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Cognitive benefits of walking in natural versus built environments

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Abstract

Leisure time physical activity can be a robust preventer of physical and mental illness. The health benefits of exercise have been well-documented, including decreased risk for obesity, diabetes, and heart disease, and increased mood, life-satisfaction and cognitive performance (An, Xiang, Yang, & Yan, 2016; Blair & Morris, 2009). Time spent outdoors is also emerging as a predictor of positive mental health, though the outcomes are often conflated with heightened levels of physical activity. This study sought to confirm the cognitive benefits of exercise in outdoor environments using established cognitive tests while measuring brainwave activity throughout the process using portable electroencephalograph (EEG) headsets. Participants completed cognitive performance tests before and after walking indoors, then again on a different session while walking outdoors. Repeated-measures analyses of variance revealed significant cognitive improvement after both walking sessions, with elevated mental restoration observed for the outdoor walking session, as measured by a Stroop Test. EEG measures revealed a significantly higher level of meditative state during the outdoor walking session, as compared to indoors. In addition, the gains in relaxed and meditative mental states were retained longer after walking outdoors. Results are discussed within the context of growing support for leisure time exposure to natural environments and outdoor prescriptions. Implications for planning, health policy, and public education are proffered in light of these findings.
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
Introduction
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The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
%!
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Literature Review
Leisure Time Physical Activity
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6*
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!!
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):/0!>+4
?;@
!

@0)A0>A!
'
4>
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The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
2!B!!

<(*!C
!!
()/?
%B
!:!D*;EF
!!
!"F7
(GH!%-

!
!7
(!
0?+6?.
B!
!!C!(-
!5!
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Natural and built environments
6B!!!
!%!
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The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
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7#47#47#!
!(J
:??*@!
!!KB
#(5
!L!K
:??*+)
*)!(!
(47#
!EG!

)*#<!
!
47#B!
#:;4M M!
*
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
!
!4!B!<
4M M)!9/
:;#<B
#$!??*
!!!
L(#B!
<
!4(
!
!#!!
88.
EEG
88.L1
!88.!!
<(!#
#!88.
!"J#
88.1L
!
"J#88.!
!(1
##B
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The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
(
!(2
!!
)?+7-4!
!8I#H88."
!
!"4
-,8I#H88.
(
#"J
!(!
Methods
#*=!Mean
N!@0
2!
%&
#
!!
#!
!5
#!
(!B!!
(!,(!
3
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
B!8I#H88.!

#!
B(
#
!(!4L7
$47$#
(!#B(!08&#

!#(!
)M0#)M0#L

4
(!!
#47$
!47$.
!45!08&)M0#
!!#
(!#(!
!&(
!
47$M
!!5#
;
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
!<

Measures
EEG
#8I#H!88.1
4-+)9/:3
8!B!588.
!)?#B
!BL; 1
LMN*5- 1#ND53 1
!!4
;5* 1( 
L)N>5- 1.!!N-5 1
!
,B!ML
O- 1.!!LD- 1#B!

,,#!,,#,
!!!!
!4B!
!!!!
,!
L$*
?
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
4!4J"!
!!!$* 
(!"
(!
4(!L
(I;7(!
 !59./2
,!!!
L(#
A?#!!

!6!#
B(!
!5!
<!

88.!

.<(
,
!!

, 

The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
4!!88.
!!!
!6*#
L,
!
#!
(
55
#!!
6
!!
<!0

(!
5"!
 -#Mean
(0(!
(#
Mean 15!4
H74%IH4!
5"
The Stroop Test

The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
#0#!
#
!
!#!!!08&
 !;#pure0#
!
EG(#
!#
!interference0
&
#!!
#0 score!pure0
!!interference A
??@!0score
!'22-2
D2#174IH4!
!!"
Backward Digit Span Test
#)M0#!
  ,
L!
!)!
*,B!!!

