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Towards a Learning Oriented Architecture for Digitally Enabled Knowledge Work:
A Cross Case Analyses in the Professional Services Industry
Jörgen Jaanus
Nina Suomi
Tobias Ley
1. Problem statement
Knowledge workers are the main source of competitive advantage for most companies,
especially in knowledge intensive sectors. In the professional services industry, for example,
knowledge workers constitute the main productive factor as the quality of services offered
highly depends on their expertise and professional judgment.
With the growing digitization in all sectors during the last decade knowledge work has
dramatically changed (Palvalin et al., 2013). There seems to be an assumption that knowledge
workers seamlessly adapt to these challenges of digitization. After all, working with digital
information is one of their main activities. But is this really the case? Information is still
growing at incredible rates, while the cognitive apparatus of human kind has not changed
much during the last centuries. Demands on speed and flexibility have been growing.
Especially in the services industry, efficiency demands have reduced time for learning and
personal development. The huge number of customized products and services as well as their
shortened life cycle leaves less room for training. The focus therefore needs to shift from just
in case training to continuous and just in time learning that is connected to job demands.
Information technology should act as a natural companion for knowledge workers by making
information easily accessible and sharable. It should also turn digital information into a
productive resource that helps to create value and facilitates the overall strive for efficiency,
consistency and sustainability. Knowledge management platforms have been created with the
promise to address some of these challenges. However, many studies show that knowledge
management platforms are still dysfunctional (Sultan, 2013) and they do not deliver the
important promise to better integrate learning with job demands in knowledge work.
In this paper, we suggest a framework for implementation of knowledge management
technology in such a way that it would contribute to a better connection of just in time
learning to business demands. We call the framework learning oriented architecture. The
framework centrally draws on knowledge organisation systems (KOS) to establish this
connection, and it enables the development of several knowledge services that support
knowledge workers in performing important tasks as well as their learning on the job.
In the following section, we will review the conceptual foundation of the approach that lies in
social knowledge management theories. We will then present four case studies we have
Preprint of: Jaanus, J., Ley, T., & Suomi, N. (2018). Towards a Learning Oriented Architecture for Digitally Enabled
Knowledge Work: A Cross Case Analyses in the Professional Services Industry. In K. North, R. Maier, & O. Haas (Eds.),
Knowledge Management in Digital Change - New Findings and Practical Cases (pp. 247–262). Heidelberg: Springer.
http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73546-7_15
conducted in professional services companies to illustrate the framework and to reveal how
it has provided a valuable perspective on challenges and potential solutions in those cases.
We will then present the conceptual model of learning oriented architecture for knowledge
work.
2. Conceptual Foundation
For knowledge workers learning is crucial, not only in the sense of learning to understand but
also learning to perform for achieving professional goals (Ley et al., 2008). Informal learning is
a significant aspect of learning experience, it occurs in a variety of ways – through
communities of practice, personal networks, and through completion of work-related tasks
(Siemens, 2005; Ley et al., 2014). Information that resides in a database needs to be connected
with the right people in the right context in order to enable learning and knowledge
development (North and Kumta, 2014). For organizations, the attempt of making knowledge
available for reusing purposes is handled through customer relationship management (CRM),
document management, collaboration tools, project management and learning management.
Those platforms are typically connected with knowledge organization systems such as
glossaries, taxonomies, ontologies etc. In many organizational settings knowledge
management roles and programs are not visible but have been embedded into other
initiatives. Consequently, the artefacts and tools have to be considered in dispersed
organizational environment.
A perspective that explicitly addresses Knowledge Management from a social learning
perspective is Knowledge Maturing as it describes organizational learning process as goal-
oriented learning on a collective level. In the Knowledge Maturing model learning activities
are embedded into, interwoven with, and even indistinguishable from everyday work
processes and practices. Knowledge is continuously repackaged, enriched, shared,
reconstructed, translated and integrated etc. across different interlinked individual learning
processes. During this process knowledge becomes less contextualized, more explicitly linked,
easier to communicate; shortly, it matures (Schmidt et al., 2009).
