness of a destination is a tourist's knowledge of it. At this point, it should be emphasised that researchers analysing the destination image usually distinguish between two or three of its components: cognitive and affective (e.g. ...
... We may also agree with Echtner and Ritchie (1993), Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Liu et al. (2018) and Szubert et al. (2022), who all claim that an important factor influencing the perception of tourist attractiveness and creation of a destination's image is the knowledge surrounding it. As shown by the study, regardless of the purpose of travel, all respondents quoted the same attractiveness attributes. ...
SkowronEk E., Brzezińska-Wójcik T., sTasiak a., 2023. How to effectively build the image of an emerging destination. aBsTracT: Only a few studies have focused on building the image of emerging destinations. The region's image is influenced by its tourist attractiveness (image-related perception) and the knowledge about its tourist attributes (rec-ognition). To build the image of emerging destinations, the attributes of attractiveness should be identified. In this study, such an attempt was made for Lublin Province. A diagnostic survey and statistical methods were used to assess the perception of its attractiveness and the recognition of the attractiveness attributes by visitors. Lublin Province has no tourism image, and its attractiveness attributes are identified only vaguely. The landscape is the only attribute on which the image of this destination can be built.
... Many tourists travel abroad to experience different cultures than their own (Liu, Li, Cárdenas, & Yang, 2018). Cross cultural circumstances may cause problems, for example, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reported that a British man and woman in Dubai were fined for drinking alcohol and sentenced to jail for kissing in public. ...
... Cross cultural circumstances may cause problems, for example, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reported that a British man and woman in Dubai were fined for drinking alcohol and sentenced to jail for kissing in public. This is an example of how even the tourism industry is affected by cultural differences in communication and interpretation (Liu et al., 2018). According to sustainable principles (Jaswal, Verma, & Bagga, 2017) tourists should have a pleasurable experience and learn more about the culture of their destination at the same time (Battilani, Bernini, & Mariotti, 2018). ...
This study aims to explore factors that affect effective management of cultural tourism site. This is a quantitative study that aims to determine key factors that affect Chinese tourists' decisions in terms of effective cultural tourism resource management at Thai temples. The study collected data from 1,600 tourists of Chinese nationality. These tourists were selected through non proportional quota sampling with the accidental sampling method from a population of Chinese tourists in Bangkok. Multiple regression was applied to the data analysis. The study found that certain variables can predict the decision of tourists to score cultural tourism resource management at a statistically significant level of .05. These variables include: cultural tourism's value perception; conservation awareness for cultural tourism resources; conservation tourism resource knowledge; those aged from 30-45; those aged more than 46 years; students; government staff; businessmen; and employees. The findings should be useful for promoting and managing planner in the cultural destination in promoting sustainable tourism in cultural destinations.
... On the one hand, political distance translates into negative cues for consumers' judgment and decision making (Maglio, 2020). Therefore, it creates obstacles for tourists' service-seeking behaviors with targeted destinations since a high level of distance engenders risk and uncertainty in international travel, possible conflicts between the tourists and the host, and additional costs for travel (Liu et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2019). On the other hand, government intervention, particularly visa restrictions, is another means by which international travel is tightened under the incongruity of political ideology (Tse, 2013). ...
... The tourism landscape has been reshaped by the shift in global leadership, under which new geopolitical alliances are leading to an overhaul of the outbound travel market (Webster & Ivanov, 2015). This finding has enriched the literature on geopolitical determinants of tourism demand, focusing predominantly on geopolitical risks (Balli et al., 2019;Lee et al., 2021;Tiwari et al., 2019), and it has also added a new dimension to current discussions of cultural distance by incorporating a bilateral predictor of political proximity (Liu et al., 2018;Yang & Wong, 2012a;Yang et al., 2019). ...
From a political–economic perspective, this research examines the nexus between Chinese foreign aid and tourism demand in 138 recipient countries. Specifically, it investigates two mechanisms and their interplay: (1) an economic channel that entices an influx of international tourists through infrastructure development; and (2) a political channel that attracts Chinese tourists by diminishing political distance. A cross-country panel dataset on Chinese aid projects is analyzed. The results suggest that Chinese aid has a significant impact on Chinese tourists after a 1-year lag through the political channel, while the economic channel’s effect on Chinese/other international tourists is not salient within five years. Significant long-run equilibrium relationships are found between aid and both tourist segments. The economic effect emerges in the long term, while the political effect fades out. This study provides a novel political–economic perspective for tourism research and presents new insights into China’s soft power in global tourism.
... Cultural differences exert well-documented impacts on many aspects of individuals' behavior (Hofstede, 2001). Scholarly evidence indicates that culture plays a critical role in perceived destination branding and destination choice (Aguirre-Rodriguez, 2014;Liu et al., 2018). Several studies have also theorized about the roles of cultural factors in consumer-brand relationships. ...
... Although these dimensions have been applied internationally to conceptualize culture (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006), several limitations persist, such as relatively unrepresentative samples (Steenkamp, 2001), outdated measurement methods (White & Tadess, 2008), and thin theoretical support (Soares et al., 2007). Tourism researchers have further contended that cultural differences only reflect temporal changes in perceived value heterogeneity among individuals from the same country (Liu et al., 2018). Such variation has led Hofstede's cultural dimensions to be interpreted differently across cultural backgrounds. ...
Drawing upon self-congruity theory and Hofstede's notion of uncertainty avoidance, this paper empirically investigates the roles of destination personality, destination image, self-congruity, uncertainty avoidance, and revisit intention in two cities: Auckland, New Zealand and Glasgow, UK. Data were collected from a sample of 318 Chinese tourists in Auckland and 226 Chinese tourists in Glasgow. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to assess the measurement and structural models and to compare the relationship between these destinations. Findings showed that actual and ideal self-congruity served as mediators between destination personality, destination image, and revisit intention; uncertainty avoidance was not a significant moderator between self-congruity (i.e. actual and ideal) and revisit intention in both cities. Partial least squares–Henseler's multigroup analysis further indicated that the mediating role of actual self-congruity between destination image and revisit intention was especially strong for Auckland versus Glasgow. However, findings revealed non-significant differences between Auckland and Glasgow for all hypotheses (i.e. the mediating role of self-congruity and the moderating role of uncertainty avoidance). The present study offers theoretical and managerial implications for academics and practitioners.
... with destinations (H. Liu et al., 2018). Some tourists may develop prejudices and stereotypes towards host cultures due to cultural differences, affecting their tourism experiences and potentially leading to misunderstandings and tensions with locals. ...
Cultural tourism provides rich opportunities for experiential learning, but a framework to foster such learning is lacking. This study introduces the “learning behaviors-interactive scenarios” framework to explore key facilitators of experiential learning in cultural tourism. Through a literature review, it outlines key learning behaviors in cultural tourism—seeking challenges, critical reflection, and immersive engagement—that drive Kolb's experiential learning model. It examines how activity, information, and interaction scenarios influence these behaviors and enhance learning outcomes. A case study of the Sancai Town Tourism App illustrates the framework's application, with survey results confirming its effectiveness in enhancing cultural understanding. This study addresses three research questions, contributing to a theoretical framework that integrates situational factors with individual learning behaviors, enhancing understanding of experiential learning in cultural tourism and offering insights into its digital transformation.
... Research on the relationship between cultural distance and tourism can be categorized into national and individual levels (Yang et al., 2019). Most studies assume the latter perspective, covering topics such as the effects of cultural distance on tourists' attitudes and behavior, service-related perceptions, and tourism demand (Bi & Lehto, 2018;Crotts, 2004;Leung et al., 2013;Liu et al., 2018;Qian et al., 2018;Yu et al., 2019). Some scholars have argued that the cultural distance framework is unsuitable for individual tourists due to the heterogeneity of perceived cultural distance between the citizens of one country and others (Yang et al., 2019). ...
Due to limitations in mainstream symmetric methodologies, the linkages between cultural dimensions and tourism demand have yet to be fully understood. Drawing on Hofstede's theory of national culture and adopting the asymmetric and case-oriented fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis method, this investigation explored configuration models of cultural distance between 65 countries in relation to China's inbound and outbound tourism flows. Using a series of three studies, this research assessed the impact of grouping Hofstede's six cultural distance dimensions and the effect of cultural distance as a whole on Chinese inbound and outbound tourism flows within the cultural, administrative, geographic, and economic distance framework. Findings indicate that several paths respectively lead to high inbound and outbound tourism flows. Uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation are core conditions for high inbound and outbound tourism flows, respectively. Three testable propositions were additionally evaluated by comparing cultural distance configurations between high inbound and outbound tourism flows.
