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Preparation and Characterization of Durian Husk Fiber Filled Polylactic Acid Biocomposites

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Man Chee Lee
Man Chee Lee
Man Chee Lee
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Seong Chun Koay at Tunku Abdul Rahman University
Seong Chun Koay
Ming Yeng Chan at HELP College of Arts and Technology
Ming Yeng Chan
Ming Meng Pang at Taylor's University
Ming Meng Pang
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Abstract and Figures

Polylactic acid (PLA) is biodegradable thermoplastic that made from renewable raw material, but its high cost limited the application. Thus, addition of natural fiber can be effectively reduced the cost of PLA. This research is utilised natural fiber extracted from durian husk to made PLA biocomposites. This paper is focus on the effect of fiber content on tensile and thermal properties of PLA/durian husk fiber (DHF) biocomposites. The results found that the tensile strength and modulus of this biocomposites increased with increase of fiber content, but the strength still lower compared to neat PLA. Then, the elongation at break of biocomposites was expected decreased at higher fiber content. The PLA/DHF biocomposites with 60 phr fiber content exhibited tensile strength of 11 MPa, but it is too brittle yet for any application. The addition of DHF caused an early thermal degradation on PLA biocomposites. Then, the thermal stability of PLA biocomposites was decreased with more fiber content.
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Preparation and Characterization of Durian
Husk Fiber Filled Polylactic Acid Biocomposites
Man Chee Lee1 , Seong Chun Koay1*, , Ming Yeng Chan2 , Ming Meng Pang1 , Pui May
Chou1 , and Kim Yeow Tsai3
1School of Engineering, Faculty of Built Environment, Engineering, Technology and Design,
Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, 47500 Subang Jaya, Malaysia
2Centre for Engineering Programmes, HELP College of Arts and Technology, 55200 Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
3Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham, 43500 Semenyih, Malaysia.
Abstract. Polylactic acid (PLA) is biodegradable thermoplastic that made
from renewable raw material, but its high cost limited the application.
Thus, addition of natural fiber can be effectively reduced the cost of PLA.
This research is utilised natural fiber extracted from durian husk to made
PLA biocomposites. This paper is focus on the effect of fiber content on
tensile and thermal properties of PLA/durian husk fiber (DHF)
biocomposites. The results found that the tensile strength and modulus of
this biocomposites increased with increase of fiber content, but the strength
still lower compared to neat PLA. Then, the elongation at break of
biocomposites was expected decreased at higher fiber content. The
PLA/DHF biocomposites with 60 phr fiber content exhibited tensile
strength of 11 MPa, but it is too brittle yet for any application. The addition
of DHF caused an early thermal degradation on PLA biocomposites. Then,
the thermal stability of PLA biocomposites was decreased with more fiber
content.
1 Introduction
In 2015, researchers found 8.3 billion metric tons of plastics waste were produced
globally and 6.3 billion tons of this plastic products are turning into waste. As well known,
not all the plastic can be recycle, thus only 9% of that waste total was recycled, 12% was
used for energy recover and left were sent to landfills. The amount of plastics waste for
land fill are expected to achieve 12 billion metric tons, if the current trends is keep going on
[1]. Plastic material made from petroleum resources are chemically stable which hardly to
biodegrade in environment. In present, part of the plastic product has replace by bioplastic
that able to biodegradable after disposal. Polylactic acid (PLA) is a type of bioplastic that
synthesized from natural material, such as corn starch, tapioca root and sugarcane [2-3].
Besides, PLA offers a biodegradable properties and also good mechanical strength, non-
toxic and sustainable since it made from renewable resources [4-5]. Nowadays, the
production of bioplastic over the world is about 750,000 tons per year. Unfortunately, this
* Corresponding author: SeongChun.Koay@taylors.edu.my
© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
amount still very small compare to conventional plastic that produced 200 million tons per
year. The main reason why PLA is seldom choose by industrial as their main choice of
material, because the price of PLA resin is more expensive than conventional plastic [5-6].
