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153© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
E. Sezgin et al. (eds.), Current and Emerging mHealth Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73135-3_10
Chapter 10
Intention vs. Perception: Understanding
theDifferences inPhysicians’ Attitudes
Toward Mobile Health Applications
Emre Sezgin, SevgiÖzkanYildirim, andSonerYildirim
10.1 Introduction
Mobile health (mHealth) has becoming a signicant element for healthcare delivery.
As such, the investments and researches on mHealth have been rapidly increasing. A
number of international associations pointed out the growing market of healthcare
services with the digital era, and most of them anticipated the growth in telemedicine
and remote healthcare services in high numbers for the following decades.
McKinsey’s report in 2015 underlined that mobile device (tablet and smartphone)
market may expand 1.1–1.3 times by 2018. The value created by the expansion may
reach to hundreds of billions of dollars, and this growth will affect health and medi-
cal services the most (Atluri etal. 2015). On the other side, the 2015 OECD Digital
Economy Outlook report presented that “the global mHealth market may reach $23
billion in 2017, with Europe accounting for $6.9 billion and Asia-Pacic for $6.8
billion, ahead of the North American market of $ 6.5 billion” (OECD 2015). The
growth was not only triggered the investments but also the reduction of the costs of
healthcare delivery. By 2017, mHealth use in the European Union was reported to
have potential to save €99 billion in healthcare spending (OECD 2015). Furthermore,
global reports presented that in 2025, the use of the mobile Internet, as well as appli-
cations, was estimated to have an economic impact around 3.7–10.8 trillion dollars
E. Sezgin ()
The Research Institute, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
e-mail: esezgin1@gmail.com
S. Ö. Yildirim
School of Informatics, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: sevgiozk@metu.edu.tr
S. Yildirim
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology,
Middle East Technical University, Cankaya, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: soner@metu.edu.tr
esezgin1@gmail.com
154
per year (Manyika etal. 2013). For instance, potential value gain was estimated to be
10–20% cost reduction only in chronic disease treatment via telemedicine.
Considering the current developments and estimations, the worldwide dissemination
and use of mobile health technologies have constantly been increasing. Similarly, use
of mobile technologies and applications by healthcare providers has also increased
(PwC Health Research Institute 2014; Ventola 2014). In that regard, the mobile
application markets (App Stores) presented over thousands of applications related to
healthcare services that are used for checking tests, keeping records, and taking
assistance in diagnoses. These applications aimed to assist physicians or patients to
manage and maintain healthcare-related data by enabling storing, recording, and
accessing information (Hao etal. 2013; Martínez-Pérez etal. 2013).
On the other side, these reports demonstrated that the mHealth technologies have
penetrated to many different segments, and they have been offered to different user
groups in the market (e.g., patients, physicians, nurses). These groups were expected
to use mHealth applications in checking, controlling, and maintaining personal
healthcare or to deliver the services. However, it should be noted that the success of
these technologies does not solely depend on the technological innovations itself.
The perceptions about mHealth and the intention to use these new technologies are
important elements in order to utilize them in practice effectively. In that regard, not
only the mHealth users’ intentions but also the perception of potential users should
be considered, and the assessment of user behavior is an important input for the
success of mHealth use.
10.1.1 Background Information onAssessment
Individuals’ behaviors and attitudes toward information technologies have been
investigated for a long time (King and He 2006; Rondan-Cataluña etal. 2015). The
concept was employed for assessment of technology acceptance in the early 1990s,
and the studies in technology acceptance gained interests (Davis 1989; Wood and
Bandura 1989; Ajzen 1991; Venkatesh and Davis 2000; Venkatesh etal. 2003). One
of the leading theories was proposed by Davis (1989) as the technology acceptance
model (TAM). TAM is used to determine factors inuencing behaviors of users
toward technolo gies. The model argues that the actual use of technologies is
inuenced by perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU). Thus,
PEOU and PU were main contributors to individuals’ attitude and behavioral
intention (BI). In the latter studies, TAM has been modied involving other
constructs to assess effects of different factors about different technologies (Bagozzi
and Warshaw 1992; Venkatesh and Davis 2000). In the literature, there have been a
number of studies about the healthcare technologies successfully using TAM theory
(Holden and Karsh 2010). Furthermore, the studies employed an integrated or
modied TAM to keep up with changing user needs and healthcare technologies.
