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Migration, human smuggling and trafficking

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... Gaventa (1980) posits that powerlessness is not a personal problem of the powerless, but rather a social circumstance that is embedded in inequality and the deprivation of social solutions, validating the importance of understanding 'context, time and milieu' when studying violence (Bosi, Ó Dochartaigh & Pisoiu, 2016). This is important in our study which shows the continuation of violence in different locations and contexts, and how circumstances may increase vulnerability Commendable research has been done on how the Nigerian trafficking networks recruit, coerce and control victims, on the trafficking of Nigerian women, and narratives of the Nigerian women in detention centres in Libya and Italy (Braimah 2013;Carling, 2006;Esposito et al., 2016;Esposito et al., 2019;Osezua, 2016). Yet, little is still known on to what extent the experiences of violence, especially sexual violence, and related exploitation, are part of the migration trajectories of female victims of trafficking before they arrive in the country of destination. ...
... One form of violence that they experienced, but never referred to as violence, was the juju rituals that they underwent in Nigeria, and for one participant in Libya. In the Nigerian human trafficking networks, before embarking on the journey to Europe, the women and teenagers are taken to a shrine where they swear an oath to conceal the identity of the trafficker and to repay the amount determined by the trafficker as the cost of the journey (Aikpitanyi, 2011; Babatunde, 2014;Carling, 2006). Personal items such as hair, nails, underwear and even blood are then taken from them to hold them to their vows, and they are told that if they break their vows, evil will befall them and their loved ones (Aghatise, 2004;Baarda, 2016;Nagle & Owasanoye, 2016). ...
... The literature on prostitution and migration is often intertwined with research on human trafficking as migrants from economically disadvantaged places are particularly vulnerable to being exploited (O'Neill et al., 2009). This is also the case for most of the Nigerian women who end up in prostitution (Carling, 2006 ...
... 7 De aanwezigheid van vrouwelijke leidinggevende figuren binnen het mensenhandelnetwerk, in het bijzonder in de hoedanigheid van madams, is dus specifiek voor de Nigeriaanse (en Ghanese) mensenhandelnetwerken (siegel & De BlanK, 2010;leMan & janssens, 2013). Bovendien worden de Nigeriaanse mensenhandelnetwerken gekenmerkt door een zichzelf reproducerende, piramidale organisatiestructuur (Kaizen & nonneMan, 2007;carling, 2006): slachtoffers kunnen op termijn, na afbetaling van de vooropgestelde schulden (zie infra), gestimuleerd worden om een hiërarchisch hogere, actievere rol binnen het mensenhandelnetwerk op te nemen. Dit zorgt ervoor dat de scheidingslijn tussen slachtoffer en dader na verloop van tijd diffuus wordt (iacono, 2014). ...
... In een volgende fase stond doorgaans een mannelijk familielid van de madam in voor het regelen van de smokkel van de slachtoffers naar Europa. Er wordt hiernaar in de internationale literatuur verwezen als een travel agent (sKilBrei & tVeit, 2008;carling, 2006). Indien deze persoon tevens instaat voor het voorschieten van de onkosten van de reis, wordt er tevens van een sponsor gesproken (carling, 2006 Tot slot moet er vermeld worden dat er in verschillende dossiers beroep gedaan werd op externe personen die tegen betaling taken uitvoerden, gaande van het vervalsen van identiteitsdocumenten tot het uitvoeren van represailles tegenover de familie van niet-gewillige slachtoffers. ...
... Dit laat toe om zonder veel herhaling in te gaan op overeenstemmende, contrasterende en 'nieuwe' bevindingen uit het empirische onderzoek ten opzichte van de bestaande literatuur.Nigeria wordt, ondanks een rijkheid aan natuurlijke grondstoffen, gekenmerkt door een zeer grote sociale en economische ongelijkheid. Een situatie van extreme individuele armoede, een sociaal lage status als meisje/vrouw, een neergang van traditionele familiepatronen, en een gebrek aan scholing en de daaraan verbonden ongeletterdheid maken jonge(re) vrouwen kwetsbaar voor de lokroep van beelden uit de westerse consumptiemaatschappij(esposito et al., 2016: carling, 2006 onyejeKWe, 2005; nijBoer, VocKs & Van DijK, 2001). Deze lokgroep wordt versterkt door de terugkeer uit Europa van zogenaamde 'madams', die vervolgens een hoge levensstandaard in Nigeria kunnen onderhouden. ...