In order to promote the usage of PLA material, natural filler can be introduced to PLA
and make it into a biocomposites. The natural filler can be easily obtained from any
agricultural crop and waste, for instance, corn cob [7], cocoa pod [8], coconut shell [3] and
palm kernel shell [9]. The main benefit of natural filler very low cost, biodegradable, less
abrasive to machine, and inexhaustible resources [10-11]. Thus, by making the PLA in to
biocomposite, the addition of natural filler can be partially replace the PLA without
influences its biodegradability and highly reduced the cost of final product. Durio
zibethinus Murray, also called as durian, the famous fruit among the Southest Asia
countries especially in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and Philippine [12]. The durian fruit
is made up of 40% of flesh and 60% of husk. Usually, the durian husk was discarded and
end up on landfills or burnt which poses an environmental issues. In Malaysia, about 3,800
metric tons of durian fruits are produced in year 2016. Assuming every 60% of total
amount produced durian fruits is husk, it estimated the durian husks waste produced in year
2016 was achieved 2,280 metric tons. The production of durian fruits are predicted to
achieve 22,000 metric tons at year 2020 [13]. This meaning the amount durian husks waste
will be increased. The durian husk consists 60.45% of cellulose, 15.45% of lignin and
13.09% of hemicellulose, and the content are similar to wood fiber [14]. For this reason,
this research is underway to utilize the fiber obtained from durian husk and combined with
PLA to produce biocomposites.
This present research is focus on the effect of fiber content on the tensile and thermal
properties of durian husk fiber filled polylactic acid biocomposites.
2 Methodology
2.1 Research Materials
PLA used in this experiment was supplied by TT Biotechnologies Sdn. Bhd. (Malaysia)
and durian husk was collected from durian fruit stall at SS2, Petaling Jaya (Selangor).
2.2 Preparation of Durian Husk Fiber
The durian husks obtained from durian fruit stall were washed with tap water and cut
into small pieces. Then, the durian husks were dried using circulated air oven at 70oC until
completely dried. The dried durian husks were ground into short fiber using mechanical
grinder. Next, the short durian husk fiber (DHF) was passed through a sieve with mesh size
of 600 micron to get the homogenous size of fibers. The DHF further dried using oven
before compounding process.
2.3 Preparation of PLA/DHF Biocomposites
The PLA/DHF biocomposites were compounded using Haake Rheomix 600p at SIRIM
Malaysia (Shah Alam). The biocomposites were prepared with fiber various from 15, 30,
45, and 60 phr (part per hundred resin). The processing temperature was fixed at 180 oC and
rotor speed of 80 rpm. The compounding procedures included: i) addition of PLA resin in
2
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
amount still very small compare to conventional plastic that produced 200 million tons per
year. The main reason why PLA is seldom choose by industrial as their main choice of
material, because the price of PLA resin is more expensive than conventional plastic [5-6].
In order to promote the usage of PLA material, natural filler can be introduced to PLA
and make it into a biocomposites. The natural filler can be easily obtained from any
agricultural crop and waste, for instance, corn cob [7], cocoa pod [8], coconut shell [3] and
palm kernel shell [9]. The main benefit of natural filler very low cost, biodegradable, less
abrasive to machine, and inexhaustible resources [10-11]. Thus, by making the PLA in to
biocomposite, the addition of natural filler can be partially replace the PLA without
influences its biodegradability and highly reduced the cost of final product. Durio
zibethinus Murray, also called as durian, the famous fruit among the Southest Asia
countries especially in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and Philippine [12]. The durian fruit
is made up of 40% of flesh and 60% of husk. Usually, the durian husk was discarded and
end up on landfills or burnt which poses an environmental issues. In Malaysia, about 3,800
metric tons of durian fruits are produced in year 2016. Assuming every 60% of total
amount produced durian fruits is husk, it estimated the durian husks waste produced in year
2016 was achieved 2,280 metric tons. The production of durian fruits are predicted to
achieve 22,000 metric tons at year 2020 [13]. This meaning the amount durian husks waste
will be increased. The durian husk consists 60.45% of cellulose, 15.45% of lignin and
13.09% of hemicellulose, and the content are similar to wood fiber [14]. For this reason,
this research is underway to utilize the fiber obtained from durian husk and combined with
PLA to produce biocomposites.
This present research is focus on the effect of fiber content on the tensile and thermal
properties of durian husk fiber filled polylactic acid biocomposites.
2 Methodology
2.1 Research Materials
PLA used in this experiment was supplied by TT Biotechnologies Sdn. Bhd. (Malaysia)
and durian husk was collected from durian fruit stall at SS2, Petaling Jaya (Selangor).
2.2 Preparation of Durian Husk Fiber
The durian husks obtained from durian fruit stall were washed with tap water and cut
into small pieces. Then, the durian husks were dried using circulated air oven at 70oC until
completely dried. The dried durian husks were ground into short fiber using mechanical
grinder. Next, the short durian husk fiber (DHF) was passed through a sieve with mesh size
of 600 micron to get the homogenous size of fibers. The DHF further dried using oven
before compounding process.