However, a major drawback of TAM was pointed out as the difculty in the
generalization of results and inconsistency in relationships between constructs
(Venkatesh etal. 2003; Legris etal. 2003; Sun and Zhang 2006). Following TAM,
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the unied theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) was proposed as a
new integrated theory, which aims to assess the likelihood of success of new
technologies and determine drivers of acceptance (Venkatesh etal. 2003). In 2012,
Venkatesh, Thong, and Xu (2012) proposed UTAUT 2, which was an updated
UTAUT including hedonic motivation, price value, and habit as additional exogenous
variables inuencing behavioral intention. Similar to TAM, UTAUT has been
successfully implemented in a number of studies (Schaper and Pervan 2007b;
Chang etal. 2007; Aggelidis and Chatzoglou 2009; Kijsanayotin etal. 2009; Pynoo
etal. 2012; Dünnebeil etal. 2012). In addition to that, the theory of planned behavior
(TPB) and innovation diffusion theory (IDT) have also been used in behavioral
researches in healthcare delivery (Sezgin and Özkan-Yildirim 2014).
10.1.2 Aim oftheStudy
This chapter investigated the intentions and perceptions of physicians toward
mHealth applications considering two different perspectives of physicians. In that
regard, following a secondary research methodology, ndings of previous researches
about mHealth application use and adoption were employed to provide a comparison
between two physician groups. Authors believe this comparison would be a valuable
asset providing a distinct overview, which would be used in planning new health
application development, management, and promotion.
10.2 Methodology
The chapter employed a secondary research method, which focuses on the synthesis
of previous researches (Sezgin etal. 2017; Sezgin etal. 2016). In order to provide a
comparative overview, the ndings of these researches were discussed revealing the
similarities and differences in mHealth application adoption by two user groups.
The detailed methodology and research procedure of these researches were given in
this section.
The researches that were held in this study were reported ndings for intentions
and perceptions toward mHealth application by the user and nonuser physicians. In
these researches, similar research and testing procedures were employed which
helped to present a common ground for the comparison. In both researches, to
understand the inuencing factors to use mHealth apps, a systematic method was
followed. At the rst phase, a literature research was conducted to identify researches
about mHealth. It also helped to understand the behavioral theories in the domain as
well as to gather constructs for assessing adoption and acceptance of mobile health
information systems by the physicians. Following that, the conceptual model was
developed, and hypotheses were formulated. In both researches, the same model
was used, and the data collection was completed by employing a structured survey
(questionnaire). Convenience sampling was used as the data collection method, and
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an online survey tool was employed. Non-mHealth application user physicians
(n=122) and mHealth application user physicians (n=137) participated in the
survey. Conrmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) were
used in the analysis of quantitative data. Figure10.1 provided an outline of the
research processes.
The following constructs were used in the model, and they were tested in both
researches in order to understand perception (of nonusers) and intention (of users)
toward mHealth applications.
• Behavioral intention (BI): The act of deciding to use a particular technology
(Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Performance expectancy (PE): Personal beliefs using technology would increase
the job performance (Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Effort expectancy (EE): Personal beliefs using technology would be free of effort
(Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Compatibility (CO): The perception about the use of technology is consistent
with users’ needs, experiences, and values (Rogers 1995).
• Mobile self-efcacy (MS): Perceptions about personal abilities to use the tech-
nology to fulll healthcare task and duties on mobile devices (Schaper and
Pervan 2007b).
Fig. 10.1 Flow of the research processes
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157
• Technical support and training (TT): The perception and the need for support and
training to gain knowledge about the technology (Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Perceived service availability (PS): The perception about the technology which
is able to support “pervasive and timely usage” (Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Personal innovativeness in IT (PI): The state of a person’s willingness to take a
risk in trying a new technology or innovation (Agarwal and Prasad 1998).
• Social inuence (SI): The degree of social perceptions about technology’s desir-
ability (Venkatesh etal. 2003).
• Mobile anxiety (MA): The apprehension when using or having the possibility to
use mobile devices and applications (Schaper and Pervan 2007b).
• Result demonstrability (RD): Tangibility or the level of observability of the
results in using technology (Venkatesh and Davis 2000).
• Habit (HB): Repetitiveness and routine act of behavior in using the technology
(Gagnon etal. 2003).
10.3 Comparison ofUser andNonuser Physicians
In this section, the signicant and nonsignicant factors of mHealth application use
were outlined. Figures10.2 and 10.3 presented the research model used for each
group outlining signicant (continuous line) and nonsignicant (dashed line)
relationships. Research model testing resulted differently for each group regarding
signicant relations as well as the implications. In this section, a comparison of
factors inuencing these different groups was given.
Signicant and nonsignicant relationships for both groups were given in
Table10.1. The researches reported that PE and PI inuenced BI for users and EE
and TT inuenced BI for nonusers. This nding revealed that mHealth application
user physicians would perceive their job performance and their willingness to try
new technologies inuential their intention to use mHealth applications (Chau and
Hu 2002). On the other side, the perception of nonusers depended on the ease of
using mHealth, and the support they were receiving would affect their intention to
use mHealth applications (Chang etal. 2007).
The behavioral intention was inuenced by perceived service availability and
mobile anxiety in both groups. Thus, there was a common perception regarding
reachable and accessible mHealth applications in practice (Becker etal. 2014).