... Both Ireland and the Netherlands had very small numbers of Nigerian migrants up until the mid 1990s when financial collapse and political repression in Nigeria created new forms of emigration patterns, leading to a surge in the number claiming asylum across Europe (Carling, 2006;see also IOM, 2009;and Komolafe, 2008). The majority of Nigerian migrants to Ireland have been prompted by either economic necessity or as a result of political/ethnic/cultural conflict and violence (Komolafe, 2008). ...
... Over this time period the majority of asylum applications were made by African nationals and the largest group within this population are Nigerians, so much so that this has been reflected in racialised discourses in Ireland that have conflated 'asylum-seeker', 'African' and 'Nigerian' in debates about immigration, asylum and Irishness (Lentin & McVeigh, 2002). Between 2000 and 2006 Ireland moved from being an insignificant destination point to having the highest number of Nigerian asylum applicants in the EU (Carling, 2006). Asylum applications from Nigerian nationals increased rapidly to about 4000 per year in 2002. ...
... While numbers of Nigerian asylum seekers in Ireland rapidly increased after 1996, in the Netherlands a strikingly small number of Nigerians sought asylum (at this time Nigerians were the fifth largest asylum seeker group in Europe (Carling, 2006). A significant number of Nigerian migrants residing in the Netherlands are undocumented migrants although exact numbers are unknown. ...
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The phenomenon of families separated across continents is a result of migratory flows in a globalised world. Transnational families occur because one or both parents migrate internationally requiring children to be raised in transnational child-raising arrangements, with the help of caregivers. This study examines the health and the emotional well-being of Nigerian migrant parents living in Ireland and the Netherlands, using comparative analyses based on a survey of close to 300 migrant parents in each host country. Half of the sample in each country is living in transnational families the other half are not. This paper adds to the existing literature on transnational families by including control groups (migrants who are not separated from their children) and comparing migrant parents from the same origin country who live in different host countries, allowing us to identify the significance of migratory context and legal regimes in shaping the emotional well-being and health of parents. The results indicate that the factors that drive the health and emotional well-being of migrant parents are not solely related to their separation from their children but rather to other mediating variables such as legal status, socio-economic status, and the normative contexts. While Nigerian child fostering norms ease the influence of separation in both contexts, separate analyses of the Irish and the Netherlands sample show the more pronounced consequences of the mediating factors in the Irish sample, highlighting the differences in the migratory trajectories of Nigerian parents in Ireland and the Netherlands.
... 7 De aanwezigheid van vrouwelijke leidinggevende figuren binnen het mensenhandelnetwerk, in het bijzonder in de hoedanigheid van madams, is dus specifiek voor de Nigeriaanse (en Ghanese) mensenhandelnetwerken (siegel & De BlanK, 2010;leMan & janssens, 2013). Bovendien worden de Nigeriaanse mensenhandelnetwerken gekenmerkt door een zichzelf reproducerende, piramidale organisatiestructuur (Kaizen & nonneMan, 2007;carling, 2006): slachtoffers kunnen op termijn, na afbetaling van de vooropgestelde schulden (zie infra), gestimuleerd worden om een hiërarchisch hogere, actievere rol binnen het mensenhandelnetwerk op te nemen. Dit zorgt ervoor dat de scheidingslijn tussen slachtoffer en dader na verloop van tijd diffuus wordt (iacono, 2014). ...
... In een volgende fase stond doorgaans een mannelijk familielid van de madam in voor het regelen van de smokkel van de slachtoffers naar Europa. Er wordt hiernaar in de internationale literatuur verwezen als een travel agent (sKilBrei & tVeit, 2008;carling, 2006). Indien deze persoon tevens instaat voor het voorschieten van de onkosten van de reis, wordt er tevens van een sponsor gesproken (carling, 2006 Tot slot moet er vermeld worden dat er in verschillende dossiers beroep gedaan werd op externe personen die tegen betaling taken uitvoerden, gaande van het vervalsen van identiteitsdocumenten tot het uitvoeren van represailles tegenover de familie van niet-gewillige slachtoffers. ...