2.3 Preparation of PLA/DHF Biocomposites
The PLA/DHF biocomposites were compounded using Haake Rheomix 600p at SIRIM
Malaysia (Shah Alam). The biocomposites were prepared with fiber various from 15, 30,
45, and 60 phr (part per hundred resin). The processing temperature was fixed at 180 oC and
rotor speed of 80 rpm. The compounding procedures included: i) addition of PLA resin in
to mixing chamfer for 1 minute to fully melt the PLA resin; ii) Then, the DHF was added
into melted PLA and compounded for 5 minutes; iii) Last, the compound was removed
from mixing chamber.
The PLA/DHF biocomposites were further molded into thin sheet with thickness of 1
mm. The hotpress machine (model Moore) was used in this molding process and
temperature was set at 180oC. The molding procedures included: i) preheated to soften the
compound for 2 min; ii) fully compressed the softened compound under 100 MPa pressure
for 1 min; and iii) Last, cooled specimen under same pressure for 20 minutes. All the
biocomposite sheets were cut into tensile specimen and dimension following ASTM D638.
2.4 Testing and Characterization
Tensile test was performance using Instron Universal Testing Machine (Model 5569).
The tensile test was referring to ASTM D638. The cross-head speed of machine was set at 5
mm/min and a 15kN load cell was used. The tensile strength, modulus and elongation at
break of the samples were recorded by Bluehill 3 software. A minimum of 7 specimens
were tested for every formulated biocomposites.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out using Pyris Diamond TGA (Perkin -
Elmer). The specimen was prepared in small size with weight from 6 to 8 mg and placed in
a ceramic pan. The specimen was heated from 30oC to 600oC at hearing rate of 10oC/min.
The TGA analysis was run under nitrogen atmosphere with gas flow rate of 20 ml/mm.
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Tensile Properties
Figure 1 shows the tensile strength of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different DHF
content. The tensile strength of PLA/DHF biocomposite exhibits an increasing trend as the
DHF content increased. Usually, natural fiber displays a higher mechanical strength
compared to most plastic material [15]. Thus, the addition of DHF fiber might share part of
the tensile load which subjected PLA matrix and increased the tensile strength of
biocomposite. From the previous study found that the tensile strength of neat PLA was
about 54 MPa [3]. The biocomposites exhibited lower strength compared to neat PLA. This
is because the DHF used in this experiment was short fiber and the reinforcing ability of the
fiber is highly depending on the fiber orientation. The short fibers usually is randomly
orientated. The presence of fibers that orientated perpendicular to direct of applied load
might unable to share the load which caused the strength of biocomposite to decrease.
However, at higher fiber content, the presence of more fibers that parallel to direction of
load and it will share load that subjected to biocomposite. Thus, the strength of
biocomposite was raised when more fiber content was added. Similar findings have also
been reported by Yu et al. [16].
The effect of different fiber content on PLA/DHF biocomposites is illustrated in Figure
2. As expected, the tensile modulus of the biocomposites gradually increases with
increasing amount of DHF. It is because the modulus of DHF is usually higher than plastic
[12]. Therefore, the presence of higher amount of DHF contributed to higher modulus of
the PLA/DHF biocomposite. For this reason, the tensile modulus of PLA/DHF
biocomposite increases due to addition of DHF. Moreover, Gunti et al. [17] also agreed that
3
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
the modulus of biocomposite is highly depending on the amount of filler. Hence, the
biocomposite with higher fiber content showed higher tensile modulus.
Fig. 1. Tensile strength of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different fiber content.
Fig. 2. Tensile modulus of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different fiber content.
Figure 3 displays the elongation at break of the PLA/DHF biocomposite with different
DHF content. The result trend of tensile modulus of biocomposite typically opposite with
elongation at break. The neat PLA is well known brittle material and its elongation at break
was only 4.2% [3]. The addition of DHF had dramatically reduced the elongation at break
of PLA. The result found the fiber content increased, the elongation at break of PLA/DHF
biocomposite decreased. In general, natural fiber is rigid material that not elongate much
[18]. Thus, the addition of DHF would not contribute on the elongation of PLA matrix. In
addition, the friction presents between PLA matrix and DHF fiber will significantly reduce
the mobility of the polymer chains. For this reason, PLA/DHF biocomposite with more
fiber content became more rigid and brittle. This observation is in agreement with findings
of many others researcher [19].
4
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
the modulus of biocomposite is highly depending on the amount of filler. Hence, the
biocomposite with higher fiber content showed higher tensile modulus.
Fig. 1. Tensile strength of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different fiber content.