The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
L

!#

C!!(!!;)!
*,
E55G
)!9/:;#!
JI1
!
)!*#)M0#174%IH4!
!!"
Results
Cognitive Tests
4!(
8!!
IJB
!!#
MeanJ
#Mean
#0
!
-
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
)M0#!!
!
250
!&(
!F;N*>*pN;PN--4
!0#*
*74%IH4
B!(!F;N;D>DpNDPN
B!<!
(#)M0#!!
<!!
5!#
B!&)M0#!F;N3>3pN
!(!F;NpN
Mental States
M&88.5
5!4%IH4CB(
#B!
!!
0B"!
05!50
# 
D
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
504!5
"!
7#
0B&
!(44#
0!
(#
!
2
<4!
!
BLE@GE@G!
p O(4 !(
!&!p N--(p N
*;!!!
BL#!
!(!
550
Discussion
# 
*
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
#!&
!(!
&!!<#
B0#
!
<#!!
6!
(!#
B!!188.!!
!&1!6!1
(
B!#!#
<!
!!
(
,!!C
!1
!!!#

##
)M0#B!&
#B
)!*#:?#
>
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
1)M0#!
)!*!)M0#
&
!<#
5
!4%IH4!0)M0#
%B&
B!!,
!!!
B<!

#B<!!
04EG0
&A*

!!!C
#!
47#:??*
!
!8&1(((
!L
4M M!0D+#/:?.
!B#:?!!
3
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
!!!
0(($
,/2-B
<!!%
!!!
'CC(C.
&
!
88.!
!!<5!
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!50#
!!
!A?6
!!L
!!!
!!!

!A?+A1
;I5!!!!
!(
5!(!
/;+#/1-+Q
;
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
#!!
!
)!;+-%
!!!!!!
!5L,
!!!
!B!
2(
4M M88.C
4$:!#
!
( (
!50
!(
#5!
!!
!(23,
!5!
!7!
<"5):/
0!>+1>L
!5!C5
J
?
The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
#!!
!
#B!
!!(H

