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A Computer-Based Game That Promotes Mathematics Learning More Than a Conventional Approach

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Abstract

Excitement about learning from computer-based games has been palpable in recent years and has led to the development of many educational games. However, there are relatively few sound empirical studies in the scientific literature that have shown the benefits of learning mathematics from games as opposed to more traditional approaches. The empirical study reported in this paper provides evidence that a mathematics educational game can provide superior learning opportunities, as well as be more engaging. In a study involving 153 students from two middle schools, 70 students learned about decimals from playing an educational game-Decimal Point-whereas 83 students learned the same content by a more conventional, computer-based approach. The game led to significantly better gain scores in solving decimal problems, on both an immediate (d = .43) and delayed (d = .37) posttest and was rated as significantly more enjoyable (d = .95). Low prior knowledge students especially benefitted from the game. This paper also summarizes the game’s design characteristics.

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... For instance, research has shown the benefits of learning decimal mathematics with an educational game called Decimal Point, which was designed based on theory and evidence about common student misconceptions [7]. In a study involving more than 150 middle school students, Decimal Point led to significantly more learning and was selfreported by students as significantly more enjoyable than a more conventional computer-based tutoring approach [20]. Other studies, in the areas of mathematics [10,21], science [1,11], and language learning [28,32], have shown similar learning and/or engagement benefits for educational games. ...
... As mentioned, the original (low-agency) version of the game has been empirically demonstrated to be effective for engagement and learning. In our previous study [20], students were assigned to one of two conditions that were compared: the game condition and the non-game condition. Students in the game condition were presented with two problems to solve for each of the mini-games shown in Figure 1. ...
... The non-game condition presented a more conventional user interface to the students, prompting students to solve precisely the same decimal problems, in the same order. [20] compared 75 game-playing students to 83 non-game-playing students and found that the game-playing students enjoyed their experience more and learned more. In subsequent data analyses, we also found that female students benefited more from Decimal Point than male students, and the game made difficult problems more tractable for all students, as students in the game condition made significantly fewer errors on the difficult problems than students in the non-game condition [19]. ...
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A key feature of most computer-based games is agency: the capability for students to make their own decisions in how they play. Agency is assumed to lead to engagement and fun, but may or may not be helpful to learning. While the best learners are often good self-regulated learners, many students are not, only benefiting from instructional choices made for them. In the study presented in this paper, involving a total of 158 fifth and sixth grade students, children played a mathematics learning game called Decimal Point, which helps middle-school students learn decimals. One group of students (79) played and learned with a low-agency version of the game, in which they were guided to play all “mini-games” in a prescribed sequence. The other group of students (79) played and learned with a high-agency version of the game, in which they could choose how many and in what order they would play the mini-games. The results show there were no significant differences in learning or enjoyment across the low and high-agency conditions. A key reason for this may be that students across conditions did not substantially vary in the way they played, perhaps due to the indirect control features present in the game. It may also be the case that the young students who participated in this study did not exercise their agency or self-regulated learning. This work is relevant to the AIED community, as it explores how game-based learning can be adapted. In general, once we know which game and learning features lead to the best learning outcomes, as well as the circumstances that maximize those outcomes, we can better design AI-powered, adaptive games for learning.
... Different characteristics such as gender, age, and cultural orientations should be considered in gamified designs, which can lead to changing a user's or group's reception of gamification (Kim 2015) and consideration of the target group and their needs are required for good design practice (Zahedi et al. 2019). Though the reception of gamification on different genders has not been explored in many studies (Buisman et al. 2014;Schreuders et al. 2016;Hakulinen et al. 2015;Souza et al. 2017;Fu and Clarke 2016;McLaren et al. 2018), behaviors of different genders should be taken into account when designing a gamification platform. Some studies show that men are more task-oriented, and other studies show that women are more socially motivated, but it is still important to prevent gender stereotyping when designing gamification platforms (Gaffney and Dunphy 2015) to avoid negative impacts. ...