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Belgium is one of the main destination countries in Europe for Nigerian victims of sex trafficking. Based on a literature review, analyses of judicial files and an expert interview, this article describes the modi operandi of Nigerian sex trafficking networks. Different aspects are analysed: i) the vulnerabilities of the victims that are exploited, ii) the travel routes used by the traffickers, iii) the structure of and the actors in the network, iv) the coercive measures used by the traffickers, and v) the managing of black money. In this way, specific characteristics of Nigerians sex trafficking networks are distinguished, among which the presence of a female leader, the family-based structure of the networks and the use of voodoo related coercive techniques.
... As mentioned before, it is estimated that around 70 per cent of Nigerian women arriving in Europe are destined to work in the prostitution industry to pay the debt they have accumulated in order to finance their assisted migration (Ministero dell'Interno, 2016). This phenomenon is extremely complex and cannot be fully addressed here (Carling, 2006). However, what is important to stress is that this business flourishes at the intersection between widespread migration aspirations in the context of departure, limited avenues for legal international mobility as well as self-reinforcing mechanisms by which victims' interests converge with those of their exploiters. ...
... However, what is important to stress is that this business flourishes at the intersection between widespread migration aspirations in the context of departure, limited avenues for legal international mobility as well as self-reinforcing mechanisms by which victims' interests converge with those of their exploiters. This is the case when trafficked prostitutes become 'madamas' themselves or when the prospect of having their debt paid without breaking the religiously sealed pact keeps them loyal to their offenders after their arrival in Europe (Carling, 2006;Monzini, 2005Monzini, , 2007. Any policy aiming at addressing this phenomenon cannot avoid acknowledging its multi-faceted nature. ...
... As mentioned before, it is estimated that around 70 per cent of Nigerian women arriving in Europe are destined to work in the prostitution industry to pay the debt they have accumulated in order to finance their assisted migration (Ministero dell'Interno, 2016). This phenomenon is extremely complex and cannot be fully addressed here (Carling, 2006). However, what is important to stress is that this business flourishes at the intersection between widespread migration aspirations in the context of departure, limited avenues for legal international mobility as well as self-reinforcing mechanisms by which victims' interests converge with those of their exploiters. ...
... However, what is important to stress is that this business flourishes at the intersection between widespread migration aspirations in the context of departure, limited avenues for legal international mobility as well as self-reinforcing mechanisms by which victims' interests converge with those of their exploiters. This is the case when trafficked prostitutes become 'madamas' themselves or when the prospect of having their debt paid without breaking the religiously sealed pact keeps them loyal to their offenders after their arrival in Europe (Carling, 2006;Monzini, 2005Monzini, , 2007. Any policy aiming at addressing this phenomenon cannot avoid acknowledging its multi-faceted nature. ...
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Cross-Mediterranean mixed migration flows to Europe have gained huge media visibility and political salience, in particular since their steep surge started in 2015. In spite of (or maybe in part due to) their intensity and size, not only the collective perceptions but also the actual public knowledge of these flows is still patchy and too undifferentiated. In particular, our awareness and empirical understanding of their gender dimension is lacking, both in statistical and in more fine-grained qualitative terms. The female component of these flows tends to be seen through stereotyped categories, which depict women as necessarily dependent on male 'pioneer migrants', often lumping them with children as just the weakest and most vulnerable segment within a population already described in too indiscriminately victimising terms. Without denying the specific policy obstacles risks en route and suffering encountered by female migrants, this chapter intents to challenge the above representations. While examining the statistical evidence available on gender balance of Mediterranean Asylum flows, the chapter provides a more nuanced understanding of women's migration by looking into the mobility strategies. Then, it shows how the most basic gender imbalance and protection deficits emerge from an asylum regime that promotes migrants self-selection, and thus structurally undermines the possibility of many women to have access to safety and rights.