Despite substantial effort and investment, knowledge management platforms remain
dysfunctional as they do not accommodate learning context. Tight integration of working and
learning in a workplace learning environment relies on a clear computer-interpretable
conception of what content the material in question actually conveys (Ley et al., 2008). Given
the case of a typical IT-based workplace of a knowledge worker, the workplace learning
context needs to take care of at least three conceptual spaces that are considered to make up
the workplace: the work space, the learning space and the knowledge space (Lindstaedt and
Farmer, 2004). Learning and knowledge building activities must bring together elements
originating from and necessitated by the social, organizational and informal context of
organizational learning, along with motivational and self-regulatory aspects that aim for the
individual learning of knowledge workers (Stokic et al., 2013).
Knowledge management is inherently collaborative; thus, a variety of collaboration
technologies can be used to support KM practices (Pawlowski et al. 2014). Collaborative KM
tools allow people to share documents, make comments, engage in discussion, create
schematic diagrams, etc. and can therefore be valuable aids to support organizational
learning. Furthermore, the policies and ways in which collaborative KM tools are used can
either facilitate or impede organizational learning as their use changes organizational practice.
Indeed, the management of technology and the practices of using technological artefacts are
always critical issues (Jones, 2001).
According to Caruso organizations are focusing on workforce productivity and are beginning
to increase their focus on human resource development, a win-win situation for the employer
as well as for the employee (Caruso, 2009). Performance support is a discipline of enabling
human performance on the job. It helps people to do their work and to develop competence
through the normal course of doing work, rather than through off-job training or extensive
reading. Ultimately, it supports the performance of a business through enabling the
performance of individual knowledge workers (Davenport and Prusak, 2002). For performance
requirements, the knowledge content has to be delivered in the context of the work, where
most of the learning need is. Any performance support solution must consider the three roles
of the knowledge worker: learner, performer and expert (Lindstaedt and Mayer, 2006).
The process of knowledge reuse and knowledge creation needs to be balanced by integration
of routine and structured information processing, non-routine and unstructured learning at
collective level in the same business model. According to Ford and Mason, knowledge
management efforts represent attempts to formalize these processes (Ford and Mason,
2013). In 2011, Back and Koch stated that Knowledge Management has undergone some
development in the last decade: From a focus on capturing (i.e. externalizing) information
from people and storing the information in databases without having a particular use in mind
the focus has shifted to learning that knowledge is somehow bound to people and that it is
therefore essential to connect people instead of filling databases (Back and Koch, 2011).
Organizations can promote knowledge creation by a strategy that combines support for
collecting and connecting activities, and designs mechanisms for collecting activities targeted
at individuals plus mechanisms for connecting activities targeted at individuals and collectives
(Kaschig et al., 2016).
The following section provides an overview of four cases we have conducted to tackle the
challenges that arise from a disconnect to knowledge management platforms from value
creation activities in knowledge work. From these cases, we have developed the concept of a
learning oriented architecture as a systematic way to address the challenges.
3. Overview of Cases
Table 1 provides an overview of the four case studies. First, it is a company in financial industry
where the KOS have the crucial role due to the reporting, compliance and business intelligence
requirements which become reflected by Extract, Transform, Load (ETL) process. For the
development of knowledge management platforms it was critical to establish taxonomies and
glossaries in the framework of dynamic business modelling. Second company can be described
as international business network where specific business targets were driving KOS
development and knowledge management platforms were taken as a tool for managing
requirements knowledge. For the third company the task to develop knowledge management
platforms started with KOS (inventory of taxonomy elements) and business targets but was
then enhanced by motivating the knowledge workers through their professional growth and
development. In the fourth case the company interest in knowledge management platforms
was driven by the overall, industry-wide digitalization agenda. The growing role of
competencies and competency development within HR industry provided an essential focus
and direction.
Table 1. Overview of the cases
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Company and
domain
Leasing and asset
management
Accounting and
financial services
Legal services and risk
management
Staffing and training
Type of knowledge
managed
Ontology about
products and services
Requirements
knowledge
Assignment records
Competency
definitions
Main challenges
Adapting to
continued change
Mapping
requirements
Drawing from past
experiences for
learning and overall
efficiency.
Acquiring new
competencies
Methods employed
Interviews (18) with
management and BI
professionals,
analysis of concepts
in the ontology
Qualitative research
approach which
included semi-
structured interviews
(7) and data analysis.
Interviews (12),
analysis of taxonomy
structure and
content, using test
account in KM
platforms
Critical incident
analysis, repertory
grid, interviews (7).