... In the past few years, there has been increased popularity of gamification in education and industry (McGonigal 2011;Glover 2013;Bernik et al. 2015;Binti Mohd Nor Hisham and Sulaiman, 2017;Aldemir et al. 2018;Tsay et al. 2018). However, there are some potential areas for concern over its benefits in some fields, such as education. ...
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Underrepresentation of women in computer science (CS) increasingly demands the necessity to find and enhance current learning engagement approaches to bring more women into computing fields. Some researchers have been exploring the influence of gamification on female students as one of these possible learning engagement strategies. Gamification refers to the introduction of video game elements into non-game activities to enhance engagement and motivation. Previous studies have reported mixed results of the impact of gamification on women. In this study, we introduce SEP-CyLE (Software Engineering and Programming Cyberlearning Environment), an online gamified tool that was designed to provide supplemental computing content to students. This paper presents a convergent mixed-methods study guided by social identity theory and self-efficacy to understand women's experiences with this gamified tool. More specifically, this study explores virtual points' and leaderboards' effects on CS identity development, self-efficacy, and performance. The results show that virtual points and the leaderboard contributed to improved performance for students of all genders, suggesting that gamification is a gender-neutral learning engagement strategy that improves female students' performance as much as male students. Regardless of improved performance, most women did not actively enjoy or were motivated by the virtual points or leaderboard in SEP-CyLE. Additionally, gamification had no significant impact on CS identity development or self-efficacy constructs and had little to no impact on women's interest and engagement in the field of computing.
... Incorporating automation in pedagogy (e.g. GBL) has a significant impact on retention as learners are motivated to practice and refine applying new knowledge and skills (McLaren et al. 2017). ...
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The COVID19 pandemic further emphasizes the need for automation in education by leveraging online learning digital innovations. Strategic, tactical and operational consideration must become part of the educational fabric, institutional culture, and online technologies innovations. This alignment between strategy and operations cannot be done without automation since many knowledge assets must be managed just-in-time. In this chapter, we elaborate on ‘automation in education’ by first defining its meaning (as treated herein), then we demonstrate its transformative power, followed by a discussion on its purpose, which ultimately is knowledge processing and management. Design and pedagogical considerations are then proposed and elaborated.
... Many students perceive math as difficult, do not like it and consider the subject to be displeasing (Biswas et al., 2001). Digital Math Games (DMG) might be used to remedy this problem, improving students math learning (McLaren et al., 2017), while increasing their positive attitudes toward the subject (Ke, 2008), and it can even reduce the users anxiety while increasing their engagement (Kiili and Ketamo, 2017). Additionally, rather than conventional paper and pencil exercises, computer-based practice is preferred by them (Yurdabakan and Uzunkavak, 2012), which can also aid in solving the mentioned problems. ...
Article
[Link for free acess until July 5th, 2020: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1b4IL3pfaRjGw5] Game development often requires a multidisciplinary team, demands substantial time and budget, and leads to a limited number of game contents (e.g., levels). Procedural Content Generation (PCG) can remedy some of these problems, aiding with the automatic creation of content such as levels and graphics, in both the development and playing time. However, little research has been performed in terms of how PCG influences players, especially on Digital Math Games (DMG). This article addresses this problem by investigating the interactions of players with a DMG that uses PCG, investigating the hypothesis that interacting with this intervention can provide experiences as good as human-designed content. To accomplish this goal, an A/B test was performed wherein the only difference was that one version (static, N = 242) had human-designed levels, whereas the other (dynamic, N = 265) provided procedurally generated levels. To validate the approach, a two-sample experiment was designed in which each sample played a single version and, thereafter, self-reported their experiences through questionnaires. We contribute by showing how the participants interactions with a DMG are reported in terms of (1) fun, (2) willingness to play the game again, and (3) curiosity, in addition to how they (4) describe their experiences. Our findings show that samples' experiences did not significantly differ on the four metrics, but did differ on in-game performance. We discuss possible factors that might have influenced players' experiences, in terms of the participants performances and their demographic attributes, and how our findings contribute to human interaction with computers.