... The seminal research on the key cultural dimensions by Hofstede (1980 and2011) on the other hand provides a clear segmentation of tourists across different cultures. The notion of cultural distance, which is defined as the perceived cultural proximity or disparity of a destination that is relative to the tourist's own culture (Clark and Pugh 2001), has significant impacts on international destination choices (Bi and Lehto 2018;Liu et al. 2018;Ng et al. 2007). Travelers from collectivistic countries, such as South Korea are particularly drawn to destinations with greater cultural differences than their own (Jackson 2001). ...
The underlying mechanism of the destination trust of Korean travelers and behaviors toward China after the COVID-19 pandemic is explored in the present study, which considers the role of the destination image constituents and perceived government policy responsiveness for tourism recovery. The data was collected from Korean nationals who are currently residing in South Korea and have traveled to China in the last five years. The results revealed that the developed conceptual framework had a satisfactory level of explanatory ability in regards to predicting the travel and recommendation intentions of Korean travelers toward China, which destination trust serves as the key mediator. Moreover, the perception of Korean travelers in regards to Chinese government policy responsiveness for tourism recovery significantly strengthened the effect of image factors on destination trust. The study also discovered that the importance of image factors varies in regards to the formation of trust and destination behaviors. This research provides significant theoretical insights into the post-health crisis tourism recovery, which emphasizes changes in Korean travel patterns in the aftermath of COVID-19 as well as the wider socio-political environment that influences travel destinations. It also presents useful guidance for Chinese tourism stakeholders in regards to implementing effective recovery strategies that are aimed at the lucrative Korean outbound travel market during the post-COVID-19 pandemic period.
... In tourism marketing, destination countries can be arranged on a continuum from familiarity to novelty, depending on the cultural distance (Huang et al., 2013). Tourists in search of novelty are more likely to consider culturally distant destinations (Liu et al., 2018). Viewing objects through immersive virtual reality (vs. ...
Computer-generated virtual influencers (VIs) are increasingly used in advertising as there are many advantages. In four experimental studies, two types of VIs and their impact on advertising effectiveness are compared. Key findings are that highly human-like VIs lead to higher trustworthiness, while a more cartoon-like appearance increases novelty. The reasoning behind the varying evaluation of VI types is explored through the lens of psychological distance and construal level theory, suggesting that appropriate message focus enhances the influencers' benefits as a moderator. It is further shown that different cultural settings play an important role for VI perception, finding that the cartoon-influencer's novelty effect is restricted to consumer groups low in VI familiarity. The studies contribute to the growing literature on VI effectiveness, delivering a theoretical underpinning for their assessment. Managerially, it is concluded that both cartoon-like and human-like VIs can be successful endorsers, but under careful consideration of various factors.
... (Yang & Wong, 2012;Yang et al., 2019) or positive influence (Qin et la., 2023). However, under the adjustment of cultural motivation, perceived cultural distance has a positive impact on the international destination selection of respondents with higher cultural motivation, and a negative impact on the international destination selection of respondents with lower cultural motivation(Liu et al., 2018). ...
Cultural distance is an important factor affecting tourist behaviour. This study qualitatively analyses the application of cultural distance in the tourism industry. The analysis shows that most researchers use cultural distance as an independent variable to explore the relationship between tourist behaviour, followed by the moderating variable and the dependent variable. The objective way and the subjective way (perceived cultural distance) are the main models of cultural distance measurement. International tourists and inbound and outbound tourists are the targets chosen by most researchers. This study is conducive to promoting the development of related research on cultural distance and has guiding significance for tourism managers and cultural enhancement of tourism product development.
... Travel experience might lead to a preference for more specific destinations (McKercher & Tolkach 2020;Song et al. 2023) and increases the intention to travel among existing travellers more than it does among non-travellers (Karl et al. 2020). Neglecting distinctions between racial and ethnic groups hampers efforts to understand more refined patterns of participation in tourism, including how members evaluate, avoid, and decide on host destinations (Benjamin, Dillette & Robinson 2022;Liu et al. 2018). ...
Studies investigating the relationship between travel motivations and destination choice are often unidimensional and hierarchical, presenting limited perspectives on traveller groups with diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. This study investigates the variations in travel motives versus destination choices given
different income bands. It presents a nuanced profile of income group members based on socio-demographic variables and travel experience. Threshold regression was applied to determine whether 13 motivations changed toward six destinations given specific income levels. Data from the 2019 South African Social
Attitudes Survey (SASAS) were used and the weighted sample represented 42 573 093 South Africans. The threshold regression materialised with between four to six breakpoints for most
destinations. Fun dominated as a motive among lower income groups, as opposed to relationship building for higher income groups. Relaxation, as a known core travel motivation, did not lead to varied interest in specific destinations. Apart from motives, race and travel experience produced several significant differences. Income thresholds meaningfully explain variations in the relationship between travel motivations and destination choice. More effective marketing strategies should be built
around travellers within overlooked markets.
... Neglecting distinctions between ethnic groups and measures of cultural, limits our understanding of more refined patterns of participation and marginalization in leisure (Aizlewood et al., 2006;Krymkowski et al., 2014;Shores et al., 2007) and tourism (Benjamin et al., 2016(Benjamin et al., , 2024. However, comparative studies that investigate how groups evaluate, avoid, and decide on travel destinations are sparse (Benjamin & Dillette, 2021;Liu et al., 2018). These finer segmentations become important, as reflected in the increasing number of historical tourism studies encompassing terms such as ancestral tourism (Weaver et al., 2017) and diasporic tourism . ...
Tourism is embedded within societal structures, and imbalances
upheld through social structures, like systemic racism, leave symbolic boundaries where certain activities perceivably belong to designated population groups. Further, socio-economic factors impede travel behavior especially in emerging markets. Resultantly, marginalization becomes a barrier to inclusive tourism. Domestic tourism patterns in post-apartheid South Africa were explored to determine whether changes have occurred, and whether these changes are a function of race, ethnicity, or socio-economic status. Preferences for three different destinations were compared using two nationally representative samples from the 2006 and 2017 South African Social Attitude Survey. Results indicate that, although race and economic status remained
significant, ethnicity was the main impacting variable and interactional effects between ethnicity, age, poverty status, and geotype explained most of the variance. While travel habitus and cultural distance influence preferences, the youth market within certain ethnic groups is most likely to transition to new tourism destinations.
... Similar to the hardships faced by expatriates (Lazarova et al., 2010), migrant workers employed in host cities far from home encounter great adjustment challenges. Geographic distance is thus a proxy for various environmental differences between workers' home and host cities, such as cultural distance (Hofstede, 1980;Liu et al., 2018;Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005), cultural novelty , or dialect (Lazarova et al., 2010). These environmental differences, in turn, increase the difficulty of adjusting to the general environment (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al., 2005;Stahl & Caligiuri, 2005;Takeuchi et al., 2007;Wang & Varma, 2019;Zhang & Peltokorpi, 2016). ...
Intracountry migrant workers contribute to the development of global supply chains and economic growth in many emerging economies; however, their high turnover rate poses a threat to their productivity. Our work therefore investigates the psychological processes underlying migrant workers' turnover decisions. From a "push-pull" perspective, we examine how organizational embeddedness interacts with two sequential modera-tors, geographic distance and general adjustment, in predicting voluntary turnover via retention decision satisfaction and turnover intention. Using multisource and lagged data collected from 512 Chinese migrant workers, we find that migrant workers' retention decision satisfaction mediates the negative relationship between organizational embeddedness and voluntary turnover. Furthermore, migrant workers with jobs closer to home have higher levels of general adjustment and are subsequently more likely than those working in distant host cities to have enhanced retention decision satisfaction and reduced turnover intention as a result of higher levels of organizational embeddedness.
... To fill the abovementioned research gaps and to provide empirical support, we examine consumers' perceived image and intention can be changed by psychological intervention. For example, perceived risk, preferences, psychological distance, and cultural and linguistic differences influence customer behavior (Liu et al., 2018). The study tried to use the HBM explores the relationship between destination image, health beliefs, psychological distance and visit intention in the medical tourism context. ...
This study advances the Health Belief Model (HBM) within the
context of medical tourism, exploring the intricate interplay
between destination image, health beliefs, psychological distance, and the behavioral intentions of potential medical tourists. Our investigation reveals that destination image
significantly influences perceived barriers and severity of risks,
which, along with perceived susceptibility and benefits, strongly
predicts tourists’ visitation intentions. Notably, the study
revealed the dual roles of psychological distance: as
a mediator between destination image and tourist preferences,
and as a moderator affecting the impact of destination image
on perceived risks. These findings underscore the importance of
psychological factors in medical tourism decisions, suggesting
that addressing psychological distance can enhance marketing
strategies and improve patient outcomes.