.?5!!!
B ??32!
!
!!!
#!!!
!!
!&
!
!!5
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The Cognitive Benefits of Outdoor Exercise Versus Indoor Exercise
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... Acknowledging the documented mindfulness benefits of self-paced outdoor walking [35][36][37] and the profound impact of VR-based exercise on mindfulness [38,39], our study aligns with these precepts. Mindfulness experiences showed no significant differences between OUT and INVR, suggesting that both environments facilitated a comparable state of mindfulness. ...
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Outdoor exercise is beneficial for psychophysical well-being. Limited studies have compared outdoor and virtual reality (VR) indoor physical activities, especially in coastal settings. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact of outdoor coastal walking and indoor walking in a VR simulation with a similar environment on physiological and psychological variables in healthy adults. Twenty-six subjects (14M and 12F; age 25.2 ± 2.5 years) voluntarily participated in this crossover randomized controlled and counterbalanced study and were allocated under three conditions: VR indoor walking (INVR), outdoor walking (OUT) and standard indoor walking (IN). IN and INVR conditions were performed on a treadmill (speed 4.5 Km/h) and the OUT was per-formed on a seaside pedestrian road. The same outdoor environment was displayed in the visor during the INVR. Heart rate (HRmean/max), Physical Activity Enjoyment (PACES-It) and State of Mindfulness for Physical Activity (SMS-PA) were assessed at the end of each condition. The OUT condition showed significantly greater PACES-It scores and HRmean than IN and INVR (p<0.001) and greater SMS-PA scores and HRmax than IN (p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively). No significant dif-ferences were found between OUT and INVR regarding HRmax and SMS-PA scores (p>0.05). Findings suggest that physical activity in an immersive technology may lead to physiological loads comparable to the outdoor environment. OUT is more enjoyable than IN and INVR but exhibits a mindfulness response comparable to INVR. Therefore, INVR could be an alternative to OUT for those who cannot engage in outdoor activities for various reasons.
... In this almost chaotic environment, some leisure transgressions started to take place (Belhassen 2021;Borges 2021). Leisure activities had always been seen as a medium to alleviate stress and anxiety and used as a coping mechanism against the demands of daily life (Bailey et al. 2018;Hasmi, Gross, and Scott-Young 2014). However, suddenly, the enforced lockdowns and the necessity to change social behaviour impacted people's lives, including their leisure choices and practices. ...
... Higher intensity activities like running, using a wheelchair, and jumping jacks protect heart health and reduce feelings of anxiety and depression (Helgerud et al., 2007;Rebar et al., 2015). Walking or stretching while standing or seated, however, are good for restoring attention (Bailey et al., 2018). The continuum of intensity ranges from standing to light walking to higher intensities in the "huff and puff" category that result in a higher heart rate or get children out of breath. ...
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Self-regulation is a critical emergent developmental competency that lays the foundation for children’s later psychosocial health and academic achievement. Recent work indicates that physical activity and energetic play opportunities support children’s self-regulation in the early childhood classroom. Many early childhood programs offer opportunities for children to engage in play, but teachers are rarely seen modeling physically active behaviors and face barriers to integrating opportunities for energetic play with early academic skills. Early childhood educational settings hoping to support children’s self-regulation development can provide multiple opportunities for children to observe teachers modeling physical activity, provide teacher support and scaffolding for physically active learning centers, and engage children in meaningful energetic play while promoting a range of academic skills. This article provides 10 research-based guidelines for supporting children’s self-regulation development through physical activity in early childhood classrooms.
... 16), may also produce physiological benefits [42][43][44]. Although there has been a limited number of studies on biomorphic spatial design [45], exposure to the associated fractal patterns has resulted in reductions in stress responses [46][47][48]. Salingaros and Masden (2008), for example, found that biologically inspired forms activate opioid receptors, which reduces pain and suppresses the release of stress-related endocrine hormones [49]. These findings suggest that in the presence of both biophilic and biomorphic architectural forms, we see evidence of stress downregulation. ...
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This paper examines, conceptually, the relationship between stress-inducing architectural features and allostatic overload by drawing on literature from neuroimmunology and neuroarchitecture. The studies reviewed from the field of neuroimmunology indicate that chronic or repeated exposure to stress-inducing events may overwhelm the body’s regulatory system, resulting in a process termed allostatic overload. While there is evidence from the field of neuroarchitecture that short-term exposure to particular architectural features produce acute stress responses, there is yet to be a study on the relationship between stress-inducing architectural features and allostatic load. This paper considers how to design such a study by reviewing the two primary methods used to measure allostatic overload: biomarkers and clinimetrics. Of particular interest is the observation that the clinical biomarkers used to measure stress in neuroarchitectural studies differ substantially from those used to measure allostatic load. Therefore, the paper concludes that while the observed stress responses to particular architectural forms may indicate allostatic activity, further research is needed to determine whether these stress responses are leading to allostatic overload. Consequently, a discrete longitudinal public health study is advised, one which engages the clinical biomarkers indicative of allostatic activity and incorporates contextual data using a clinimetric approach.