... Comparing a web-based adventure with a conventional web-based game, McLaren et al. (2018) reported that students performed much better while learning decimal arithmetic through the game (Decimal Point) rather than the conventional method. The content of the game condition and nongame condition were alike in this study, and 48 problems were implemented for them. ...
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Gamification usually refers to the use of video game mechanics in existing processes and activities which are not related to video games. The purpose of using game elements is to increase the participants’ engagement and enjoyment. This notion has been growing in popularity over the years, especially among education researchers, since game elements provide a challenge to players and motivate them to set goals in the learning environment. using gamification can provide an optimal context to change the behavior and improve the users’ engagement and performance. However, designing gamification requires determining the target group and understanding their needs and factors such as gender, age, and cultural orientations since they can change gamification reception. Also, Gamification is in its initial steps regarding behavior change which is one of the most challenging fields of human science. There are many applications that use game elements to enhance students’ participation and enjoyment. This discusses a review of different studies in different fields along with main findings and suggestions.
... Baabdullah [53] has evidenced that videogames now provide a platform through which many players get interacted, learn from other players, and enhance social relationships among players. Several authors have debated that the playful experience of educational videogames has generated positive learning outcomes, especially in the literacy learning [54], in science [55], and mathematics [56]. ...
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The present study intends to develop a conceptual model predicting videogame consumers’ observational learning that is initiated through the playful-consumption experience of a digital game. To meet this objective, authors employed the hedonic theory of consumption experience and observational learning theory to propose a conceptual model demonstrating that it is the gamer’s playful-consumption experience of a digital game which actually influences videogame consumers to observe and learn from the digital game. This study is first among others as it takes the theoretical support from hedonic theory of consumption experience, particularly the playful-consumption experience in predicting the videogame consumers’ observational learning in the videogame environment. The study is based on the conceptual model and hence, another empirical study is under way to prove its validation in the videogame setting.
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A robust finding in the literature is that spacing material leads to better retention than massing; however, the benefit of spacing for concept learning is less clear. When items are massed, it may help the learner to discover the relationship between instances, leading to better abstraction of the underlying concept. Two experiments addressed this question through a typical function learning task in which subjects were trained via presentations of input points (cue values) for which output responses (criterion values) were required. Subjects were trained either using spaced points, strategically massed points (points were paired in training such that they occurred on the same side of the underlying V-shaped function), or randomly massed points (points were randomly paired during training). All subjects were then tested on repeated training points, new (interpolation) points within the training range, and extrapolation points that fell outside the training range. Spacing led to superior interpolation and extrapolation performance, with random massing leading to the worst performance on all test trial types. These results suggest that, at least for function concepts, massed training is not superior to spaced training for concept learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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Substantial disagreement exists in the literature regarding which educational technology results in the highest cognitive gain for learners. In an attempt to resolve this dispute, we conducted a meta-analysis to decipher which teaching method, games and interactive simulations or traditional, truly dominates and under what circumstances. It was found that across people and situations, games and interactive simulations are more dominant for cognitive gain outcomes. However, consideration of specific moderator variables yielded a more complex picture. For example, males showed no preference while females showed a preference for the game and interactive simulation programs. Also, when students navigated through the programs themselves, there was a significant preference for games and interactive simulations. However, when teachers controlled the programs, no significant advantage was found. Further, when the computer dictated the sequence of the program, results favored those in the traditional teaching method over the games and interactive simulations. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for exiting theoretical positions as well as future empirical research.
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The concept of intrinsic motivation lies at the heart of the user engagement created by digital games. Yet despite this, educational software has traditionally attempted to harness games as extrinsic motivation by using them as a sugar coating for learning content. This article tests the concept of intrinsic integration as a way of creating a more productive relationship between educational games and their learning content. Two studies assessed this approach by designing and evaluating an educational game called Zombie Division to teach mathematics to 7- to 11-year-olds. Study 1 examined the learning gains of 58 children who played either the intrinsic, extrinsic, or control variants of Zombie Division for 2 hr, supported by their classroom teacher. Study 2 compared time on task for the intrinsic and extrinsic variants of the game when 16 children had free choice of which game to play. The results showed that children learned more from the intrinsic version of the game under fixed time limits and spent 7 times longer playing it in free-time situations. Together, these studies offer evidence for the genuine value of an intrinsic approach for creating effective educational games. The theoretical and commercial implications of these findings are discussed.