... The study constructs were measured using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree. The cultural distance variable was measured by using three items adapted from (Liu et al., 2018). Perceived risk was measured by using three items adapted from (Walters et al., 2017). ...
Purpose
This study aims to predict the effect of cultural distance, perceived risk and electronic word of mouth (eWOM) on higher education institutes' students' destination image. In addition, it examines the mediating role of destination image in relation to students' travel intentions.
Design/methodology/approach
An online survey was employed to collect data from 200 graduate and postgraduate students. The partial least squares was employed to analyse the hypothesised relationships.
Findings
The results of this study found support for the positive effect of cultural distance and eWOM on destination image. Additionally, the mediating effect of destination image was also supported.
Originality/value
This research confirms the vital role of destination image as an antecedent of students' future intention to visit the destination. Moreover, this study contributes to marketing theory by predicting the critical drivers of higher education students' destination image and discussing their applications in the education sector.
... he destination, their perceived cultural similarity of the local community would be greater and meanwhile their perceived affinity and sympathy with local residents would also become stronger, generating a high level of self-rated familiarity and self-assured familiarity; hence, they are more likely to visit the destination (C. H. Lee et al., 2018;H. Liu et al., 2018;Ng et al., 2007;W. K. Tan & Wu, 2016). ...
... Tourism flows between countries have commonly been studied from the perspective of macroeconomic indicators, including the gross domestic product (GDP), bilateral exchange rate, or consumer price index (CPI) of both outbound and inbound countries [5]. Beyond macroeconomic measures, another country-specific but non-economic variable was also brought into this debate to distil additional insights on factors underpinning cross-border tourism: culture [6][7][8]. ...
In this study, the gravity model is applied via the dynamic generalised methods of moments estimation to assess the role of geographical distance in moderating the impact of culture on outbound tourism flows. The results show that cultural distance has a positive impact on Chinese outbound tourism flow. However, the effect of cultural distance on outbound tourism flow decreases as geographical distance increases since travellers to nearby destinations are more strongly influenced
by cultural distance than travellers to more distant markets. These results therefore support the concept of the “diminishing effect of cultural distance” on the Chinese outbound tourism market. In addition, the results of this study serve as a basis for promoting the sustained contribution of Chinese outbound tourism to the development of destination management, which will help with the recovery of international tourism following the COVID-19 pandemic.
... The current consensus on how economic distance affects international trade is not uniform. The demand for, and complementarity of, traded goods have a favorable influence [61][62][63], while the competitiveness of traded goods has a negative impact [64,65]. Economic distance has progressively been a key factor determining trade costs as a result of globalization's ongoing expansion [66]. ...
Agricultural exports are vulnerable to many distance factors such as geographical, cultural, economic and institutional distance. Panel data were collected from 63 countries (from 2002 to 2020), and fixed effects regression models were employed to estimate the impact of multidimensional distance on China’s agricultural exports. Results found that the institutional, geographical, and cultural distance negatively impacted China’s agricultural exports significantly. The economic distance significantly promoted exports due to the demand and complementarity of trade between countries. After the technological added value is considered, the cultural distance significantly promoted the export of high-tech agricultural products. It is confirmed that the institutional distance remained the greatest obstacle to agricultural exports, and economic distance promoted agricultural exports. It is imperative to focus on promoting mutual cultural understanding and communication of institutional policies to stimulate agricultural exports and improve the exports of agricultural products of high technological content.
... Moreover, weather and climate, as well as the language spoken or the perceived understanding of the level of spoken English (or another commonly spoken language in other regions such as Arabic or Spanish), are also taken into account when determining the attractiveness of a destination choice (H. Liu et al., 2018;Masiero & Qiu, 2018). ...
La croissance rapide de l'industrie du tourisme a créé des défis importants en matière de marketing touristique pour de nombreuses destinations. Les destinations touristiques doivent se concurrencer pour attirer de nouveaux touristes ou persuader les précédents de renouveler leur visite. En conséquence, ils doivent imaginer une image tentante pour leur marché cible. Par conséquent, l'image de la destination est un concept marketing crucial qui joue un rôle central dans la compréhension de la sélection de la destination (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). A l’origine, Echtner et Ritchie (1991) définissent l'image de la destination touristique comme un ensemble de qualités fonctionnelles (utilitaires) liées au comportement touristique, telles que les infrastructures touristiques, les attractions et la tarification des produits touristiques (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993 ; P. Pearce, 1982). Cependant, de nombreux autres facteurs influents peuvent jouer un rôle important. Cette recherche de doctorat en philosophie (PhD) explore le rôle des événements et des innovations culturelles (telles que la gamification) dans l'amélioration de l'image de la destination touristique en étudiant leurs impacts, car l'image peut affecter directement le choix de la destination touristique (Beerli et al., 2007 ; Crompton, 1992 ; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997 ; Seddighi & Theocharous, 2002 ; Sirakaya et al., 2001 ; Um, 1998 ; Walmsley & Young, 1998).Les événements, en particulier les plus petits, pourraient être considérés comme l'un des outils utilisés en faveur des destinations touristiques lorsqu'elles sont en concurrence avec d'autres. Cependant, une grande partie de l'attention a été concentrée sur des événements à grande échelle ou méga-événements, avec peu de connaissances ou de compréhension des contributions apportées par leurs homologues beaucoup plus petits. Les événements culturels locaux, contrairement aux méga-événements, nécessitent peu d'investissements ou de développement d'infrastructures (Gursoy et al., 2004), ce qui les rend facilement accessibles aux milliers de petites lieux qui cherchent à renforcer leur image.Outre les événements, les innovations culturelles dans les destinations touristiques deviennent un nouveau mot à la mode dans les destinations ; la gamification fait partie des tendances qui pourraient aider les destinations dans cette compétition, notamment en ce qui concerne le goût des nouvelles générations (Gen Y et Z). Cependant, comme il s'agit d'un nouveau sujet, peu d'études ont été utilisées pour analyser le résultat de cette tendance et si la gamification peut aider les destinations à améliorer leur image. L'objectif global de cette thèse est d'offrir des informations solides sur la façon dont les destinations peuvent améliorer leur image et attirer plus de touristes en utilisant des moyens créatifs, dans les dimensions qui viennent d’être évoquées. De plus, les événements culturels et les innovations, populaires dans de nombreux endroits, ont de bons résultats en matière d'économie, de socialisation et de culture et sont considérés comme des outils pratiques. En conséquence, les organisations de marketing de destination (OMD) et les décideurs auront plus d'informations et de connaissances sur ce domaine d'étude et d’arguments pour soutenir leurs processus de prise de décision. Ce domaine spécifique est actuellement sous-étudié et a sa place dans l'étude plus large de l'industrie du tourisme et des impacts des événements. En conséquence, cette thèse tente d'enrichir la littérature théorique et méthodologique en se concentrant sur la question des événements et des innovations culturelles ; comment peuvent-ils contribuer efficacement à l'amélioration de l'image des destinations et les rendre plus attrayantes ou tentantes pour les touristes ?
... Past travel experience, referring to the extent of travel experience that an individual accumulates in the past (Sönmez and Graefe, 1998), reflects one's expertise and knowledge about travel. In the context of normal travel, past travel experience has been widely acknowledged to influence tourists' future travel behavior and behavior intentions, mostly in a positive way, as past travel experience could positively influence tourists' travel attitude, destination image perceptions, and destination familiarity (Lam and Hsu, 2006;Huang and Hsu, 2009;Liu et al., 2018). Moreover, past travel experience can affect tourist behavior through influences on travel safety and risk perceptions. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has devastated the global tourism industry. This study explores why some Chinese residents travel during the pandemic. A mixed-methods research design was adopted, guided by the health belief model and relevant literature. Through 21 interviews with Chinese tourists who took an overnight leisure trip in May 2020, and a national survey among Chinese residents, this study explored factors influencing Chinese residents’ travel-related decisions and behaviors during the pandemic. Results outline the influences of health beliefs, government trust, past travel experience, and psychological capital on tourists’ risk-reduction behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications are provided regarding tourism recovery during pandemics.
... Destinations can use technology to provide guests with tailored experiences while also letting them know about the amenities the destination has to offer (Matzler, Strobl, Stokburger-sauer, Bobovnicky, & Bauer, 2016). As a coordinating platform for sharing of knowledge, technology, and others can be used by destination stakeholders to help them make decisions that are of higher quality (Liu, Robert, Cárdenas, & Yang, 2018). The terms "smart mobility" and "accessibility inside a destination," as well as "possibility of arriving at the destination," are used interchangeably. ...