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World Leisure Journal (WLJ) has consolidated its position as a prominent source to communicate innovative and interdisciplinary research concerning all forms of leisure. The study intends to provide a comprehensive overview of the academic structure of the WLJ based on articles published between 2000 and 2022 through bibliometric analysis to highlight its contribution and influence. A final data set of 535 articles were analyzed to highlight the journal’s impact, conceptual structure, and most prolific and influential authors, including the sources of knowledge inflow in WLJ. Moreover, the study also performed a collaboration analysis to understand the social structure of the journal. The findings of the thematic analysis revealed various themes studied in WLJ in the three different sub-periods. The USA emerged as a significant country in collaboration with Canada, South Africa, Israel, Brazil and China.
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Background: To examine the effect of combination exercise program on cognitive function of older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and identify biomarkers associated with improvement of cognitive functions. Methods: Subjects were 42 older adults (ages, 60-80 years) with MCI. The subjects were randomly classified to traditional Chinese exercise combined with rhythm training group (TCE + RTG, n = 14), walking group (WG, n = 14), and control group (CG, n = 14), according to their level of MMSE scores. These groups exercised for 60 minutes at 1 session, 3 sessions a week for 12 weeks. The intervention program was conducted under multitask conditions to stimulate attention and memory, and the control group attended 3 education classes. Measurements were administered before, after the 6-week, and after the 12-week intervention period; Measurements: The Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), Activities of Daily Living Scale (ADL), and the 17-item Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD-17), along with the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to examine differences among the 3 groups and between the 3 testing times (pre-test vs middle-test vs post-test). Results: (1) The TCE + RTG showed significant improvement in the MMSE, MoCA, SDMT, and ADL scale test results (P < .01) and HAMD-17 scale test results (P < .05). The WG also showed significant improvement in the MMSE, MoCA, and HAMD-17 scale test results (P < .05) and the ADL scale test results (P < .01). While there was no significant change in the CG after the intervention. (2) The TCE + RTG and WG showed positive improvement in peripheral blood BDNF levels, while the CG showed a decrease in these test results. There were significant differences between the TCE + RTG and CG before and after the intervention. Conclusion: The results suggested that a TCE + RT is beneficial for improving memory and maintaining general cognitive function and peripheral blood BDNF levels in older adults with MCI. Peripheral blood BDNF levels may predict improvement of cognitive functions in older adults with MCI. Further studies are required to determine the positive effects of TCE + RT on cognitive function in older adults with MCI. Trial Registration: ChiCTR2200058545, Registered 10 April 2022.
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Prescribed nature walks frequently yield improvements to mood and cognition as observed in experimental studies. Research that uses real life settings such as self-determined time exercising outdoors for restorative health benefits may more accurately elicit effects than time-specified study protocols. This study examined in situ psycho-cognitive outcomes of routine walks in urban greenspace to test the concept that self-set exposure duration and not context alone is related to magnitude of psycho-cognitive benefit. Pre-post measurements taken on a diverse participant pool of individuals walking in urban parks and recruited on random days over a two-week period found significant associations between outdoor activity duration and cognitive and mood improvements. Greater outdoor walking duration linearly predicted stronger processing speeds but non-linearly in tests of other cognitive domains. Results of fixed effects model for mean mood change following green exercise show outdoor walking influenced mood change at highest levels of significance, even after accounting for individual level variability in duration. Mood improved for all durations of outdoor walking under a random effects model with high significance. Untethering fixed intervals of outdoor exercise from formal study design revealed briefer but more frequent nature engagement aligned with nature affinity. The influence of unmeasured factors, e.g., nature affinity or restorative conditioning, for prescriptive durations of urban green exercise merits further investigation toward designing wellbeing interventions directed at specific urban populations.
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Few studies have investigated relative contributions of the built and natural environments to and their nonlinear associations with leisure physical activity (PA) in different spatial contexts. Applying gradient boosting decision tree models to data comprising 1049 adults collected in Shanghai, we investigated the associations between built and natural environments and leisure PA in residential and workplace neighborhoods. Results show that the built environment is more important than the natural environment to leisure PA in both residences and workplaces. Environmental attributes have nonlinear and threshold effects. Within certain ranges, land use mix and population density have opposite associations with leisure PA in residences and workplaces, whereas the distance to the city center and the area of water are associated with leisure PA in residences and workplaces with the same direction. These findings help urban planners design context-specific environmental interventions for supporting leisure PA.