We will develop the learning oriented architecture after conducting four case studies in the
professional services industry. The professional services industry is a particularly well-suited
domain for the present purposes. The industry has been undergoing tremendous changes and
is especially impacted by the digitalization. Knowledge work plays an important role in
establishing competitive advantage in the industry. There is also a particular challenge to
balance the growing demands introduced through the massively growing information and
ever-increasing speed on one hand and the need for informed professional judgments on the
other. The case studies were drawn from four different domains and broadly covered the
challenges faced by the industry.
The common underlying challenge in those case studies has been the development or
improvement of knowledge management platforms to make them functional and contribute
to value creation. As knowledge organization systems are seen as a way to include the
knowledge perspective into designing information systems, it became the key topic over all
the cases. We define KOS as expression of semantic meaning through classification logic.
There are four knowledge organization systems that can be used to model and organize
concepts and to describe terms semantically: controlled vocabularies, taxonomies, thesaurus,
and ontologies. In this semantic continuum ontologies which is a formal, explicit specification
of a shared conceptualization (Gruber, 1993) have the strongest semantics, comprising a
taxonomy as proper part, whose representational units are intended to designate some
combination of universals, defined classes, and certain relations between them (Smith et al.,
2006)
In the first case, we study the ontology change which is conducted as concept compounding
for understanding the mechanisms related to reaching the shared conceptualization as the
cornerstone of any knowledge management platform. The four case studies were done
sequentially and the second case complimented the business targets and collective
considerations that drive the need for reaching shared conceptualization. In the third case,
the focus turned to the individual level where the strive towards shared understanding is
emerging as the individual learning and is focused on connecting specialized information sets,
and the connections that enable to learn more are more important than our current state of
knowing (Siemens, 2014). We therefore studied the formation of individual learning goals and
their connections to corporate knowledge base in the fourth case study. This perspective
where there is knowledge organized and common understanding reached through KOS and it
gets advanced by business interest at the collective level and learning interest at the
individual, knowledge worker level is the basic building foundation of any knowledge
management platform, however, the potential of those platforms still remains idle. Due to the
lack of context specific elements such as skills and behaviours the knowledge management
platforms function more like document management systems. According to Sveiby,
knowledge is the capacity to act (Sveiby, 2001). KOS development is shaped by business and
individual factors but these factors must be connected in order for them to be developed into
competencies that can form a conceptually suitable solution. Competency definitions became
the key theme in the fourth and final case study.
The cases were conducted over a four year period and can be shortly summarized as following:
First, it was our interest to understand the KOS development, and then we studied how the
development of KOS is typically driven by collective business interest. We then continued to
investigate the individual interest to learn in case number three. On this ground, in the fourth
case, it was needed to add the element that creates the context to act and enables connecting
the collective and individual interests.
Case 1. Ontological change in a leasing and assets company
Problem
The first case is set in a leasing and asset management company. Employees in this company
frequently work with different types of taxonomies and glossaries that describe, for example,
products and their properties or typical customer segments. In order to improve the efficiency
of working and the findability of documents, these taxonomies are embedded into various
information systems used at the company. Problems frequently appear when the glossaries
change. New concepts are introduced but they are not necessarily immediately understood
by all and this is reflected in the information systems. Whenever a new concept is created, it
needs to be compounded to the existing knowledge organization systems. This case tackled
the challenge of aligning continuous knowledge development in innovation-driven context
with managing additions to established knowledge organization systems.
Approach
In Enterprise Application Software that form a framework for work processes and practices
knowledge organization systems are ubiquitous. They are found in the form of shared folder
structures, product categories, customer segments, staff positions etc. We look at the
changing nature of these structures as a form of ontological change that happens in concepts
and glossaries. Considering ontology as a formal, explicit specification of a shared
conceptualization (Dietz, 2006), changing semantics (like adding customer sub-type to
glossary) is consequently transferred to business rules and enables modelling of knowledge
intensive processes. We take the view that in such situations knowledge workers learn and
reflect and they interpret data through semantic structures. Those structures exist both at the
individual level (as individual knowledge) and at the collective level (as shared
conceptualizations). This interpretation and insight leads to a formation of new ideas. Viewed
in this way, establishing a new concept is a learning process where the term has to be
negotiated for maintaining the shared conceptualization. Defining the terms in data
management is primarily about setting the relations to other entities and attributes (Chisholm,
2009). It is not possible to provide an adequate definition unless there is an in-depth
understanding of the classification logic within the project team or within the broader
community. We have applied the model of knowledge maturing (see above) that looks at the
changing conceptualizations in terms of how these individual and collective structures interact
over time.