Fig. 2. Tensile modulus of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different fiber content.
Figure 3 displays the elongation at break of the PLA/DHF biocomposite with different
DHF content. The result trend of tensile modulus of biocomposite typically opposite with
elongation at break. The neat PLA is well known brittle material and its elongation at break
was only 4.2% [3]. The addition of DHF had dramatically reduced the elongation at break
of PLA. The result found the fiber content increased, the elongation at break of PLA/DHF
biocomposite decreased. In general, natural fiber is rigid material that not elongate much
[18]. Thus, the addition of DHF would not contribute on the elongation of PLA matrix. In
addition, the friction presents between PLA matrix and DHF fiber will significantly reduce
the mobility of the polymer chains. For this reason, PLA/DHF biocomposite with more
fiber content became more rigid and brittle. This observation is in agreement with findings
of many others researcher [19].
Fig. 3. Elongation at break of PLA/DHF biocomposites with different fiber content.
3.2 Thermal Properties
The TGA curves of DHF, neat PLA, and PLA/DHF biocomposites at selected fiber
content is shown in Figure 4. All the data obtained from TGA curves are tabulated in Table
1. The TGA result shows the DHF was thermal degraded earlier than neat PLA and yielded
high char residue at 600oC. The earlier thermal degradation of DHF was due to the
removing of moisture and volatile compounds that found in DHF. Then, the thermal
degradation of DHF was following by degradation of hemicellulose at temperature above
250oC. Furthermore, the thermal degradation of lignin and cellulose from DHF were found
beyond 350oC [20]. The thermal degradation of lignin and cellulose were contributed to
char formation that caused high amount of char residue. From Table 1, the temperature at
5% (Td5%) and 50 % (Td50%) weight loss of PLA/DHF biocomposites were shifted to lower
temperature when fiber content increased from 30 to 60 phr. The PLA/DHF biocomposites
also exhibited lower Td5% and Td50% compared to neat PLA. This indicated the PLA/DHF
biocomposites have lower thermal stability compared to neat PLA. The biocomposite had
lower thermal stability was due to components in DHF that decomposed when subjected to
high temperature. The char residue of PLA/DHF biocomposites also increased with the
increases of fiber content. As mentioned early, the formation of more char residue was due
to thermal degradation of lignin and cellulose from DHF. The similar observation also
found by other researchers [21-22].
4 Conclusion
The increase of fiber content increased the tensile strength and modulus of PLA/DHF
biocomposites, but decrease in elongation at break. The PLA/DHF biocomposites exhibited
lower strength compared to neat PLA, but the average tensile strength of PLA/DHF
biocomposites with 60 phr of fiber still have 11 MPa. The strength is comparable to low
density polyethylene, but its to brittle to make any application. Besides, the addition of
DHF had caused an early thermal degradation on PLA/DHF biocomposites and also lower
in thermal stability. The TGA results also found the biocomposite with more fiber content
exhibited high char residue after decomposed at temperature 600oC.
5
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
Fig. 4. TGA curves of DHF, neat PLA and PLA/DHF biocomposites at selected fiber content.
Table 1. Formatting sections, subsections and subsubsections.
Samples
Temperature at
5% weight loss
(
o
C)
Temperature at
50% weight loss
(
o
C)
Char residue
at 600oC (%)
Neat PLA
313.4
365.1
0.7
DHF
55.5
339.3
22.7
PLA/DHF:
100/30 260.9 331.5 0.8
PLA/DHF:
100/60 232.6 307.7 0.9
5 Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge use of services and facilities at Taylor’s University,
funded by Taylor’s Research Grant Scheme (Project code: TRGS/ERFS/1/2017/SOE/033).
References
1. R. Geyer, J.R. Jambeck, K.L. Law, Sci. Adv. 3, 1 (2017).
2. A.A. Yussuf, I. Massoumi, A. Hassan, J. Polym. Envir. 18, 442 (2010)
3. K.S. Chun, S. Husseinsyah, H. Osman, Polym. Eng. Sci. 53, 1109 (2013)
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6
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
Fig. 4. TGA curves of DHF, neat PLA and PLA/DHF biocomposites at selected fiber content.
Table 1. Formatting sections, subsections and subsubsections.
Samples
Temperature at
5% weight loss
(oC)
Temperature at
50% weight loss
(oC)
Char residue
at 600oC (%)
Neat PLA
313.4
365.1
0.7
DHF
55.5
339.3
22.7
PLA/DHF:
100/30
260.9
331.5
0.8
PLA/DHF:
100/60
232.6
307.7
0.9
5 Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge use of services and facilities at Taylor’s University,
funded by Taylor’s Research Grant Scheme (Project code: TRGS/ERFS/1/2017/SOE/033).