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Outdoor adventure activities have been used to facilitate a variety of positive outcomes. However, the practical challenge of collecting data in the field and a heavy reliance on self-report data render it difficult to understand the process of the experience. This study examined the association between self-reported valence and arousal and electroencephalography (EEG)-measured anxiety, focus, and approach motivation to determine the physiological and cognitive response to stressful stimuli and compare those objective measures with self-report assessments. Data were collected from 10 participants fitted with an EEG headset during rappelling. Spearman correlations and repeated-measures ANOVA were used to analyze the data. Results indicated significant changes in EEG readings for anxiety and approach motivation, and significant correlations between self-reported valence and EEG-measured approach motivation. The findings illustrated the acute internal response to a common adventure activity and demonstrated the influence of a novel challenge on the mind and body of participants. Significant changes in self-report assessments were reflected in similar changes in objective measures, indicative of the mind/body connection.
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Psychopharmacology is in crisis due to the increasing recognition that it does not work as claimed and has failed to meaningfully improve outcomes over what they were in the 1950s and ‘60s. Though still widely promoted to the public, the chemical imbalance theory of major mental health disorders is now openly acknowledged as not accurate by leading psychiatrists, thereby undermining the rational for this approach to care. A series of large comparative effectiveness studies funded by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) were each essentially failed trials with disappointing results and found that second-generation psychotropic medications were no more effective than their first-generation cousins. The evidence from several of these studies are reviewed within the scope of major depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders, and then compared to research on promising neuroregulation treatments. The author then makes recommendations for neuroregulation clinicians to avoid a crisis similar to that experienced in psychopharmacology today.
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Background Physical inactivity is a leading cause of morbidity, disability and premature mortality in the U.S. and worldwide. This study aimed to map the prevalence of physical inactivity across U.S. states over the past three decades, and estimate the over-time adjusted changes in the prevalence of physical inactivity in each state. Methods Individual-level data (N = 6,701,954) were taken from the 1984–2015 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), an annually repeated cross-sectional survey of state-representative adult population. Prevalence of self-reported leisure-time physical inactivity was estimated by state and survey year, accounting for the BRFSS sampling design. Logistic regressions were performed to estimate the changes in the prevalence of physical inactivity over the study period for each state, adjusting for individual characteristics including sex, age, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, and employment status. Results The prevalence of leisure-time physical inactivity varied substantially across states and survey years. In general, the adjusted prevalence of physical inactivity gradually declined over the past three decades in a majority of states. However, a substantial proportion of American adults remain physically inactive. Among the 50 states and District of Columbia, 45 had over a fifth of their adult population without any leisure-time physical activity, and 8 had over 30% without physical activity in 2015. Moreover, the adjusted prevalence of physical inactivity in several states (Arizona, North Carolina, North Dakota, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming) remained largely unchanged or even increased (Minnesota and Ohio) over the study period. Conclusions Although the prevalence of physical inactivity declined over the past three decades in a majority of states, the rates remain substantially high and vary considerably across states. Closely monitoring and tracking physical activity level using the state physical activity maps can help guide policy and program development to promote physical activity and reduce the burden of chronic disease.
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This paper investigates potential mental health benefits of outdoor and adventure education programs. It is argued that experiences made in successful programs can increase self-efficacy, mindfulness and subjective well-being. Furthermore, programs may reduce feelings of time pressure and mental stress amongst participants. Evidence comes from two pilot studies: In the school project “Crossing the Alps” (Study 1), 14-year-old participants reported an increase in life satisfaction, mindfulness and a decrease in the PSQ Subscale ‘demand’ after a successful nine-day hike through the German, Austrian, and Italian Alps. In the university project “Friluftsliv” (Study 2) participants scored higher in life satisfaction, happiness, mindfulness, and self-efficacy and lower in perceived stress after having spent eight days in the wilderness of the Norwegian Hardangervidda region, miles away from the next locality. The findings suggest that outdoor education and wilderness programs can foster mental health in youths and young adults.
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Behavior, attitudes, and lifespan development are key antecedents of happiness. However, little is known about the multivariate effect of those items on happiness. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the comparative impacts of leisure routines and attitudes on overall happiness and to elucidate how routine leisure activities and attitudes may influence happiness at different life stages. Questionnaires were completed by 379 students and 253 alumni members of the same university. Analysis of variance indicated alumni rated locus of control and happiness variables significantly higher than did current students. Students rated the leisure routine variable significantly higher than did alumni. Structural equation modeling showed leisure routines had a significant indirect effect on happiness with attitudes as a full mediator. Multigroup path analysis showed there is little variance between the two groups. Findings indicate that one's routine leisure activities and attitudes can have a significant positive effect on overall happiness, and this path is consistent at different life stages.