Furthermore, compatibility inuenced performance expectancy, and mobile self-
efcacy inuences effort expectancy for both groups. Here, job performance was
perceived to be related to compatible systems by nonusers similar to users, such as
mHealth with hospital systems. In addition to that, the ease of mHealth use was
perceived to be related with personal competency for both groups. However, their
indirect inuence on behavioral intention can be observed differently in each group
due to the signicant impact of PE and EE.Thus, compatibility was rather inuential
on BI over PE for user physicians, and mobile self-efcacy was on BI over EE for
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nonusers. That impact would be related to perceived job performance of user physi-
cians since they observe the relation of compatibility and job performance. For non-
users, the expected ease of using mHealth applications could be perceived to be
related to personal competency (Schaper and Pervan 2007a).
On the other side, the direct effect of CO, HB, MS, and SI was not inuential on
BI for both groups. Here, there was a consensus of physicians about direct impact
on BI.Even though CO and MS had an indirect effect, they were not perceived to
have a signicant inuence on BI as well as HB and SI.As explained in the previous
section, these factors might have seen rather less relevant or non-applicable by the
physicians considering the current state of mHealth application use in health
institutions (Gagnon etal. 2015).
Social Influence
Compatibility
Technical Support and
Training
Perceived Service
Availability
Result Demonstrability
Performance Expectancy
Behavioral Intention
Effort Expectancy
Personal Innovativeness
Mobile Anxiety
Mobile Self-efficacy
Habit
Fig. 10.2 Research model for mHealth user physicians
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10.4 Suggestions
The previous section outlined the ndings of intention and perception to use
mHealth applications and implications. Considering both groups, in this section, a
number of elements were outlined in order to be considered in application
development and managerial processes in the common ground. Becker etal. (2014)
provided psychological, clinical, technological, and regulatory viewpoints to outline
the state of the mHealth. In this section, these viewpoints were used to categorize
the elements in suggestions.
Social Influence
Compatibility
Technical Support and
Training
Perceived Service
Availability
Result Demonstrability
Performance Expectancy
Behavioral Intention
Effort Expectancy
Personal Innovativeness
Mobile Anxiety
Mobile Self-efficacy
Habit
Fig. 10.3 Research model for nonuser physician
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10.4.1 Psychological Perspective
Today, more than 75% of world population are able to access mobile communica-
tion services (Becker etal. 2014). In the largest countries, such as the USA and
China, more than 27 thousand medical applications were available on Android and
iOS market (Xu and Liu 2015). However, literature provided that mHealth applica-
tions were underutilized in practice, and it has created no dramatic change in both
organizational culture of health institutions and health behavior (Becker etal.
2014). In that regard, collaboration has been a need among application developers,
physicians, and researchers who have expertise in behavior and attitudes. In this
study, the signicance of perception in job performance, ease of mHealth use, per-
sonal perspectives in new technologies, and potential of anxiety were revealed for
both groups. Thus, the following elements should be considered for mHealth
applications.
Table 10.1 Signicant and nonsignicant relations for mHealth user physicians and nonuser
physician
User physicians
Nonuser
Physicians
Sig. Non-sig. Sig. Non-sig.
PS→BI ✓ ✓
MA→BI ✓ ✓
CO→PE ✓ ✓
MS→EE ✓ ✓
CO→BI X X
HB→BI X X
MS→BI X X
SI→BI X X
PI →EE X X
PS→EE X X
TT→EE X X
TT→PE X X
PE→BI ✓X
PI →BI ✓X
PI →PE ✓X
RD→PE ✓X
PS→EE ✓X
EE→BI X ✓
TT→BI X ✓
HB→EE X ✓
RD→EE X ✓
CO→EE X ✓
MA→EE X ✓
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Focusing on the job performance and providing simple applications Since the
workload is high and quick access to the information is a need, physicians rather
prefer less exhausting assistive services in practice. Thus, they expect effort-free
and useful, to-the-point applications in healthcare services. The simplicity of the
application and providing quick and relevant information are valuable features in
use (Gagnon etal. 2015).
Promotional activities for new mHealth applications There is a potential interest of
physicians toward new technologies. Utilizing this feature, mHealth applications
could be promoted among physicians for encouraging active use and creating a
positive perception in healthcare services. Thus, instead of basic training or seminars
at the initial stage, the promotional activities, such as meetings or activities including
social interactions, would attract both users and potential users toward using
mHealth applications in practice. Alternatively, key characters in the organizations,
such as “opinion leaders,” would be assistive to disseminate the use of mHealth
applications, which would also impact the organizational culture and mHealth use
“etiquette” in the long term (Hao etal. 2013).