Method
For the first case study, we have applied document analyses and structured interviews. When
starting with the documents we located a number of collaboration sites where the
vocabularies are developed. Those glossaries are represented with terms, definitions and “is-
a” and “is-part-of” relationships between them. The terms are in English, Finnish and
sometimes additionally in some other language of the country where the company is
operating. Due to the existing classification logic and inference rules in this corporate glossary
we consider it conceptually as an ontology. Technically the glossary was a collection of six
SharePoint sites where most of the SharePoint 2010 functionalities were used for managing
the concepts’ lifecycle from initiation to replacement.
As new concepts emerge through knowledge maturing process and have a direct impact on
enterprise knowledge organization systems, a longitudinal approach that follows the
development of new concepts over time is needed. Our approach was to extract the concepts
that were initiated during the last six-month period by the knowledge workers who are the
experts of the domain knowledge. It was possible to extract the ongoing development projects
through the access to the Business Development framework development plan. Due to this
extraction, it was possible to focus on concepts that were still at their early stage of lifecycle
but at the same time matured enough for further analysis. As the next step of the analysis we
separated the entities and attributes that helped us to focus on six emerging concepts for
further analysis.
Results
While conducting research as the document analysis an essential role of classification logic
became evident. Due to the missing common understanding, the compounding of new
concepts was more difficult as well and the probability of arguments and misunderstandings
was high. Based on the interviews’ results the quality of existing definitions was considered to
be insufficient for compounding of a new term as a related concept.
This research case led us to the design of three designated services:
a) Compounding services lead to retrieval and presentation of associative concepts. It
works by relating the emerging concept to the existing concepts by setting criteria on
common attributes, class relations and associative relations.
b) Process modelling services include developing knowledge intensive processes by
enriching them with business rules. It enables collective information mapping, retrieval
and annotation based on the underlying KOS model.
c) Association services enable to annotate unstructured information such as manuals,
presentations, documents or specific snippets by tag recommendation system which
is based on real time data driven ontology as described in previous chapter.
Associations lead to improved data-driven knowledge development and decision
making. It leads to the development of new competencies.
Insights to learning oriented architecture
The design oriented research which leads to the experimental development of these services
is considered over the next cases in attempting to align knowledge development between
innovation-driven context and knowledge organization systems. Any learning has an impact
on KOS as representation of shared conceptualization. Studying ontological change has
created the role of KOS in the context of learning oriented architecture.
Case 2. Managing Requirements Knowledge in a financial services organization
Problem
The second case in an accounting and financial services organization adds the requirements
knowledge for connecting the business layer and collective knowledge organization in
communities. Previously drivers for change towards centralization and standardization have
been mainly efficiency benefits and cost reductions through scale of economy and
standardization. It had been decided to develop a standardized digital framework for network
collaboration across companies and business areas, which is a major step forward in
standardizing systems and processes within the business network.
Approach
Requirements represent a verbalization of decision alternatives on the functionality and
quality of a system (Maalej and Thurimella, 2013). Engineering, planning and implementing
requirements are collaborative, problem-solving activities, where stakeholders consume and
produce considerable amounts of knowledge. Managing requirements knowledge is about
efficiently identifying, accessing, externalizing, and sharing this knowledge by and to all
stakeholders and it becomes even more complex when several organizations collaborate to
develop the system.
Method
Any Enterprise Application Software solution needs to be considered as a potential source of
requirements knowledge and a development of those applications has to consider existing
and possible future interoperability needs. To make a system interoperable it is important to
formally capture and incorporate the semantics of concepts. Terminology is needed to
describe the processes and the related products, services, organizational designations, roles,
business rules and types of information.
We employed a qualitative research approach that included semi-structured interviews and
analysis of secondary data like internal and external reports, articles, presentation materials,
process maps, detailed work instructions and additional internal documentation. Data from
multiple sources was then converged in the analysis process rather than handled individually.