References
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12, 1165 (2017).
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(2016)
7
MATEC Web of Conferences 152, 02007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815202007
Eureca 2017
... Moreover, durian biochar with large surface area was also studied to determine the performance on dye removal [45][46][47][48][49] . Numerous previous researches regarding the characteristics of biocomposite with the addition of durian-derived biochar validated that the biochar can perform well in improving the mechanical properties of biocomposite [50][51][52] . These findings imply that the durian biochar has huge potential to be utilized in biocomposite. ...
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... A study regarding the characterization of PLA biocomposite with the addition of durian husk fiber (DHF) was conducted by Lee et al. [50] . The results displayed that the tensile strength and modulus of biocom-posite increased with DHF content. ...
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The fresh arils of durian fruits contained approximately one-third of the fruit’s total weight; the remainder of the fruit, including the rinds and seeds, is considered waste. As a result, researchers investigated and studied the potential for these wastes to be processed into products or value-added products in various industries. This review aimed to discuss the potential for waste products of D. zibethinus to be converted into value-added products in a variety of areas. An extensive literature study was done on various search engines. Related previous research was selected for discovering the potential of D. zibethinus waste. This review found four fields of studies that gained interest in the invention of value-added products by using D. zibethinus waste, including activated carbon precursor, bio-composite product, bio-based polymer product, and bioethanol production. As Malaysia is growing in the food waste industry, more study needs to be done to successfully invent new value-added products from D. zibethinus waste such as rind and seed. The effort of this study could help in reducing unused D. zibethinus waste.
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Sustainable poly(lactic acid) transformation: Leveraging agri-food waste—compatibilization strategies nexus for enhanced properties
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
The paper comprehensively reviews the upcycling and utilization of agri-food loss and wastes (FLWs) in poly(lactic acid) (PLA)-based biocomposites from the perspective of material circularity. The massive volume of unwanted and unvalued FLWs contributed from fruit producers (durian husk, pineapple leaf, orange peel, and apple), post-consumer products (spent coffee ground, sugarcane bagasse, coconut husk, crustacean shells), and agricultural sectors (rick husk, rice straw, wheat straw, and corn stover) is generally discarded and incinerated. Notably, these FLWs can be collected and upcycled into valuable products depending on the final application, endowing them with a meaningful second life. This upcycling approach promotes environment-friendliness and reduces the product’s carbon footprint. However, gaps and challenges in creating high-performance biocomposites remain critical to a translatable product. To address that, this review comprehensively discussed the recent progress and strategies to enhance the compatibility of PLA and the various FLW biocomposites, such as improved processability, well-balanced properties, heat resistance, and increased interfacial adhesion. The overall mechanical, thermal, processability, and biodegradability performances are further examined and elaborated. Furthermore, the current and prospective applications, such as packaging, automotive, construction, and 3D printing of FLWs/PLA products, are discussed. Finally, the prospects and opportunities of these FLWs/PLA biocomposites are shared to give a view into the future. Graphical Abstract
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Conversion strategies for durian agroindustry waste: value-added products and emerging opportunities
Article
  • Mar 2024
The majority 65–80% of the durian (Durio zibethinus) fruit is the shell and seed that are inedible and cause major issues in waste management. This paper, therefore, outlines the current plausible methods for treating durian biomass based on the biomass processing technologies of (1) thermochemical treatment for energy production, (2) fiber extraction through physicochemical pretreatment, (3) microbiological conversion techniques and (4) green solvent extraction of polysaccharides and phytochemicals, focusing on notable problems and suggestions toward the recalcitrant structures and high volatile matter contents of durian wastes. Within this scope, the possible value-added products with different functional properties each method are considered with high emphasis on the aspect of scaling up. From this, suitable recommendations have been made to combine the different technology or biomass sources for the most economical processing.