The aim of this study is to determine smart governance, smart tourism, smart mobility, and smart sustainability are used by stakeholders in Lake Toba tourism objects to prepare smart tourism destinations (STD) for the effects of covid-19. This research is in line with the strategic plan of the Medan State University research which focuses on the development of tourism areas in North Sumatra. This study uses a Research and Development type with a basic-based research approach through needs analysis, model confirmation, and evaluation. Tourists that visited Lake Toba attractions in April 2022 were given questionnaires, and data were analyzed using pls-sem. The study shows that smart governance influences smart travel, smart tourism, and smart sustainability. On the other hand, smart mobility does not have a positive effect on smart sustainability, smart tourism has a positive and significant effect on smart sustainability. Overall, further research are needed to use other variables.
... temporal changes which determine value heterogeneity among citizens within one country (Liu et al., 2018). As a result, various perceptions of Hofstede's cultural dimensions would be formed by people from different cultural backgrounds. ...
Destination image is essential to tourists' loyalty and has been discussed in length among researchers and marketers in the tourism industry for decades. Based on a literature review, the destination image model, including cognitive image, affective image, and conative image, has been firmly established as an acceptable means to gain an understanding of tourists' behavior toward revisiting and recommendations. The understanding of the moderating role of cultural constructs is still unclear, especially in cross-cultural travel behavior. Therefore, this conceptual paper proposes an integrated model of cognitive-affective-conative image that includes the constructs of individualism and uncertainty avoidance. Based on the underpinning theories and empirical studies, this paper proposes affective image potentially mediates the correlation between cognitive image and conative image. This model also incorporated individualism and uncertainty as potential moderating effects between affective image and conative image. By integrating individualism and uncertainty avoidance into the theoretical model from the perspective of tourism, this paper contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the influence of travel behavior on emerging tourism marketing.
Peer-to-peer (P2P) online experience offers low-cost immersive cultural experiences, but enterprises fear that it will negatively affect local tourism marketing. This study proposes a sequential mediation model to explore how P2P online experience stimulates travel intentions and attraction recommendations. We find that P2P online experience increases cultural presence, which in turn leads to higher situational empathy. This increased empathy then contributes to predicted tourism experience, which ultimately shapes behavioral intentions toward travel and attraction recommendations. Furthermore, the study finds that the impact of P2P online experience on behavioral intentions is stronger for consumers with lower cultural cognitive levels of tourist attractions. Our findings demonstrate the importance of P2P online experience on cultural presence and situational empathy in shaping travel behavior.
Culture and cultural difference are widely discussed as factors influencing tourists’ destination choices. However, whether or not this effect varies and exhibits a general pattern depending on the distance between origin and destination remains unknown. Therefore, based on travel motivation theory and assuming that the effect of cultural differences on destination choice varies across different travel distances, this paper measures cultural distance with cultural elements, quantifies destination preference with tourism flow, and analyzes their correlation. Results show that cultural distance has evident impact on destination choice, which is heterogeneous across different regions and different travel distances. Specifically, most short-haul tourists prefer culturally similar areas, but a small proportion differs. While most long-haul tourists prefer culturally diverse areas. The study demonstrates the regional heterogeneity and distance effect in tourism motivation and expands study of cultural distance from a single national scale to a multi-regional scale. The research framework can be extended to construct cultural distance integrated by other elements and explore its relationship with travel behaviors.
Bu çalışma, Türkiye’nin medikal turizm kurumsal yeterliliği ve potansiyeli ile Avrupa'daki Türk vatandaşlarının farkındalık düzeyi arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemek ve katılımcıların demografik özellikleri ile kurumsal yeterlilik algıları arasındaki farlılıkları ortaya koymak amacıyla yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın verileri Kurumsal Yeterlilik Ölçeği ve Medikal Turizm Potansiyeli Ölçeği kullanılarak 2023 yılı Mart ve Nisan aylarında Avrupa’da yaşayan Türk vatandaşlarından kartopu örnekleme yöntemi ile elde edilmiştir. Çalışmaya 106 erkek ve 52 kadın olmak üzere toplam 158 kişi katılım sağlamıştır. Amaca yönelik olarak verilere Bağımsız Örneklem T-Testi, Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi (ANOVA) ve sürekli değişkenler arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi amacıyla Pearson Momentler Çarpımı Korelasyon ve Çoklu Doğrusal Regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Analiz sonuçlarına göre Kurumsal Yeterlilik Ölçeği ortalaması 3,72; Medikal Turizm Potansiyeli Ölçeği ortalaması 3,79 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre Avrupada’ki Türk vatandaşlarının Türkiye’nin medikal turizm potansiyeli ve hastanelerin kurumsal yeterliliği konusunda olumlu yüksek algıya sahip oldukları anlaşılmaktadır. Türkiye’de hizmet alınan bölgeye göre kurumsal yeterlilik ölçeğinin “tanıtım” ve “imaj” alt boyutlarında katılımcıların algılarında farklılık tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmada kurumsal yeterliliğin, medikal turizm potansiyelini artırdığı, özellikle “altyapı” boyutunun medikal turizm potansiyeli üzerinde anlamlı bir etkisi olduğu belirlenmiştir. Katılımcıların algıladıkları hizmet kalitesi ile kurumsal yeterlilik algıları arasında pozitif yönde bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Bu ilişkinin “iş gücü” alt boyutunda daha yüksek düzeyde olduğu dikkati çekmektedir. Ayrıca katılımcıların %29,1’i Türkiye’deki hastanelerde olumsuz herhangi bir durumla karşılaşmadıklarını belirtmişlerdir.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine whether the cultural distance between an international audit firm and target audit clients in emerging countries is associated with auditor choice decisions.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on a sample of 104,699 firm-year observations from 20 countries over 2009–2020, logit regression analysis is used to investigate the research questions.
Findings
The authors find strong evidence that cultural distance affects the auditor selection decision. The results suggest Big N auditors are more likely to be chosen by target audit clients in emerging countries with less cultural distance. In other words, target audit clients in emerging countries prefer to choose international audit firms whose cultural characteristics are similar. Moreover, results from two-stage least squares regression further suggest that the observed effect of cultural distance on auditor choice is unlikely to be driven by potential endogeneity.
Research limitations/implications
The auditor choice is limited to companies hiring Big N auditors; the authors exclude any switches to non-Big N auditors or switches between Big N auditors. The study also suffers from the concerns about methodological and conceptual criticism that most studies about national culture have to deal with. Finally, through this paper, the authors carry out the auditor selection process from the target audit clients’ side; the authors do not discuss the supply side of the process.
Originality/value
The authors contribute to the audit choice literature by providing evidence that the cultural distance between the countries of audit firms and target audit clients plays a role in the auditor choice decision. The study complements the prior auditor choice literature, focusing primarily on Western economies, by structuring the sample scope to emerging market economies.
The role of music in personal heritage development and its influence on tourism activity is an area that remains under-researched by leisure and tourism studies. The case of opera in this context is complex given the genre’s reputation as elitist and that its consumption is more widespread within certain regions of the world. This study evaluated the factors that stimulate the development of this type of personal musical heritage and its role in the Opera House tourist’s engagement with cultural provisions at the destinations they visit. To this end, written qualitative data was captured from 226 Opera House tourists. Findings indicated that family members, age, income, level of education, and origin play conditioning roles that position opera as an element of these tourists’ personal heritage. This heritage, in turn, may act as an instrumental gateway to experience specific destination attributes associated with the consumption of opera as a leisurely pursuit
This mixed-methods longitudinal study investigated the academic, sociocultural, and psychological adjustment trajectories of international students undertaking one-year postgraduate degrees in the humanities and social sciences at a single British university. It also sought to re-examine the applicability of ‘U-curve’ hypothesis. Three waves of self-report questionnaires (N = 120, 108, 102) measured international students’ adjustment satisfaction and their adjustment patterns throughout nine months period. Additionally, three rounds of semi-structured interviews (N = 16) were conducted to explore students’ lived experiences and adjustment trajectories over time. The findings revealed complex adjustment patterns that differed across academic, sociocultural, and psychological domains. Enablers and barriers to adjustment, as perceived by the students, included cultural distance, English language ability, academic workload, previous personal experiences, and university support. The study contributes to the theoretical understanding of international students’ adjustment, provides insights into the experiences of student sojourners in the UK higher education context and increases knowledge regarding student support services.
It is impossible to overstate the importance of culture and literature in tourism. Most studies have relied on qualitative evidence to the exclusion of precise secondary data to show a direct link between literature and tourism. Using a novel and unique index of Tang poems ranks as a proxy for cultural status and heritage accumulation to quantify the effects of Tang poetry on the expansion of domestic and international tourism, this research adds significantly to the body of knowledge on literary tourism. Based on ordinary least squares and bias-corrected propensity score matching regression analysis, the top 100 Tang poetry rankings are favorably associated with domestic tourist growth but not with international tourism expansion. These findings are crucial for the development of literary tourism.