Data interpretation relied on triangulation approach at two different dimensions. Initially we
considered the existing situation based on working documents, snapshots, project reviews
etc. and compared it with the future perspective which was based on management vision and
project plans. The second perspective enabled to compare more general reports and
guidelines (matured knowledge) to the drafts and working documents.
Results
We complemented the usual perspective on efficiency in cross-organizational networks with
a knowledge sharing and creation perspective. Therefore, we propose to manage
requirements knowledge in business networks in line with the knowledge maturing model.
The conceptual model for requirements knowledge which – instead of looking at single
activities of retrieval – considers a continuous cycle where the knowledge intensive processes
and requirements shape each other. This cycle sets the overall approach on quality and
efficiency requirements for the learning oriented architecture.
Insights to learning oriented architecture
Our findings for meeting innovation requirements reflect that the selective access to
communication platforms due to the less formal network structure needs to be enhanced by
process based roles and tasks of employees for successfully applying the business rules.
Considering efficiency requirements diverse data sources result in the need to capture and
incorporate the semantics of concepts for elimination of duplicated process related effort
using association services. Regarding quality requirements the guidance role of matured
knowledge, such as standards, best practices, controls etc. needs to be integrated to the
knowledge management platforms by implementing process modelling services.
Case 3. Establishing Learning Goals in risk management and legal services company
Problem
The third case study was carried out in a legal services and risk management business
organization and it was about implementing learning goals as boundary objects. In this
organization KM platforms have been taken as „nice to have”. Consequently, they fall between
established work processes and endeavour for professional growth and thus do not contribute
to business targets. The initial review indicated that KM platforms fall between ongoing peer
communication and reluctance to contribute to the abstract knowledge base beyond
community and geographical location. Investing into out of box software solutions had led to
insufficient focus on cultural and business aspects. Case study on KOS from integrated
perspective comprising personal, organizational and industry-wide perspectives was well
positioned in this professional services company where the focus on knowledge management
and related practices is advanced compared to overall industry practice. It enables the shift of
focus from dispersed technological agenda to more integrated organizational issues.
Approach
We consider learning goals as boundary objects for integrating emerging ideas with more
mature forms of knowledge. Boundary objects are plastic, interpreted differently across
communities but with enough immutable content to maintain integrity. This perspective has
broadened the value of knowledge organization systems from solely standardization and
findability to coordination and sense-making, consequently supplementing to learning effort.
The role of the boundary object is not the by-product of organizing knowledge but it is
essential to consider KOS as artefacts becoming mediators of distributed cognition as
described by Wallace and Ross (Wallace and Ross, 2006).
Method
Interviews with the associates at different levels of seniority from different locations across
Europe was needed for capturing the individual perspective. For creating boundary objects,
we studied all the existing forms of KOS by conducting tests using the temporary account for
all the KM platforms. We also used secondary data in the form of term lists, taxonomies and
interviews on changes in knowledge base in the form of concept compounding. As an example
of the work for creating boundary objects we compared KOS across different domains
(department management, assignment management, accounting, employment
administration, training) in order to connect concepts like overtime, shift planning, additional
salary, regulated working hours and identified unique skills to the concept of service level that
in this instance becomes boundary object.
Results
The knowledge processes represent a range of different ways of creating knowledge. They are
forms of action, or things you do in order to know. Based on 20 interviews in four offices across
different countries, document analysis and knowledge management platform tests we have
established the following knowledge processes which rely on boundary objects: 1) connecting
internal and external knowledge bases for seamless performance support by presenting
integrated information units as snippets and contributing to the performer role; 2) creating
personal learning goals based on the types of assignment and roles within assignment for
promoting expert role; 3) establishing context for the individual documents in assignment
library for learning and re-use.
Insights to learning oriented architecture
The indicated knowledge processes have been taken as the point of departure when
establishing the fourth case study. Applying participatory design in developing KM platforms
the focus is stretched from software to business and cultural aspects. It leads to connecting
private level KOS and collective level KOS and the consequent learning effort. Boundary
objects supplement corporate metadata and create the basis for learning oriented
architecture.