... In Burkina Faso, 9.5 percent of children from age 6 to 17 do not live with their parents, and out of these 29 percent live abroad, mostly in Cote d'Ivoire. These practices increase children's vulnerability to traffickers, and can be used to cover practices that amount to trafficking (Carling, 2006;Shaw, 2007). For example, Kebede (2001), described a range of situations faced by Ethiopian women who become VOTs. ...
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Migration is core to human existences. Migration is triggered by many factors. These factors include; economy, security, family reunion, education and persecu�tion among other reasons (Akanle & Adesina, 2017a). Hence, according to the rea�sons and factors behind migration can also be classifed into economic factors, demographic factors, socio-cultural factors, political factors and miscellaneous fac�tors. The drivers/causes of migration also ft into the push and pull factors frame�works (Akanle, 2018). This is against the backdrop of the motivations from pull factors of the booming economy at destination countries and the push factors of bad infrastructures, unemployment, poverty, political instability, insecurity, and so on at countries of origin. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. This is why Akanle and Adesina (2017a) maintains while some migrations from Africa may be involuntary, signifcant proportions are voluntary and motivated by economic pressures. Even those which appear to be involuntary are often belied with voluntariness in the fnal analysis. International migration is therefore very much more complicated, dynamic, sen�sitive and operating with critical multi-functionalities in the twenty-frst century and this will most likely be so into the nearest foreseeable future in development terms and for development reasons. It is therefore very important and existential for key actors and stakeholders in the development spaces to constantly examine the exis�tential development elements of international migrations within the remit of multi�dimensionalities and functionalities in contexts of development across developing and developed countries international and development praxes.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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This book examines the dynamics and impacts of international migration within and from West Africa. Although population mobility is not a recent phenomenon in West Africa, the sub-region has become the focus of policy discussions on migration in recent years because it is characterised by high levels of labour migration (Olsen, 2011) and forced displacement (UNHCR, 2020a). West Africa is experiencing ‘mixed migration’, which refers to “cross-border movements of people, including refugees fleeing persecution and conflict, victims of trafficking, and people seeking better lives and opportunities” (Mixed Migration Centre, 2021: 2). While media narratives suggest an exodus of Africans to the global North, intra-regional mobility is the dominant type of movement in West Africa, with more than 70% of migrants from West African countries moving to destinations within the sub-region (UNDESA, 2018). Although West Africans are among the most mobile people in the world, there is a general paucity of data on population mobility and its development impacts in the sub-region. Existing knowledge gaps make it difficult to integrate migration into development planning processes in the region. This book discusses theoretical perspectives and empirical findings on patterns, drivers, and socio-economic impacts of both voluntary and involuntary migration in West Africa. The authors raise key research questions and outline recommendations for improving migration governance, protecting migrants and harnessing the benefits of migration for socio-economic development for both countries of origin and destination of migrants.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Governments and development stakeholders pay great attention to issues surrounding international migration because they are of great concern not only to destination countries but also transit and countries of origin. Strategic issues relative to international migration are human loss, insecurity, migrant smuggling, kidnapping, criminal networks, health, integration and border management among others. Noteworthy is the lack of consensus on management approaches and consequences of international migration among stakeholders, particularly migrant sending and receiving countries. There is, however, a measure of agreement that international migrants have the capacity to contribute to development of poor countries and West Africa comes to focus in this instance. Two perspectives exist relative to diaspora’s/international migrants’ contribution to development: the celebratory perspective and the pessimistic perspective. This chapter, therefore, examines the profile of diaspora investments, challenges and coping mechanisms of the diaspora relative to investments and the influence of the diaspora’s investments on development through a Nigerian case study. This chapter is within the intellectual and pragmatic frameworks of intersectionalities of international migration, the diaspora and development in West Africa. Data for this chapter was gathered in Nigeria from 2019 to 2020. The findings suggest that the diaspora engages in many different investments for various reasons but not without nearly prohibitive challenges. They have, however, innovated strategic coping mechanisms with creative contributions to development through investments within critical checkered experiences needing multi-level attention from states and non-state actors for sustainability.