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Customized 3D-Printed TPU Slab Phantom for 6 MV Photon Beams Radiotherapy
Chapter
  • Jul 2023
This study investigates the dosimetric properties of customized three-dimensional (3D) printed thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) slab phantom for 6 MV photon beams radiotherapy. The dimension of the customized 3D-printed TPU slab phantoms is 18.5 × 18.5 cm, with the thickness ranging from 0.1 cm to 0.2 cm. Dosimetric properties of the TPU slab phantom were investigated by measuring the dose at a maximum dose depth (1.5 cm) for a 6 MV photon beam using an ionization chamber and EBT-XD Gafchromic film. The TPU phantoms were also scanned through computed tomography (CT) simulator to define the Hounsfield unit (HU) and internal uniformity. Measurements on the standard commercial solid water phantom were also conducted as a comparison. The results show that the dose measured by the ionization chamber and Gafchromic EBT-XD film for 3D-printed TPU phantom is comparable to the standard commercial solid water phantom with deviation found within ± 5%. The HU obtained for the 3D-printed TPU phantom is homogenously consistent around − 29 HU which is close to the HU value of water and somehow quite different from a standard solid phantom with 72.3 HU. In conclusion, the customized 3D-printed TPU slab phantom could potentially be used as an alternative to the commercial solid water phantom in dose verification for photon beam radiotherapy.Keywords3D printingRadiotherapyPhantomThermoplastic polyurethane
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Radiation Attenuation Evaluation of Different Density of Polylactic Acid (PLA) and Tough PLA as Tissue Equivalent Materials for Radiotherapy Phantom
Chapter
  • Jul 2023
This study evaluated the radiation attenuation of different densities of polylactic acid (PLA) and tough PLA (TPLA) by measuring their Hounsfield unit (HU) with computed tomography (CT) simulator and linear accelerator Cone Beam CT (CBCT). A phantom of 10 cm diameter with nine small cylindrical inserts of 2 cm diameter was fabricated using the three-dimensional (3D) printer. The cylindrical inserts were printed from PLA and TPLA with different infill densities from 15 to 95%. The phantoms were then scanned through a CT simulator and CBCT with the energy of 120 kV and 100 kV, respectively. The HU values obtained were compared with the standard human tissue values. Results show that the average HU for the PLA material scanned by CT simulator and CBCT are between − 26.30 to − 869.90 and − 145.10 to − 918.47, respectively. Meanwhile, the average HU value of the TPLA phantom scanned by CT simulator and CBCT are between − 843.50 to 141.90 and − 849.98 to 65.80, respectively. In conclusion, the PLA and TPLA materials with different infill densities could represent the human lung's heterogeneities (− 500 to − 900 HU), fat (− 50 to − 100 HU), blood or liver (50–70 HU), and spongy bone (100–300 HU).KeywordsPolylactic acidTough PLARadiotherapy phantom
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Properties of Polylactic Acid Biocomposite Foamed Treated via Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
Chapter
  • Jul 2023
In this study, polylactic acid (PLA) was incorporated with durian skin nanofibre (DSNF) and cinnamon essential oil (CEO), where the DSNF was extracted through freeze drying process. Supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) acts as physical foaming agent for PLA biocomposite. The tensile strength and chemical interaction between PLA, DSNF, and CEO were investigated. The tensile strength of PLA biocomposite foamed reduced in presence of DSNF, however when only CEO incorporated in PLA the tensile increase and through FTIR graph functional group of PLA biocomposite foamed were identified. The foam structure produced after PLA biocomposite treated via SCCO2 was not fully nucleated and unstable as shown through SEM. The addition of DSNF and CEO did affect the PLA biocomposite foam.KeywordsFoamed biocomposite polymerSupercritical carbon dioxideCell structure
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Effect of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Pressure on Foamed PolyLactic Acid Biocomposite
Chapter
  • May 2023
The effect of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (SCCO2) pressure on foamed PolyLactic Acid (PLA) were studied in this work. Foamed PLA biocomposite thin film was created by combining PLA with Durian Skin Fibre (DSF) and Cinnamon Essential Oil (CEO) before being treated with supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2). The morphological structure was studied to see the effect of pressure on the cell growth of the foamed polymer, later the correlation of morphology structure and tensile strength showing that the cell growth did hugely effect the tensile strength of the PLA biocomposite thin film.KeywordsFoamed biocomposite polymerSupercritical carbon dioxideCell structure
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Synthesis of Durian (Durio Zibethinus) Rinds Fiber-Silica Composite as Concrete Additive
Conference Paper
  • Apr 2023
Natural fiber as a fiber reinforcement enhances the high-performance cement composites' strength, ductility, and durability requirements for a concrete application. This study aims to utilize an indigenous natural fiber-silica composite as an additive to cement. Pre-treated durian fibers extracted from durian rinds (100 mesh) were mixed with sodium metasilicate (Na 2 SiO 3 ), and the synthesized durian rind fiber-silica composite (DRFC) was utilized as a cement mass replacement (5% w/w) on concrete to test its effect to mechanical properties. SEM-EDX micrographs show that silica has a rough sheet-like morphology similar to DRFC. However, DRFC also contains a rough fibrous structure indicating the uniformly distributed durian rinds fiber (DRF) present in the composite matrix. Additionally, the presence of silica significantly improves the thermal stability of DRF. Results demonstrated that both concrete with DRF and DRFC additives have superior mechanical properties, surpassing the controlled specimens. Hence, the potential application of DRF to concrete demonstrates a viable upcycling route for durian rinds waste.