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This investigation found that children use three implicit and incorrect rules when comparing decimal numbers and that these rules are intermediate levels of response in the process of learning decimal numbers. The rules are intermediate in that: (a) the frequency of their use by children decreases from the fourth grade to the seventh grade; and (b) when a child is able to give a correct answer to the comparison of two decimal numbers, it is possible to induce use of the rules by giving the child more than two numbers to compare. These findings are interpreted as evidence that intermediate cognitive tools, which respond successfully to most of the tasks encountered early in learning, continue to coexist with more advanced tools.
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In 4 experiments, students who read expository passages with seductive details (i.e., interesting but irrelevant adjuncts) recalled significantly fewer main ideas and generated significantly fewer problem-solving transfer solutions than those who read passages without seductive details. In Experiments 1, 2, and 3, revising the passage to include either highlighting of the main ideas, a statement of learning objectives, or signaling, respectively, did not reduce the seductive details effect. In Experiment 4, presenting the seductive details at the beginning of the passage exacerbated the seductive details effect, whereas presenting the seductive details at the end of the passage reduced the seductive details effect. The results suggest that seductive details interfere with learning by priming inappropriate schemas around which readers organize the material, rather than by distracting the reader or by disrupting the coherence of the passage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The authors propose that conceptual and procedural knowledge develop in an iterative fashion and that improved problem representation is 1 mechanism underlying the relations between them. Two experiments were conducted with 5th- and 6th-grade students learning about decimal fractions. In Experiment 1, children's initial conceptual knowledge predicted gains in procedural knowledge, and gains in procedural knowledge predicted improvements in conceptual knowledge. Correct problem representations mediated the relation between initial conceptual knowledge and improved procedural knowledge. In Experiment 2, amount of support for correct problem representation was experimentally manipulated, and the manipulations led to gains in procedural knowledge. Thus, conceptual and procedural knowledge develop iteratively, and improved problem representation is 1 mechanism in this process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Interactive cognitive complexity theory suggests that simulation games are more effective than other instructional methods because they simultaneously engage trainees’ affective and cognitive processes (Tennyson & Jorczak, 2008). Meta-analytic techniques were used to examine the instructional effectiveness of computer-based simulation games relative to a comparison group (k= 65, N= 6,476). Consistent with theory, posttraining self-efficacy was 20% higher, declarative knowledge was 11% higher, procedural knowledge was 14% higher, and retention was 9% higher for trainees taught with simulation games, relative to a comparison group. However, the results provide strong evidence of publication bias in simulation games research. Characteristics of simulation games and the instructional context also moderated the effectiveness of simulation games. Trainees learned more, relative to a comparison group, when simulation games conveyed course material actively rather than passively, trainees could access the simulation game as many times as desired, and the simulation game was a supplement to other instructional methods rather than stand-alone instruction. However, trainees learned less from simulation games than comparison instructional methods when the instruction the comparison group received as a substitute for the simulation game actively engaged them in the learning experience.
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The interactions between levels of learner prior knowledge and effectiveness of different instructional techniques and procedures have been intensively investigated within a cognitive load framework since mid-90s. This line of research has become known as the expertise reversal effect. Apart from their cognitive load theory-based prediction and explanation, patterns of empirical findings on the effect fit well those in studies of Aptitude Treatment Interactions (ATI) that were originally initiated in mid-60s. This paper reviews recent empirical findings associated with the expertise reversal effect, their interpretation within cognitive load theory, relations to ATI studies, implications for the design of learner-tailored instructional systems, and some recent experimental attempts of implementing these findings into realistic adaptive learning environments.
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We describe and illustrate the beginnings of a general framework for the design and analysis of educational games. Our students have used it to analyze existing educational games and to create prototype educational games. The framework is built on existing components: a method for precisely specifying educational objectives, a framework for relating a game's mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics, and principles for instructional design grounded in empirical research in the learning sciences. The power of the framework comes from the components themselves, as well as from considering these components in concert and making connections between them. The framework coordinates the many levels at which an educational game must succeed in order to be effective. We illustrate the framework by using it to analyze Zombie Division and to generate some redesign ideas for this game.