The next level training. Following the promotional activities, training would help
physicians to use mHealth in completing daily tasks. It could be provided as on-the-
job training and in-action implementations. It is especially benecial for new users
in order to eliminate the risk of resistance and reduce potential anxiety in use by
familiarizing the new users to the mHealth applications. In addition to that, it would
reduce the possible risks as errors in multitasking (Wu etal. 2005; Varshney 2014).
10.4.2 Clinical Perspective
In the current state, literature and the study demonstrated that simple features of
mobile technologies work effectively in clinical practice, especially in developing
countries, such as communication applications and SMS (Free etal. 2013; Källander
etal. 2013; Becker etal. 2014).
Collaboration is the core The study provided that there is a social bond among
healthcare providers (i.e., physicians, nurses, technicians). Thus, collaboration
among healthcare providers has been a must, and the applications should be
developed regarding collaboration of the core of the operations. In that regard, easy
sharing methods and collaborative working tools would be benecial in mHealth
applications.
Providing continuous services The service availability was perceived to be an
important factor for the physicians. In that regard, one of the major benets of
communication applications was their service availability and providing access to
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the service time and location independent. Here, the benets of communication
applications could be embraced in a broader extend to include healthcare-specic
services providing signicant functions available.
10.4.3 Technological Perspective
The study provided that the technological infrastructure of healthcare institutions
include the Internet and local area computer network within the institutions. Each
hospital uses a medical health record system to keep the track and to report the
operations. In that regard, a couple of issues should be considered for mHealth
application use.
Compatibility and interoperability of applications Compatibility of mHealth appli-
cations with the healthcare systems would inuence physicians’ working routines
and the job performance as well. The current state of mHealth showed that the
technology is still evolving and incompatible mHealth applications exist (Becker
etal. 2014). Thus, the development of a mobile-compatible healthcare service
platform for institutions is as important as developing mHealth application itself.
In addition to that, the communication among the systems is also crucial for services.
Interoperable systems would also boost the development and use of mHealth
applications in healthcare services.
Providing demonstrable results The ability to demonstrate the medical results, cal-
culations, problems, or processes was perceived important by the physicians. Hence,
the mHealth technology being provided should grant the ability to display and share
high-quality visual medical contents. In that regard, increasing visual quality as
well processing speed in medical contents would be valuable in healthcare
delivery.
Focusing on infrastructure Technological infrastructure, especially the communi-
cation network, is important for timely delivery of healthcare services (Sezgin and
Özkan-Yildirim 2016). However, the reliability could be an issue, and uninterrupted
service could not be provided for the developing countries (Varshney 2014). Thus,
developing an interoperable and compatible platform does also rely on a reliable
infrastructure. It is suggested to develop a contingency plan and ad hoc solution
maps for unexpected infrastructural issues (such as electricity cuts, network loss,
hardware and software malfunctions).
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10.4.4 Regulatory Perspective
Laws and regulations regarding mHealth technologies and applications are at the
initial stage (Barton 2012; Becker etal. 2014). In developing countries, it was
estimated to adapt the regulations in the long term. In that regard, the following
points would be considered in mHealth application development.
Acting with the laws and regulations about mHealth Even though the current state
of regulations is in the development phase, the need for laws and regulations is
increasing considering the number of available mHealth applications in the market.
These applications were commercially available and enabled users to share con-
dential information with the third parties. Thus, for security and privacy of informa-
tion, regulatory acts were required by the authorities. In the study, the physicians
have also stated their expectations on regulations about mHealth applications.
Standards for applications This study reported that some mHealth applications
were following international standards in medical practice while providing content
in healthcare. However, the market was crowded with many other unregulated and
unstandardized applications being available for the end users. Considering the
current trajectory, mHealth applications following the standards were found more
reliable by the physicians. Thus, considering international standards in the
developmental phase would help to build the reliability and credibility of the
mHealth applications. In addition to that, providing the procedures for implementing
international standards at national level application development would also be
recommended to the authorities.
Considering the four perspectives, the current stage of mHealth would be an
opportunity for developers to anticipate the trajectory of the transformation in
healthcare services and to release their applications in the market on time. In that
regard, the potential of change in organizational culture and its evolution around
mHealth applications and technologies should be considered in long-term strategic
plans.
10.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, a comparative assessment of mHealth application adoption by the
physicians was reported. Considering the intentions and perceptions of physicians,
several suggestions were outlined. The suggestions in this chapter would be helpful
for better understanding the characteristics of two different groups of physicians.
The ndings would guide developers and authorities to understand user needs.
Thus, it would be a valuable input in the mHealth application and healthcare policy
development.
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It should be noted that this study has also extended the literature regarding
researches investigating users and nonusers’ behaviors in healthcare technologies
(Cheung etal. 2013; Bidmon etal. 2014; Sims etal. 2014). However, further studies,
employing qualitative designs, would be resourceful to achieve in-depth understanding
in physician intentions and perceptions toward mHealth application use.
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