It has been recognized that cultural institute programs that first started after World War II and aim to improve language familiarity and cultural awareness are beneficial for FDI and trade. We use gravity models to examine the impact from both the German Goethe-Institut and Chinese Confucius Institute (two large-scaled cultural institute programs) on tourism arrivals, a form of international trade. We find a positive impact on tourism arrivals from the Confucius Institute program but a negative impact from the Goethe-Institut program. In addition, both the Goethe-Institut and Confucius Institute programs help to reduce the impact of linguistic distance on international tourism.
Previous research identified perceived severity and efficacy beliefs (including response efficacy and self-efficacy) as two major predictors that affected the usage of hearing protection devices (HPD). However, whether the relative effects of perceived severity and efficacy beliefs on HPD usage varies across different populations remains unknown. Drawing upon the construal level theory of psychological distance, the present study aims to examine whether age and seniority, which were related to psychological distance, might moderate the effect of perceived severity of noise damage, response efficacy, and self-efficacy on HPD usage by Chinese workers at noise-exposure positions. A paper–pencil survey was conducted face to face with 449 Chinese workers in five factories who were exposed to noise at work. Age moderated the effect of perceived severity on HPD usage such that its positive effect was only significant for younger workers. In addition, seniority moderated the effects of both response efficacy and self-efficacy on HPD usage such that both types of efficacy beliefs exhibited stronger effects on HPD usage among senior workers compared to junior workers. Therefore, campaign messages targeted at younger workers should emphasize the severe consequences of noise exposure, whereas messages targeted at senior workers should elevate their response efficacy and self-efficacy in HPD usage.
Festivals showcase cultural heritage, popularise travel destinations, and generate economic benefits. Additionally, studies have shown that participating in the festivals of a destination whose culture is proximate to their own helps tourists resonate with the destination better. Thus, this study investigates the impact of cultural proximity on destination image and tourists’ festival perception. It also examines the mediating roles of festival perception and cognitive destination image. Lusofonia festival, an annual Portuguese cultural festival of Macao, was chosen for the questionnaire-based data collection. I employed factor and correlations analyses and tested the hypotheses using structural equation modelling. The results consolidated the relationship between cognitive destination image and affective image, provided insight into the role of cultural events in enhancing destination image, and identified the attributes of parity in terms of home-destination culture that steer festival perception and cognitive destination image positively. The study indicates that tourism managers should align destination branding with tourists’ expectations and experiences.
Customer retention is an important basis for International Trade shows to obtain sustained competitive advantage, and the retention of multinational exhibitors is largely influenced by cultural heterogeneity. This study intends to explore the influence of cultural distance on the retention of multinational exhibitors based on Hofstede’s national culture model. It is based on an analysis of 4476 multinational exhibitors from 7 famous international trade shows in China through web crawler technology. The results reveal that total cultural distance has a significant positive effect on the retention of multinational exhibitors. However, different sub-dimensions under cultural distance may have different effects. In terms of sub-dimensions including power distance, individualism and uncertainty avoidance, the greater the cultural distance, the easier it is to retain customers. As for sub-dimensions of long term orientation, the estimated results display an opposite tendency. The findings contribute to the literature and have practical implications for international trade shows’ service and management.
Solo travel has grown as a significant segment in the tourism market, and outbound travel for solo travel is also increasing. However, the phenomenon remains anecdotal and lacks academic investigation. Therefore, based on of the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model and focusing on Chinese solo tourists in the outbound travel market, the current study aims to examine the relationships among cultural distance, emotional solidarity and perceived safety and their effect on both solo male and female tourists' behavioural intentions. The similarities of solo travellers and their gender differences are prioritized in the findings, which sheds light on destination practitioners taking measures to serve the solo tourism market considering tourists' gender.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the impact of travel advisory perception and cultural distance on travel intention based on the push and pull theory, the stimulus–organism–response model and protection motivation theory.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper conducts an empirical test with a questionnaire survey. The authors asked respondents to answer questions on a five-point Likert-type scale, which included threat severity, threat susceptibility, advisory perception, perceived cultural distance, travel motivation and travel intention.
Findings
In this paper, through a questionnaire of 424 respondents, the authors found that threat severity has a positive impact on advisory perception and perceived cultural distance, and that advisory perception indirectly affect travel intention through travel motivation.
Originality/value
Previous literature has discussed the influencing factors of travel intention but rarely does it consider the intrinsic relationship and interaction between advisory perception and cultural distance. The results of this study help fill some gaps in the research on advisory perception and perceived cultural distance, guide governments on how to better formulate travel advisories and provide a new perspective for tourism industry practitioners to improve their travel products after the COVID-19 pandemic especially.
Purpose
This study aims to explore the relationships among destination brand equity, brand authenticity and revisit intention. The mediating role of tourist satisfaction and the moderating role of destination familiarity in these relationships are also investigated.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on the stimulus–organism–response theory, a structural equation model was constructed to test the relationships among the study variables. The original data was obtained using a questionnaire survey method from domestic tourists who have traveled to Guilin in China.
Findings
The findings revealed that brand equity and brand authenticity not only positively and directly affect revisit intention but also have an indirect influence on revisit intention through the mediating role of tourist satisfaction. Destination familiarity positively moderates the direct influence of brand equity on revisit intention. Furthermore, brand authenticity significantly and positively affects brand equity.
Practical implications
The findings of this study provide a certain enlightenment for brand marketing and tourist destination management.
Originality/value
This study reveals the impact path of brand equity and brand authenticity on revisit intention, compensating for the lack of attention on impact mechanism among them. This study proves the impact of brand authenticity on destination brand equity. This compensates for the deficiencies that ignore possible antecedents affecting destination brand equity and the impact of brand authenticity on brand equity in the context of tourism destination. This study also confirms the specific dimensions of brand equity and brand authenticity in the context of Chinese tourism destinations in response to the current controversy.
Purpose
This study aims to examine the effects of the servicescape on experiential state, delight and memorability in the context of the cruise experience. This study also analyzes the moderating effects of sociodemographic characteristics (income and place of residency) and prior travel experience.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing on the Stimulus-Organism-Response theory, structural equation modeling via partial least squares path modeling was applied to a sample of 415 cruisers. A multi-group analysis was used to test the moderating effects.
Findings
Study results confirm the predictive role of the servicescape in creating experience, delight and memorability, with a place of residence, past travel experience and income exerting moderating effects on the aforementioned relationships.
Practical implications
The results offer useful insights for managers who operate not only in the cruise industry but also in other service contexts. Moreover, the moderating effects offer novel insights into smarter marketing on the part of service companies oriented toward value co-creation.
Originality/value
Only a few recent studies have focused on the servicescape in the context of the cruise industry. This study contributes to the literature by providing a theoretical framework and empirical evidence for analyzing the role of the onboard servicescape in cruisers’ experience, delight and memorability while also considering the moderating effects that of sociodemographic and travel-related characteristics exert on the different paths.
Geographic distance has been studied extensively as an obstructer of tourism flows, whereas another distance measure, cultural distance (CD), receives less attention in tourism demand research. Using international tourist arrival data between 94 countries for the period 1995-2012, we estimate several Poisson gravity models incorporating a CD measure based on national cultural scores from the World Values Survey (WVS). Our estimation results show a negative and significant effect of CD on international tourist flows, the elasticity of which is -0.158, and the effect appears significantly smaller between countries with historical colonial linkage. Most notably, the tourism-inhibiting effect of CD began a downward trend in 2003. In particular, we find that economic globalization and technology advancement can be used to explained the declining effect of CD. Major conclusions are substantiated in a robustness check using two alternative CD measures.
Novelty and familiarity play an important role in tourists’ perceptions, and these have been regarded as contrasting concepts for a long time. However, recent cognitive science literature suggests that novelty and familiarity are separate concepts, independently influencing consumer behavior. Based on this, our study aims to examine the differences between the effects of novelty and familiarity on satisfaction and destination loyalty. These relationships are explored by analyzing the responses of tourists in Takayama City, Japan. The research model was tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques. The results show that both novelty and familiarity contribute to destination loyalty; however, only novelty has an effect on the formation of satisfaction. Theoretical and managerial implications of these are also discussed.