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In the mathematics domain of decimals, students have common and persistent misconceptions. These misconceptions have been identified, studied, and published by many researchers, spanning over 80 years of time. However, no paper discusses and brings together all of the identified misconceptions. This paper presents an initial taxonomy of decimal misconceptions, summarizing the results of past work. We also discuss the potential use and benefits of such a taxonomy in supporting the development of intelligent tutors that use erroneous examples as a learning tool for middle-school math students.
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What is the most effective way to incorporate self-explanation into an educational game? In Experiment 1, students who played a 10-level computer game about electrical circuits performed better on an embedded transfer test (i.e., level 10) if they were required to select the reason for each move from a list on levels 1–9 (selection self-explanation) than if they were not required to engage in self-explanation (d=1.20). In Experiment 2, the same pattern of results was replicated (d=0.71), but students who were required to type in their reason for each move on levels 1–9 (generation self-explanation) did not perform any better than those who were not required to engage in self-explanation (d=−0.06). Overall, asking students to select a reason from a list fosters some degree of reflection while not overly disrupting the flow of the game.
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Intelligent tutors have become increasingly accurate at detecting whether a student knows a skill, or knowledge component (KC), at a given time. However, current student models do not tell us exactly at which point a KC is learned. In this paper, we present a machine-learned model that assesses the probability that a student learned a KC at a specific problem step (instead of at the next or previous problem step). We use this model to analyze which KCs are learned gradually, and which are learned in "eureka" moments. We also discuss potential ways that this model could be used to improve the effectiveness of cognitive mastery learning.
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The authors performed a meta-analysis of the distributed practice effect to illuminate the effects of temporal variables that have been neglected in previous reviews. This review found 839 assessments of distributed practice in 317 experiments located in 184 articles. Effects of spacing (consecutive massed presentations vs. spaced learning episodes) and lag (less spaced vs. more spaced learning episodes) were examined, as were expanding interstudy interval (ISI) effects. Analyses suggest that ISI and retention interval operate jointly to affect final-test retention; specifically, the ISI producing maximal retention increased as retention interval increased. Areas needing future research and theoretical implications are discussed.
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The major purpose of this study is to use network and multimedia technologies to build a game-based learning system for junior high school students to apply in learning "World Geography" through the "role-playing" game approaches. This study first investigated the motivation and habits of junior high school students to use the Internet and online games, and then designed a game-based learning system according to situated and game-based learning theories. A teaching experiment was conducted to analyze the learning effectiveness of students on the game-based learning system and the major factors affecting their learning. A questionnaire survey was used to understand the students' attitudes towards game-based learning. The results showed that the game-based learning system can enhance students' learning, but the gender of students and their habits in using the Internet have no significant impact on learning. Game experience has a significant impact on students' learning, and the higher the experience value the better the effectiveness of their learning. The results of questionnaire survey also revealed that the system can increase students' motivation and interest in learning World Geography.
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If you are aware of the results given in the media reports about the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), you probably know that fourth graders from the United States (U.S.) scored above the international average in mathematics and that eighth and twelfth graders scored below average (Mullis et al. 1997). As an educator, you are aware of the dangers of looking only at averages of test scores. Rich information can be gleaned from the TIMSS data that will help us learn more about what our students know and are able to do. The data from a large-scale study, such as the TIMSS, often raise questions about what the numbers really mean. This article addresses one such question that arose from examining part of the third- and fourth-grade TIMSS data. The process that we used may be as valuable as the information that we found. Perhaps this process will help you answer questions that arise as you reflect on the TIMSS results.