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Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2017
Plastics have outgrown most man-made materials and have long been under environmental scrutiny. However, robust global information, particularly about their end-of-life fate, is lacking. By identifying and synthesizing dispersed data on production, use, and end-of-life management of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives, we present the first global analysis of all mass-produced plastics ever manufactured. We estimate that 8300 million metric tons (Mt) as of virgin plastics have been produced to date. As of 2015, approximately 6300 Mt of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. If current production and waste management trends continue, roughly 12,000 Mt of plastic waste will be in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050.
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Effect of green coupling agent from waste oil fatty acid on the properties of polypropylene/cocoa pod husk composites
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2016
  • POLYM BULL
Green coupling agent (GCA) made from waste oil fatty acid was used as an effective coupling agent for polypropylene (PP)/cocoa pod husk (CPH) composites. The results indicated that the incorporation of 0.5 phr of GCA shows a remarkable improvement on tensile strength, elongation at break and tensile modulus of PP/CPH composites. The composites with GCA also exhibited a higher crystallinity and thermal stability as well as water resistivity. The addition of GCA improved the filler dispersion and interfacial adhesion between PP and CPH. Moreover, some properties of PP/CPH composites with GCA are better compared to PP/CPH composites with MAPP or MAA. This outcome implied that GCA could be a potential coupling agent for thermoplastic composite materials.
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Preparation and properties of successive alkali treated completely biodegradable short jute fiber reinforced PLA composites
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2015
  • POLYM COMPOSITE
The natural fiber reinforced biodegradable polymer composites were prepared with short jute fiber as reinforcement in PLA (Poly lactic acid) matrix. The short jute fiber is successively treated with NaOH at various concentrations (5%, 10%, and 15%) and H2O2. The composites were prepared with untreated and treated short jute fibers at different weight proportions (up to 25%) in PLA and investigated for mechanical properties. The results showed that the composite with successive alkali treated jute fiber at 10% NaOH and H2O2 with 20% fiber loading has shown 18% higher flexural strength than neat PLA and untreated jute/PLA composite. The flexural modulus of the composite at 25% fiber loading was 125% and 110% higher than that of composites with untreated fibers and neat PLA, respectively. The impact strength of composite with untreated fibers at higher fiber weight fraction was 23% high as compared to neat PLA and 26% high compared to composite with treated fibers. The water absorption was more for untreated jute/PLA composite at 25% fiber loading than all other composites. The composite with untreated fibers has high thermal degradation compared with treated fibers but lower than that of pure PLA matrix. The enzymatic environment has increased the rate of degradation of composites as compared to soil burial. Surface morphology of biodegraded surfaces of the composites were studied using SEM method. POLYM. COMPOS., 2015.
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Preparation and Characterization of Physical Properties of Durian Skin Fibers Biocomposite
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2012
Durian skin fibres (DSF) are cellulose-based fibres extracted from the durian peel. This paper present the physical behaviour, chemical structure and crystallinity of the fibres, as observed by environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The characteristic of the natural fibers produces from durian skins are similar with other types of natural fiber. The average diameter and density are 0.299 mm and 1.243 g/cm3, respectively while the crystallinity index is slightly higher than the common fibers. The properties and charecteristic of durian skin fibers are within the propertise of lignocellulosic fiber which is suitable for development of biocomposite materials.
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Green composites from kapok husk and recycled polypropylene
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2015
The present work was developed to utilize kapok husk (KH) as filler in recycled polypropylene (rPP) green composites. Stearic acid (SA) was used as surface modifier in rPP/KH composites. It was found that the modified KH with SA was reduced the stabilization torque of composites. The addition of KH in rPP decreased the tensile strength and elongation at break but increased tensile modulus of composites. The modified KH with SA improved the tensile strength, tensile modulus, crystallinity, and thermal stability of composites. The scanning electron microscopic micrograph provd that the interfacial interaction and adhesion was improved by SA modification.