This paper examines the differential effects of celebrity and expert endorsements on consumer risk perceptions via three studies. Using source model theories, it is hypothesized that for high technology—oriented products there will be stronger effects of expert endorsers than celebrity endorsers in reducing consumer risk perceptions. In addition, for high technology—oriented products, there is likely to be an interaction effect between endorser type and consumer knowledge on respondents' risk perceptions. Such an interaction effect is likely to be absent for products with a low technology orientation. These hypotheses are supported by the first two studies. The third study examines the underlying theoretical processes of internalization versus identification and shows that the stronger effects of expert (versus celebrity) endorsers for high technology-oriented products is somewhat neutralized for certain types of perceived risks when there is high congruency between the celebrity endorser and the product.
This study was designed to obtain a collective mental picture of the United States as a travel destination among Chinese long-haul outbound travelers. In addition to identifying major features and components of the America travel brand, the authors also attempted to map the links and associations among various image components and sketch an associative network. Findings of this study revealed that overall, Chinese outbound tourists’ perceptions of America are highly urban, featuring advanced economic development, an open and democratic system, high technology, and big cities. Most American destinations and attractions Chinese tourists can think of are located on the East and West coasts. By analyzing the data from multiple perspectives and using various tools, the authors also hope to contribute some methodological insights on how to make sense of a large amount of categorical image data.
The geographical and cultural distance between two places may influence the manner in which tourists from one country view the other country as a destination. The purpose of this study was to examine the imagery of Taiwan as perceived by Mainland Chinese visitors within the context of the unique historic and geopolitical relations between the two nations. The destination image and travel intentions of both actual and potential visitors to Taiwan were measured. Findings revealed four factors in both actual and potential Chinese visitors' destination image of Taiwan: destination quality, cultural proximity, destination uniqueness, and negative image. Specifically, cultural proximity was found to be the most significant and effective predictor of travel intention in the overall model as well as the actual and potential visitor models. Closer examination showed that visitors from Mainland China perceived the image of Taiwan as being home-like yet a place of mystery and adventure. The contradictory nature of this factor suggested that the cultural proximity and political tension between China and Taiwan created an ambivalent sense of mystery and familiarity towards Taiwan in the minds of Chinese visitors, which has a positive influence on their intention to visit Taiwan.
A growing literature provides evidence for the multicultural experience–creativity link such that exposure to the juxtaposition of two cultures facilitates individual creativity. The underlying mechanisms for this relationship, however, are still far from being well explored. Drawing upon the novel perspective of motivated cognition, we hypothesize that two factors interact to affect creative outcomes: (a) perceived cultural distance between the two juxtaposed cultures, and (b) comparison mind-sets. Specifically, we argue that individuals’ creative performance will be increased only when a difference mind-set is employed to process the cultural stimuli that are sufficiently different from each other. In two studies, individuals exposed to dual cultural primes with higher levels of perceived cultural distance consistently performed more adeptly in creative insight tasks when they personally predisposed to or experimentally manipulated to adopt a difference (vs. similarity) mind-set. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Successful international joint ventures entail both learning to operate across national boundaries and learning to cooperate. Hypotheses grounded in organizational learning theory were tested with event-history analysis and data on 1,493 expansions of 25 large Dutch firms between 1966 and 1994. Experience with domestic joint ventures and with international wholly owned subsidiaries contributed to the longevity of international joint ventures, but prior experience with international joint ventures did not.
Since its launch in 1985, SERVQUAL has become a widely adopted technology for measuring and managing service quality. Recently, a number of theoretical and operational concerns have been raised concerning SERVQUAL. Reviews these concerns and proposes a research agenda.
Studies of the relationship between purchase intentions and purchase behavior have ignored the possibility that the very act of measurement may inflate the association between intentions and behavior, a phenomenon called "self-generated validity." In this research, the authors develop a latent model of the reactive effects of measurement that is applicable to intentions, attitude, or satisfaction data, and they show that this model can be estimated with a two-stage procedure. In the first stage, the authors use data from surveyed consumers to predict the presurvey latent purchase intentions of both surveyed and nonsurveyed consumers. In the second stage, they compare the strength of the association between the presurvey latent intentions and the postsurvey behavior across both groups. The authors find large and reliable self-generated validity effects across three diverse large-scale field studies. On average, the correlation between latent intentions and purchase behavior is 58% greater among surveyed consumers than it is among similar nonsurveyed consumers. One study also shows that the reactive effect of the measurement of purchase intentions is entirely mediated by self-generated validity and not by social norms, intention modification, or other measurement effects that are independent of presurvey latent intentions.
This study focuses on the analysis of the determinants of China inbound tourism flows and seeks to determine the influence of cultural distance on tourism flows from a macro perspective. Three models were investigated including a traditional tourism demand model, a gravity model, and a mixed panel data gravity model with different sets of relevant variables. The result confirmed that cultural distance, measured by social axioms at the country level, had a significant negative effect on inbound tourism flows. In addition, the moderation effect of uncertainty avoidance on cultural distance is revealed in the findings. Differences in income elasticities and impacts of cultural and geographical distances between western and eastern countries of tourist origin are also found in this study.
"This book demonstrates that people's basic values and beliefs are changing, in ways that affect their political, sexual, economic, and religious behavior. These changes are roughly predictable: to a large extent, they can be explained by the revised version of modernization theory presented here. Drawing on a massive body of evidence from societies containing 85 percent of the world's population, the authors demonstrate that modernization is a process of human development, in which economic development gives rise to cultural changes that make individual autonomy, gender equality, and democracy increasingly likely. The authors present a model of social change that predicts how value systems are likely to evolve in coming decades. They demonstrate that mass values play a crucial role in the emergence and flourishing of democratic institutions."--BOOK JACKET.
National cultures represent complex configurations of values rather than a collection of distinct individual value dimensions. This presentation applies qualitative (configural) comparative analysis (QCA/CCA) to consider how cultural recipes--complex configurations of national culture affect international experiential behavior. The QCA method focuses on considering asymmetric relationships--reporting conditions that are sufficient (but not necessary) to cause an outcome condition (e.g., high-dollar expenditures). Using measures of consistency and coverage the QCA method provides estimates of how well alternative configurative models explain behavior rather than relying on symmetric data analysis methods (correlations and multiple regression). The method includes the use of Hofstede's country value scores with data from group-level and sub-group (by age and prior consumption experience) exit survey responses of visitors to Australia from 14 Asian, European, and North American countries. The analysis applies QCA software (www.fsQCA.com) and the presentation includes XY plots of country-level value configurations and group-level consumption for total visit expenditures, length of visit, shopping behavior, and group touring behavior.
HYPOTHESIZES THAT MERE REPEATED EXPOSURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO A STIMULUS OBJECT ENHANCES HIS ATTITUDE TOWARD IT. BY "MERE" EXPOSURE IS MEANT A CONDITION MAKING THE STIMULUS ACCESSIBLE TO PERCEPTION. SUPPORT FOR THE HYPOTHESIS CONSISTS OF 4 TYPES OF EVIDENCE, PRESENTED AND REVIEWED: (1) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF WORDS AND WORD FREQUENCY, (2) THE EFFECT OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE UPON THE AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF NONSENSE WORDS AND SYMBOLS, (3) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN WORD FREQUENCY AND THE ATTITUDE TO THEIR REFERENTS, AND (4) THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE ON ATTITUDE. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE EXPOSURE-ATTITUDE HYPOTHESIS OF THE EXPLORATION THEORY AND OF THE SEMANTIC SATIATION FINDINGS WERE EXAMINED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Collinearity refers to the non independence of predictor variables, usually in a regression-type analysis. It is a common feature of any descriptive ecological data set and can be a problem for parameter estimation because it inflates the variance of regression parameters and hence potentially leads to the wrong identification of relevant predictors in a statistical model. Collinearity is a severe problem when a model is trained on data from one region or time, and predicted to another with a different or unknown structure of collinearity. To demonstrate the reach of the problem of collinearity in ecology, we show how relationships among predictors differ between biomes, change over spatial scales and through time. Across disciplines, different approaches to addressing collinearity problems have been developed, ranging from clustering of predictors, threshold-based pre-selection, through latent variable methods, to shrinkage and regularisation. Using simulated data with five predictor-response relationships of increasing complexity and eight levels of collinearity we compared ways to address collinearity with standard multiple regression and machine-learning approaches. We assessed the performance of each approach by testing its impact on prediction to new data. In the extreme, we tested whether the methods were able to identify the true underlying relationship in a training dataset with strong collinearity by evaluating its performance on a test dataset without any collinearity. We found that methods specifically designed for collinearity, such as latent variable methods and tree based models, did not outperform the traditional GLM and threshold-based pre-selection. Our results highlight the value of GLM in combination with penalised methods (particularly ridge) and threshold-based pre-selection when omitted variables are considered in the final interpretation. However, all approaches tested yielded degraded predictions under change in collinearity structure and the ‘folk lore’-thresholds of correlation coefficients between predictor variables of |r| >0.7 was an appropriate indicator for when collinearity begins to severely distort model estimation and subsequent prediction. The use of ecological understanding of the system in pre-analysis variable selection and the choice of the least sensitive statistical approaches reduce the problems of collinearity, but cannot ultimately solve them.