Case 4. Developing competencies in training industry
Problem
The fourth and final case was carried out in an organization providing staffing and training
services. It demonstrated the learning oriented architecture and complemented the
competence based view by adding the user, i.e. human perspective. In this study, the status
quo in the organization is an obsolete knowledge management platform that does not
accommodate learning perspective: The digital platforms exist but based on earlier studies,
observations and interviews they are considered as time consuming and irrelevant. They store
data and information but do not manage to connect it between each employee and each
platform. This collective knowledge remains arbitrary and thus does not contribute to
learning.
Digitalization has become high priority in their corporate agenda with the goal of digitally
enabled knowledge work. It must comprise skills and specifically the support for acquiring
those skills. The position of knowledge management platforms in the context of digitalization
remains weak as learning goals are considered only through knowledge as the theoretical or
practical understanding of a subject. Skills define specific learned activities and can be more
easily integrated into the knowledge management platforms. Competences comprise on-the-
job behaviours as abilities to perform the job requirements competently. It has become a well-
established concept in human resource management but typically it remains disregarded in
the digitization agenda.
Approach
To transform this type of knowledge into cognitive knowledge requires an individual
approach. Initial learning takes place on an individual level and only then escalates to
collective learning. This is where an individual is able to restructure the data and information
and form connections between different pieces of knowledge. This is done via discussions and
co-operation with colleagues, clients and other stakeholders. After having formed the
connections the collective sense of learning can emerge: The collective as organization is able
to acquire skills and become competent in different areas of tasks and operations in general.
As this case study aimed at studying how to connect the individual learning with the collective
learning, it was important to begin with by clarifying the individual’s key learning
opportunities: What lead the individual to a learning experience? Was there something or
somebody in the environment that contributed to this? How a good decision was made, and
why was it good? We aimed finding out whether a specific learning experience could be an
occurring event; and if so, how could it be recognized on an organizational level to support
further learning by integrating it to the knowledge base. We followed the approach
implemented in modern Human Resource (HR) technologies.
Method
Knowing that the organization requires learning to maintain its competitiveness and that it
can only learn after individual learning has first taken place, it was crucial to define the
moments when the individual learning happens. This was examined with the help of reflective
methodology and the method of critical incident analysis. Based on the results of interviews
with employees it was possible to construct certain key moments that the individual him or
herself considered crucial in regard to learning. We drew conclusions from the constructs and
implemented critical learning moments into the participatory design of a user focused digital
platform. The critical reflection methodology enables understanding and structuring the
development of professional self and scaffolds the integration of personal learning
perspective and the collective knowledge base. KOS based pattern recognition as learning
activity enables connection making between the processes, tasks, skills and competencies
and, consequently, builds on construction towards critical reflective action.
Results
For an organization to learn as a collective, individual learning needs to occur first. For the
professional development of knowledge workers the future of any knowledge organization is
dependent on establishing sound recruiting, career planning and placement policies. HR
technologies follow the organizational perspective and take gradual, cyclical view on
knowledge workers with the following stages: sourcing, screening, selection, induction,
training, collaboration, retention. Those stages can be connected to the development of
professional self and studied through reflection using repertory grid as well as critical incident
analysis. It enables the use of reflection in learning as described by Gray (Gray, 2006). Beyond
that it is viable to extract the additional layer that depicts the competences and connects to
business layer and knowledge workers' communities using knowledge organization systems.
Constructs on professional self are then in the role of boundary object and facilitate
establishing learning goals. As an instance in the framework within the case study, a daily task
of an employee may be a personality assessment interview. This task falls under a certain
business process (Executive Search) and requires interviewing skills to be performed
successfully. The employee might aim at becoming the assignment manager of similar projects
in the future and thus may require project management training that would support his/her
aspirations. In order for the employee to develop the needed skills the organization must
recognize the need. The construct “recognized as an expert” serves as the boundary object
and when linked to the specific element in repertory grid (e.g. me when I get an
offer/promotion), enables the organization to recognize and connect the learning experience.
Insights to learning oriented architecture
Competencies as individually learned abilities and on-the-job behaviours provide a systematic
and comprehensive structure that can be integrated into the collective understanding of the
subject represented by digital Knowledge Management platforms. The critical reflection
methodology provides tools for understanding and structuring the development of
professional self and leads to integration of personal perspective to the collective knowledge
base. Finally, pattern recognition as learning activity enables connection making between the
processes, tasks, skills and competencies
4. Learning Oriented Architecture
To address the challenges of digitalization and to integrate it into knowledge work, any
approach to knowledge management needs to give learning a more prominent position in
knowledge management platforms. Moreover, implementing knowledge management
platforms needs to start from business goals (Chen and Huang, 2011). Here we draw on the
three fundamental business aims: efficiency, quality and sustainability.