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This paper investigates the relation between mental engagement level and sustained attention in 9 healthy adults performing a Conners' " not-X " continuous performance test (CPT), while their electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was simultaneously acquired. Spectral powers were estimated and extracted in the classical EEG frequency bands. The engagement index (β/α) was calculated employing four different cortical montages suggested by the literature. Results show the efficacy of the estimated measures in detecting changes in mental state and its correlation with subject reaction times throughout the test. Moreover, the influence of the recording sites was proved underling the role of frontal cortex in maintaining a constant sustained attention level.
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Risky outdoor play has been associated with promoting children’s health and development, but also with injury and death. Risky outdoor play has diminished over time, concurrent with increasing concerns regarding child safety and emphasis on injury prevention. We sought to conduct a systematic review to examine the relationship between risky outdoor play and health in children, in order to inform the debate regarding its benefits and harms. We identified and evaluated 21 relevant papers for quality using the GRADE framework. Included articles addressed the effect on health indicators and behaviours from three types of risky play, as well as risky play supportive environments. The systematic review revealed overall positive effects of risky outdoor play on a variety of health indicators and behaviours, most commonly physical activity, but also social health and behaviours, injuries, and aggression. The review indicated the need for additional “good quality” studies; however, we note that even in the face of the generally exclusionary systematic review process, our findings support the promotion of risky outdoor play for healthy child development. These positive results with the marked reduction in risky outdoor play opportunities in recent generations indicate the need to encourage action to support children’s risky outdoor play opportunities. Policy and practice precedents and recommendations for action are discussed.
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Background. Previous work has demonstrated that a commercial gaming electroencephalography (EEG) system, Emotiv EPOC, can be adjusted to provide valid auditory event-related potentials (ERPs) in adults that are comparable to ERPs recorded by a research-grade EEG system, Neuroscan. The aim of the current study was to determine if the same was true for children. Method. An adapted Emotiv EPOC system and Neuroscan system were used to make simultaneous EEG recordings in nineteen 6- to 12-year-old children under “passive” and “active” listening conditions. In the passive condition, children were instructed to watch a silent DVD and ignore 566 standard (1,000 Hz) and 100 deviant (1,200 Hz) tones. In the active condition, they listened to the same stimuli, and were asked to count the number of ‘high’ (i.e., deviant) tones. Results. Intraclass correlations (ICCs) indicated that the ERP morphology recorded with the two systems was very similar for the P1, N1, P2, N2, and P3 ERP peaks (r = .82 to .95) in both passive and active conditions, and less so, though still strong, for mismatch negativity ERP component (MMN; r = .67 to .74). There were few differences between peak amplitude and latency estimates for the two systems. Conclusions. An adapted EPOC EEG system can be used to index children’s late auditory ERP peaks (i.e., P1, N1, P2, N2, P3) and their MMN ERP component.
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The Digit Span (DS) subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) is thought to be a measure of attention, concentration, sequencing, number facility, and auditory short-term memory. An optional WISC-III subtest and part of the Freedom from Distractibility (FD) factor, DS assesses several cognitive constructs, yet its utility in differential diagnosis has been questioned because poor DS or FD performance has been inconsistently associated with attention processes. In this study of 195 children referred for comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations, Digits Forward (DF) and Digits Backward (DB) component scores were found to be differentially predictive of attention, executive function, and behavior rating measures. Results suggest that DB is associated with attention and executive function processes, not the short-term rote auditory memory processes tapped by DF.
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Conventional functional connectivity (FC) analysis of fMRI data derives a single measurement from the entire scan, generally several minutes in duration, which neglects the brain's dynamic behaviour and potentially loses important temporal information. Short-interval dynamic FC is an attractive proposition if methodological issues can be resolved and the approach validated. This was addressed in two ways; firstly we assessed FC of the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) node of the default mode network (DMN) using differing temporal intervals (8seconds to 5minutes) in the waking-resting state. We found that 30-second intervals and longer produce spatially similar correlation topography compared to 15-minute static FC measurements, while providing increased temporal information about changes in FC that were consistent across interval lengths. Secondly, we used NREM sleep as a behavioural validation for the use of 30-second temporal intervals due to the known fMRI FC changes with sleep stage that have been observed in previous studies using intervals of several minutes. We found significant decreases in DMN FC with sleep depth which were most pronounced during stage N2 and N3. Additionally, both the proportion of time with strong PCC-DMN connectivity and the variability in dynamic FC decreased with sleep. We therefore show that dynamic FC with epochs as short as tens of seconds is a viable method for characterising intrinsic brain activity. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.