The literature of tourist destination choice pays great attention to the direct impact of the attributes of “distance to the destination” and “prices of the destination”, but does not reach any consensus around them regarding their—inhibitory or attraction—effect. Alternatively, our study proposes that the effects of distance and prices are moderated by tourist motivations at the moment of choosing a destination, which leads us to make hypotheses to explain this decision through the interaction between destination attributes and the personal motivations of the individual tourists. The methodology applied estimates random coefficient logit models, which control possible correlations between different destinations and consider tourist heterogeneity. The empirical application carried out in Spain on a sample of 2127 individuals, shows that the dissuasive influence of distance and prices on the selection of destinations is moderated by motivations, in the sense that the motivations have a direct (increasing the dissuasive effect) or inverse (reducing the dissuasive effect) moderating effect on the influences of distance and prices.
Culture has long been recognized as a possible reason why people in different countries make different decisions, but research into its impact in tourism contexts has been limited. This study addressed this gap by examining the influence of cultural distance on tourists’ destination choices. Five cultural distance measures were examined. Of the five measures, perceived cultural distance and Clark and Pugh's index were found to be most strongly related to Australian tourists’ intentions to visit a variety of holiday destinations. The perceived cultural distance measure appeared to be a better predictor and offers some advantages to researchers as it allows respondents to include relevant cultural information in tourism research. However, as Clark and Pugh's method provided similar information, cultural differences can be inferred when it is not possible to survey tourists directly.
This study explores the impacts of Hofstede’s six cultural dimensions on international tourist flows. A panel data gravity model was used to analyse bilateral tourist flows between 81 origin countries and 32 destination countries from 1995 to 2008. This model highlights cultural factors using the push and pull framework and explains their influence vis-a-vis self-image congruity theory, arousal theory, and cultural theory of risk. Results indicate that when controlling for the effects of distance, population, and GDP per capita, international tourists tend to flow out of countries with lower Power Distance, higher Individualism, lower Masculinity, higher Long-Term Orientation, and higher Indulgence. Countries with higher Individualism, lower Uncertainty Avoidance, and higher Indulgence tend to attract more international tourists. In the push and pull model, tourist source countries’ cultural values, such as low Power Distance, Individualism, Femininity, and Indulgence can be considered push factors in international travel, while destination countries’ cultural values of Individualism, Uncertainty Acceptance, and Indulgence act as pull factors. Self-image congruity theory is supported in the cultural dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance Index. Recommendations for destination marketing are made based on the findings.
This paper investigates perception of self and others by hosts and guests, which may be critical for sustainability of a destination receiving tourists with different cultural backgrounds. Specifically, the study investigates self-perception of hosts and reciprocal perception between hosts and guests on several service personnel characteristics using importance and performance analysis. Thus, a triple lens of hosts’ evaluation of self, hosts’ evaluation of the guests, and hosts’ evaluation by the guests is involved in a multi-cultural tourism experience context. Results report differences between the lenses, hosts’ self-evaluation being harsher than guests’ evaluation of hosts. Suggestions are provided for destination marketing and management organizations to design effective tourism experiences for both hosts and guests for a more sustainable gaze between hosts and guests.
This study analyses the relationships between the origin countries of international patients and their cultural distance from the destination country in the context of medical tourism. A novel panel dataset is used, covering 109 origin countries whose citizens came to Turkey and received medical treatment during 2012–2014. After accounting for control variables such as religious similarity, Turkish diaspora in the origin country, physical distance, GDP per capita and number of inbound tourists, the study finds that cultural distance has an impact on the choice of destination for medical tourism. This impact persists at the medical specialty level.
In recent years there has been a considerable interest in the cultural aspects of tourism such as the impacts of culture on tourism planning, development, management, and marketing. However, the focus has been on material forms of culture such as arts, music, or crafts. The impacts of national culture on tourist behavior and travel decision-making have not been paid much attention. Only in the last two years have cross-cultural issues begun to generate significant interest among academics. An examination of cultural characteristics and differences is extremely important to the tourism industry because today's tourism environment is becoming increasingly international. Information on the nature of the cultural differences between international tourists and locals is not readily available in tourism literature. The concept of culture is very complex and includes such abstract concepts as satisfaction, attitude and loyalty. International Tourism brings these concepts to the undergraduate student in tourism, as well as students in the related fields of marketing, management, international business, and cross-cultural communication. Designed as a textbook, it isorganized and presented in an integrated and relevant way for the benefit of a worldwide audience.
This article attempts to bring an economic underpinning to tourism research. It uses the gravity model to derive an econometric model to explore the relationship between cultural similarity and tourism demand, with special reference to Australia inbound tourism from 42 source countries.
Since language and religion are thought to be the main exposition and carrier of culture, we developed a continuous, normalized, and time variant index to capture the similarity in language and religious profile between a source country and Australia. The inclusion of these indexes in an empirical
model yields OLS and quantile results that support the belief that there is a close link between culture similarity and tourism demand.
This paper investigates how the factors of psychological and geographical distances in conjunction with medical competence influence potential Chinese customers when they select a destination country for international healthcare services. We also explore how the severity of the customer's illness affects his/her choice. In this study data is collected with reference to the Chinese perceptions of the United States of America (USA), Republic of Korea (Korea), Thailand, Singapore, and India. The sample comprises of 1292 potential Chinese customers, and is analyzed using McFadden's conditional logit model. The results indicate that medical competency is the most important determinant of destination choice. In addition, customers contemplating treatment for major diseases tend to choose healthcare services from economically more developed countries, such as the USA, in spite of the differences in language, economic condition, and political system. However, respondents considering treatment for relatively minor diseases are more likely to select countries, such as Korea, for which there is a small psychological distance. Along with suggestions for future research, the implications for international healthcare are discussed.
This study attempts to understand the position of the United States against its major non-Asian competitors in Mainland Chinese tourists' minds. A multistep procedure of destination positioning analysis was designed, which involved a combination of multidimensional scaling, correspondence analysis, and logistic regression analysis. Furthermore, this study connects positioning analysis with market segmentation research, as the perceptual mapping analyses were performed at both aggregate and segment levels. Overall, it was found that the United States holds a unique position that is isolated from all other five destinations. The authors discussed the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings.
Intention to return is often used as a surrogate measure for actual repeat propensity, especially in loyalty studies. A direct, predictive correlation is assumed to exist between intention and actual repeat visitation rates in accordance with the principles of the theory of planned behavior. However, the existence of such a relationship has rarely if ever been tested empirically in a tourism context, and as such, the validity of this assumption is open to question. This article examines that relationship through an analysis of secondary data provided by a number of National Tourism Organizations. Two tests are conducted, one using longitudinal data from 30 markets that visited either Hong Kong or New Zealand, and a second one using cross-sectional data from 152 markets that visited 16 destinations. The study determined that no statistically significant correlation exists between intention and actual repeat visitation rates, primarily because intention is typically measured as a vague aspiration and not in a probabilistic manner.
Tourism TV commercials (TVCs) are one of the channels (or agents) used to form destination images, yet this channel is rarely researched.The objectives of this article are to identify the relations among visual elements,TVC effects, and destination image formation. University students who have never visited New Zealand nor watched New Zealand’s latest tourism TVCs were recruited to participate in a TVC recall test. The audience found video frames of snow and water, dolphins, and hongi (a traditional Maori greeting) to be most memorable and impressive. Findings suggest that something old (i.e., something familiar to viewers), something new (i.e., something that cannot be seen or done in the viewer’s immediate environment), and something white and something blue (i.e., clean and pristine) should be included when developing promotional tourism videos. Video frames showing people’s interaction among themselves and with the environment were positively related to audience desires to visit the depicted destination.
The impact of national cultural differences on overseas travel behavior was the focus of this study. Drawing from a sample composed of 302 U.S. residents traveling abroad for the first time for leisure related purposes, this study tested two competing propositions that not only took into account the cultural orientation of the visitor’s home country but also that of the host culture. Though cultural distance as measured proved only moderately effective in explaining behavior, the research put forth several tenets and measurement strategies that are arguably more reflective as to what consumers take into account when planning international trips. Implications for future research are discussed.