Below we propose the concept of a Learning Oriented Architecture, i.e. integrating the overall
goals towards efficiency, quality and sustainability as depicted in the Figure 1 below.
Implementing competence based view to the Knowledge Management platform is not a minor
improvement but rather an overall design approach.
Figure 1. Formation of Learning Oriented Architecture
Tasks together with business processes and related skills are connected to the digital
representation of business organization through knowledge organization systems. Making
knowledge available has primarily been considered search and findability issue but richer
semantics fuelled by KOS helps to connect more tasks, processes and skills. It reduces a
duplicated effort, prevents reinventing the wheel and levels the workload of knowledge
workers. Increased quality is achieved by better KOS based data definitions with straight
impact on business rules and procedures within the processes. Consequently the professional
decision making follows more guidance, it is taken to the more stable track which leads to
high(er) consistency. Sustainability reflects the more general endeavour towards shared
conceptual understanding of the domain specific issues between collective and individual
level. Rich semantics with equivalence, hierarchical and associative relationships reflects such
conceptualization and provides context in learning. Establishing these connections becomes
the foundation for implementing knowledge management platforms.
As indicated in the context of previous cases, those platforms typically enable two essential
business goals: efficiency and quality. Efficiency target is reached by implementing the key
principle of knowledge management that thrives to make knowledge gained available for
those who need it next (e.g. library of cases, market metadata related tags, expert advice in
enterprise social media). Quality is reached by maintaining and collectively developing the
knowledge for ensuring the consistency in carrying out the tasks within the business processes
(e.g. business rules, data definitions). Learning goals are derived from product and service
glossary while today in general the systems rely largely on intranet, fuelled by document
management and enhanced by some social media functionality.
Sustainability is achieved by adding learning context together with the reflection of
competencies to the knowledge management platforms. It becomes a motivating factor for
knowledge workers. It leads to increased job satisfaction through status as well as by achieving
professional goals and by ensuring the unity between personal goals and targets set by
organization. Consequent longer working relationships is clearly a factor which leads to
sustainability. Parallel to that the cycle of knowledge development from personal to network
to organization allows learners to remain current in their field through the connections they
have formed. It is the basis for generating new ideas and making better business decisions.
All three business goals are clearly important: efficiency as companies need to react faster and
faster, quality as companies want to ensure a consistent service for their clients, and
sustainability as professional judgment needs to be continuously ensured despite increasing
complexities and speed.
The competency development in this model is based on knowledge management platform
which connects the business organization (tasks, processes and skills) and knowledge worker
in one’s different roles.
5. Conclusions
The figure below that depicts individual and collective perspective in learning enables the
main generalization and conclusions from the different case studies.
Figure 2. Individual and collective perspectives in learning
As reported by the first case, knowledge workers need learning and reflection and they
interpret data residing in domain knowledge base through semantic structures that can be
both at individual and collective level. This interpretation and insight is a cognitive process and
leads to a formation of new ideas. In the second case, for generalization of the solution
instance the research has indicated the unity of requirements knowledge where all the
requirements need to be managed from balanced perspective. Innovation requires the cross-
organizational completeness of information where quality becomes precursor through
following best practice as a cognitive learning process. Beyond that efficiency is taken as an
imperative for connecting shared services providers’ tasks, various processes and related need
for acquiring competencies. Within the third case we concluded that applying participatory
design in developing knowledge management platforms shifts the focus from software to
business and cultural aspects. Participatory design leads to connecting private level KOS and
collective level KOS and the consequent learning effort. Boundary objects supplement
corporate metadata and create business processes, tasks and skills to competencies and
constructs of professional self. It has led to the development of learning oriented architecture.
While the learning oriented architecture has been derived from four independent case studies
with the core focus to find ways to develop knowledge management platforms, the individual
and collective perspective in learning demonstrates the future outlook of the ongoing
research. The consecutive next research stage would be the case study with a systematic and
focused approach to the overall model of learning oriented architecture following the
individual and collective perspective through all the stages.
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