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The study investigated the role of students' everyday knowledge of decimals in supporting the development of their knowledge of decimals. Sixteen students, ages 11 and 12, from a lower economic area, were asked to work in pairs (one member of each pair a more able student and one a less able student) to solve problems that tapped common misconceptions about decimal fractions. Half the pairs worked on problems presented in familiar contexts and half worked on problems presented without context. A comparison of pretest and posttest results revealed that students who worked on contextual problems made significantly more progress in their knowledge of decimals than did those who worked on noncontextual problems. Dialogues between pairs of students during problem solving were analyzed with respect to the arguments used. Results from this analysis suggested that greater reciprocity existed in the pairs working on the contextualized problems, partly because, for those problems, the less able students more commonly took advantage of their everyday knowledge of decimals. It is postulated that the students who solved contextualized problems were able to build scientific understanding of decimals by reflecting on their everyday knowledge as it pertained to the meaning of decimal numbers and the results of decimal calculations.
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Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) activities were examined in comparison with effective, research-based learning strategies to observe any difference in student engagement and time-on task behavior. Experimental and control groups were randomly selected amongst the intermediate elementary school students ages 8 to 10 years old. Student observations and attitudinal surveys were completed after eight lesson cycles to determine which student group had a higher level of engagement and time-on-task behavior. Six of the 8 trials showed a higher student survey average in the level of student enjoyment while experiencing DGBL. Six of the 8 trials produced equal or higher class average scores for focus and attentiveness during DGBL versus alternative strategies. Seven out of 8 trials produced higher student table observation averages for DGBL. In conclusion, the data suggests DGBL can be as effective in the classroom as other research-proven instructional strategies. BACKGROUND Clarksville Elementary School (CES) is located in Clarksville, MD, an affluent neighborhood in the Baltimore/Washington corridor. It is one of the 39 elementary schools in Howard County, Maryland, one of the top public school systems in the United States. Howard County's schools frequently rank first in Maryland as measured by standardized test scores and graduation rates. CES has a total enrollment of 554 students, with 60% of the student population categorized as White, and almost 31% Asian. Only 0.2% of the student population qualified for the Free and Reduced Price Meal Service.
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1 classroom of 25 low-achieving fourth graders was introduced to decimal fractions during an 11-day unit that emphasized conceptual features of decimals. Students' understandings were assessed 4 times during instruction by individually interviewing 8 students and providing written tests for 21 students. Changes in students' responses indicated that (1) their thinking was influenced by the types of concrete materials they used to represent decimals; (2) low achievers increased their understanding of some important properties of decimals; and (3) understanding grew gradually through a complex, chaotic looking process rather than through straightforward across-the-board insights. Group test data (N = 21) and 3 interview case studies are presented that elaborate these observations. Implications are discussed regarding teaching for understanding and engaging low-achieving students in learning with understanding.
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Written instruments were used to collect data on 129 preservice elementary school teachers' (1) success in writing expressions for word problems, (2) reactions to statements about multiplication and division, (3) written word problems for given numerical expressions, and (4) success in completing multiplication and division examples involving decimals. 85 Ss were also interviewed about the expressions they wrote for word problems and the beliefs they held regarding multiplication and division. Findings are discussed in terms of interventions to help teachers develop appropriate mathematical concepts and teaching strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Employing mixed-method approach, this case study examined the in situ use of educational computer games in a summer math program to facilitate 4th and 5th graders’ cognitive math achievement, metacognitive awareness, and positive attitudes toward math learning. The results indicated that students developed more positive attitudes toward math learning through five-week computer math gaming, but there was no significant effect of computer gaming on students’ cognitive test performance or metacognitive awareness development. The in-field observation and students’ think-aloud protocol informed that not every computer math drill game would engage children in committed learning. The study findings have highlighted the value of situating learning activities within the game story, making games pleasantly challenging, scaffolding reflections, and designing suitable off-computer activities.
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In this paper, we present a study to evaluate the impact of adaptive feedback on the effectiveness of a pedagogical agent for an educational computer game. We compare a version of the game with no agent, and two versions with agents that differ only in the accuracy of the student model used to guide the agent's interventions. We found no difference in student learning across the three conditions, and we report an analysis to understand the reasons of these results.
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Harnessing the power of games in education.
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Learning science through computer games and simulations
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Number and operations
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Teens, video games, and civics. Pew Research Center
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