This study examines two different types of vacation experiences as the experimental factors and empirically incorporates a context specific approach into the measurement of destination attractiveness. A total of 400 respondents were interviewed by telephone. Three areas were examined for two different vacation experiences: (1) the relative importance of touristic attributes in contributing to the attractiveness of a travel destination, (2) the variations in the perceived ability of destinations to satisfy tourists' needs, and (3) the influence of previous visitation experience with each destination on perceived attractiveness. A multiattribute situational attitude measurement model was employed to obtain a numerical index of the touristic attractiveness for each of the five destinations studied. Finally, the implications of these findings concerning marketing and development initiatives to improve the physical and perceptual attractiveness of the various destinations under study are discussed.
Travel is more popular than ever, so why should destination managers worry? Because their location's attractiveness may be spinning away even as they watch.
This study examines the relevance and conceptualizations of the authenticity concept in cultural tourism from the managerial standpoint. We propose a consumer-based model in which authenticity is a key mediating construct between cultural motivation and loyalty. The model is empirically examined by means of a survey conducted on 25 Romanesque heritage sites in four European countries. A confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were performed using LISREL 8.72. The results indicate that cultural motivation is an important antecedent of both object-based and existential authenticity, which in turn influence tourist loyalty. Theoretical, managerial and marketing implications of authenticity are discussed, showing that the consumer-based perspective can transcend some 'irreconcilable tensions' related to this concept.
Cultural distance is a widely used construct in international business, where it has been applied to foreign investment expansion, entry mode choice, and the performance of foreign invested affiliates, among others. The present paper presents a critical review of the cultural distance construct, outlining its hidden assumptions and challenging its theoretical and methodological properties. A comprehensive framework for the treatment of the construct is developed and concrete steps aimed at enhancing rigor are delineated.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is threefold: measure the differences in importance of cultural values between Turkish hosts and European guests; measure perceived cultural difference (distance) to see if importance of cultural values are commensurate with cultural distance perception; and identify potential influence of perceived cultural distance on job satisfaction for Turkish service providers (hosts) and trip satisfaction for European consumers (guests).
Design/methodology/approach
A survey research was conducted in tourist towns in the Southwest part of Turkey to gather data from Turkish hosts (service providers) and European tourists. Two stepwise regression analyses were conducted to assess the magnitude of the relative impact of several variables on job satisfaction for hosts and trip satisfaction for guests.
Findings
Although results revealed differences in cultural values, cultural distance perception and satisfaction, the stepwise regression analyses did not reveal any influence of perceived cultural distance on satisfaction for either hosts or guests.
Research limitations/implications
The findings of this study may not apply to all tourism consumption settings since respondents were surveyed in a general tourism setting context rather than limiting them to a certain consumption setting such as a restaurant, a hotel or a cruise ship.
Originality/value
By shedding light on cultural distance and its influence on both demand and supply side aspects, this study addresses a long‐neglected aspect in literature. Although several studies provide discussions on the impact of culture on both service providers' and consumers' attitude and behavior, there is a lack of empirical studies on the relationship between cultural distance and satisfaction.
Purpose
To develop a more thorough understanding of culture in a rapidly changing global environment.
Design/methodology/approach
The recent literature dealing with ways in which cultural dynamics are influencing the nature and meaning of culture are examined. Different perspectives of culture related to three key components of culture, intangibles, material culture and communication, are explored. Based on this, directions for research on the content of culture are discussed as well as how it should be approached.
Findings
Culture is becoming increasingly deterritorialized and penetrated by elements from other cultures. This is resulting in cultural contamination, cultural pluralism and hybridization. It has become more difficult to study culture as it is becoming diffuse. At the same time, it is becoming more important to study it because of its pervasive influence on consumer behavior.
Research limitations/implications
Given that culture is no longer a phenomenon defined by and isolated to a particular locale, research on culture must carefully specify the role of culture, define the appropriate unit of analysis, isolate confounding influences and expand the range of contexts.
Originality/value
The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasingly important to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations. For progress to be made, research designs must account for this complexity and span multiple contexts to establish the generality of findings. This will result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in molding consumption behavior.
The Second Edition of this classic work, first published in 1981 and an international bestseller, explores the differences in thinking and social action that exist among members of more than 50 modern nations. Geert Hofstede argues that people carry "mental programs" which are developed in the family in early childhood and reinforced in schools and organizations, and that these programs contain components of national culture. They are expressed most clearly in the different values that predominate among people from different countries. Geert Hofstede has completely rewritten, revised and updated Cultures Consequences for the twenty-first century, he has broadened the book's cross-disciplinary appeal, expanded the coverage of countries examined from 40 to more than 50, reformulated his arguments and a large amount of new literature has been included. The book is structured around five major dimensions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long term versus short-term orientation. --Publisher.
The ''tourist realities'' or verisimilitudes of cultural tourists to the Edinburgh Old Town are analyzed using both their own voices and their responses to marketeers' ima-ges and descriptors. Specifically, the study tests the utility of familiarity in the modeling of image recognition and propensity to visit. It uses a typology of familiarity: informational, experiential, proximate, self-described, and educational. As a result of the analysis, an expansion of the typology is proposed to include two further types: self-assured and expec-ted familiarity. Educational familiarity is further expanded into a multi-aspect concept. This septet of familiarity is proposed as a conceptual framework and methodology for character-izing ''particle'' markets for experience marketing.
Statistical analysis of variability in assemblages of material culture obtained at different villages on the North Coast of New Guinea indicates that similarities and differences among these assemblages are most strongly associated with geographic propinquity, irrespective of linguistic affinities. When assemblage similarity is adjusted for the effect of distance, diversity in material culture appears unrelated to the linguistic relationships of these communities. This study shows that similarity in material culture assemblages can mask marked heterogeneity in language. Language, however, is frequently used to index people in Melanesia on the assumption that language is a useful key to their other human characteristics. This analysis does not lend support to this common practice, and it has implications for how prehistoric cultural complexes in Melanesia are defined and interpreted.
abstract We enhance the theoretical precision of cultural intelligence (CQ: capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings) by developing and testing a model that posits differential relationships between the four CQ dimensions (metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioural) and three intercultural effectiveness outcomes (cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance in culturally diverse settings). Before testing the model, we describe development and cross-validation (N = 1,360) of the multidimensional cultural intelligence scale (CQS) across samples, time and country. We then describe three substantive studies (N = 794) in field and educational development settings across two national contexts, the USA and Singapore. The results demonstrate a consistent pattern of relationships where metacognitive CQ and cognitive CQ predicted cultural judgment and decision making; motivational CQ and behavioural CQ predicted cultural adaptation; and metacognitive CQ and behavioural CQ predicted task performance. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of our model and findings.
In recent years, scholars have become increasingly critical of Kogut and Singh's [(1988). The effect of national culture on the choice of entry mode. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(3), 411-432] cultural distance index and of Hofstede's [(1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications] underlying national culture framework. We therefore examine and compare the effects of five cultural distance measures on the choice by multinational enterprises (MNEs) between expanding abroad through greenfield or acquisition. Two of these measures are based on Hofstede (1980), another two on Schwartz [(1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, methods, and applications (pp. 85-119). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications; (1999). A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48(1), 12-47], and one on managerial perceptions. Analyzing a sample of foreign expansions by Dutch MNEs and controlling for other factors, we find that high scores on all cultural distance measures significantly increase the likelihood that MNEs choose greenfields, and that the explanatory power of the Hofstede and Schwartz-based measures is comparable, while that of the perceptual one is somewhat lower. We conclude that it may thus be premature to dismiss Hofstede's work as outdated or as inaccurately reflecting national cultures, and to consider Schwartz's framework to be superior.
The development of a self-report scale to measure leisure travel motivation is described. Under increasingly competitive conditions, effective tourism marketing is impossible without an understanding of consumers' motivations. Unfortunately, motivation is one of the least researched areas of tourism, both conceptually and empirically. A series of three studies describes the development and evaluation of a 20-item, self-report scale that relates leisure travel to specific, generalizable motivators that resemble the taxonomies of functional theorists. Results are discussed in terms of the potential that a functional approach holds for understanding, predicting, and influencing the relationship between tourist motivation and behavior.RésuméL'évaluation de la motivation des touristes. On décrit le développement d'une échelle auto-administrée pour évaluer la motivation des voyages d'agrément. Sous les conditions compétitives actuelles, le marketing du tourisme a peu d'effet sans tenir compte des motivations des consommateurs. Malheureusement, la motivation est un domaine très peu étudié, soit empiriquement soit conceptuellement. Une série de trois études décrit le développement et l'évaluation d'une échelle auto-administrée de vingt questions qui établit un rapport entre les voyages d'agrément et des facteurs de motivation, spécifiques et généralisables, qui ressemblent aux taxonomies des théoriciens fonctionnels. On discute les résultats en fonction des possibilités d'une approche fonctionnelle pour comprendre, prévoir et influencer le rapport entre la motivation et le comportement du touriste.