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Polylactic acid/corn cob eco-composites: Effect of new organic coupling agent
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2013
A new organic coupling agent called coconut oil coupling agent (COCA) was produced from coconut oil. The effects of filler content and COCA on mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of corn cob (CC)-filled polylactic acid (PLA) eco-composites were studied. The results show that the addition of CC decreased the tensile strength and elongation at break but increased the modulus of elasticity of PLA/CC eco-composites. However, the presence of COCA improved the tensile strength, elongation at break, and modulus of elasticity of PLA/CC eco-composites. Meanwhile, the glass transition temperature (T g) of PLA/CC eco-composites was increased by increasing the CC content and COCA treatment. The peak crystallization temperature (Tc) in PLA/CC eco-composites indicated the nucleating effect of CC and the Tc of PLA/CC eco-composites decreased at 40 php of CC content. The addition of CC increased the melting temperature (Tm) of PLA/CC eco-composites but reduced the crystallinity of PLA/CC eco-composites. The COCA treatment enhanced the mechanical properties and the crystallization process of PLA/CC eco-composites. The Tc and Tm of PLA/CC eco-composites were not significantly affected by COCA treatment. The presence of COCA improved the adhesion and interaction between CC and PLA matrix.
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Influence of bleaching treatment by hydrogen peroxide on chitosan/durian husk cellulose biocomposite films
Article
This study covered the preparation and characterization of durian husk cellulose (DHC)-filled chitosan (CS) biocomposite films. The effects of the DHC content and bleaching treatment via hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on the tensile and thermal properties of the CS/DHC biocomposite films were investigated. The results showed that the tensile strength and percentage of elongation at break decreased with increasing DHC contents, but the modulus of elasticity of the CS/DHC biocomposite films increased along with the DHC contents. The bleaching treatment of the durian husk is to remove the lignin content to form bleached DHC, resulting in an improvement of tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and thermal properties of bleached CS/DHC biocomposite films. The functional groups of the unbleached and bleached DHC filler were proved by the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis, and the thermal stability and glass transition temperature (Tg) of the CS/DHC biocomposite films were measured by the thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, respectively.
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Degradation studies during water absorption, aerobic biodegradation, and soil burial of biobased thermoplastic starch from agricultural waste/polypropylene blends
Article
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) from agricultural waste consisting of different amylose/amylopectin ratios was blended with polypropylene (PP) for degradation studies. The agricultural waste material was obtained from seeds and tubers with low starch contents of ∼50%. Non-Fickian behavior was observed for the water absorption test, and water uptake increased with increases in amylopectin content. The biodegradation was assessed based on the extent of carbon conversion, and was found to be dependent on the water absorption behavior and molecular structure of the starch component. Outdoor soil burial showed greater weight loss and deterioration in tensile properties compared to indoor soil burial. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
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Effect of filler loading and coconut oil coupling agent on properties of low-density polyethylene and palm kernel shell eco-composites
Article
  • Jul 2014
  • J VINYL ADDIT TECHN
Palm kernel shell (PKS), a waste from the oil palm industry, has been utilized as filler in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) eco-composites in the present work. The effect of PKS content and coconut oil coupling agent (COCA) on tensile properties, water absorption, and morphological and thermal properties of LDPE/PKS eco-composites was investigated. The results show the increase of PKS content decreased the tensile strength and elongation at break, but increased the tensile modulus, crystallinity, and water absorption of eco-composites. The presence of COCA as coupling agent improved the filler-matrix adhesion yield to increase the tensile strength, tensile modulus, crystallinity, and reduced water absorption of eco-composites. The better interfacial adhesion between PKS and LDPE with the addition of COCA was also evidenced by scanning electron microscopy studies. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 2014. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers
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Mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of durian skin fibre reinforced PLA biocomposites
Article
  • Jul 2014
  • MATER DESIGN
Durian skin waste generated by durian fruit or Durio zibethinus Murray show potential as a new reinforcement based-natural fibre. Similar to other lignocellulosic fibre, durian skin fibre (DSF) is capable in reinforcing polylactic acid (PLA) through extrusion and injection moulding processes for various applications. In current study, the effects of fibre content and pre-treatment using 4% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on DSF were investigated on impact and thermal properties of PLA biocomposites. Treated DSF significantly enhanced the properties of PLA biocomposites as compared to untreated biocomposite. PLA can be replaced by 30 wt% DSF for similar impact performance. Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) demonstrated that pre-treated DSF improved the thermal stability of PLA biocomposite. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed the presence of pre-treated DSF minimally enhanced the glass transition temperature (Tg), crystallization temperature (Tc) and melting temperature (Tm) relative to untreated DSF which suggests on better reinforcement with NaOH pre-treatment.
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