... Magic is an. Important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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The authors use the lens of religion to understand how migrants from Senegal embarking on high-risk journeys across the Sahara and the Atlantic conceptualise migration, cope with hardship and give meaning to their experiences. The paper aims to provide insights into religious belief systems and their intersection with the process of irregular migration and human smuggling from the impoverished Kolda region of Senegal. The research adds to the scant literature on how migrants draw on their spiritual beliefs in preparing for and enduring harrowing journeys with a high risk of harm and death. Migrants are aware of the risks as they receive information in real time from other migrants and also because many are returne migrants or deportees. But the risks do not deter them as they seek to fulfil their role as good family providers and heed the guidance of Marabout Islamic teachers rather than information campaigns to prevent irregular migration. The study also sheds light on hitherto under-recognised gendered aspects of the infrastructure of migration facilitation in Kolda: while migration is male dominated, women play a critical role in mobilising religious and financial support. The authors conclude that there is a mismatch between the way that migrants take decisions to migrate and the understanding of external agencies that continue efforts to dissuade them through risk information campaigns.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Remittances are one of the precious spin-offs of international migration in developing countries. They have been fast growing for the last decade, but like any other income, they fluctuate with economic conditions which are affected by several shocks, such as the ongoing covid 19 pandemic. Nevertheless, these transfers sometimes exceed Official Development Aid (ODA) and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in some parts of the World such as Sub-Saharan Africa, demonstrating their importance for promoting socio-economic development. This chapter focuses on Burkina Faso, a West African country where more than 80% of the population practice subsistence agriculture, and bear heavily the consequences of poor climatic conditions, exacerbated by the ongoing climate change. The country also has a great history of migration mainly written by its colonial past. Using data from several sources such as the World Bank indicators and national surveys, this chapter aims firstly to understand the trends of remittances flows in the country for the last decade. Secondly, using a national survey on migration conducted in the country, we found that receiving international remittances increases the probability of setting up a non-agricultural business. This result suggests that remittances can help households to set up businesses and be less dependent on climatic conditions.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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This chapter situates attempts at promoting free movement of persons and regional integration in West Africa in a historical perspective. Employing a combination of historical policy research, critical literature review, and an analysis of secondary data, the chapter provides a chronology of the development of the Economic Community of West African States’ (ECOWAS) Protocol on Free Movement. This is done within the context of how the implementation of the Protocol facilitate human mobility and regional integration. The chapter pays attention to how the provision of the Protocol enables citizens of the West African region to take advantage of the opportunities in member states, and further explores some of the major challenges in the implementation of the Protocol. The chapter shows that the protocol on free movement allows ECOWAS citizens to continue to travel without visas within the region. Free movement of persons in the region has yielded great economic benefits in terms of boosting intra-regional trade, supporting the livelihoods of Community citizens and increasing remittance flows within the region. Nevertheless, there are still challenges associated with extortion and harassment of migrants at border crossings, and a lack of coherence between the member state national laws and the ECOWAS Protocols has meant that protocol is yet to be fully realised. The chapter also presents analysis of the prospects of recent attempts at strengthening the protocol such as the proposal to lift the provision/restriction that allows/limits member states’ citizens to enter and stay for maximum of 90 days and the proposal for the establishment of a common social security across the region.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Although West Africa’s contribution to global climate change is very minimal, its geographical location and weak adaptive capacity makes it highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and variability. The livelihoods of people in the dry regions of West Africa, in particular, are adversely affected by increased temperature and fluctuating rainfall patterns because they depend on rain-fed agriculture and ecosystem services. Flooding is also a common climate-induced hazard in some West African countries. However, only a few researchers have examined the nature of climate-induced migration in the sub-region. This chapter examines how migration is used as a strategy to deal with climate change and variability in West Africa. While it is difficult to separate climatic drivers from the socio-economic causes of migration, seasonal and permanent migration are increasingly used by households to deal with climate change and variability in some communities in West Africa. Floods have also caused population displacement in parts of West Africa. While human mobility occurs in response to changes in climatic variables, migration is not adequately incorporated into planned climate change adaptation strategies being implemented by governments in the sub-region. This chapter, therefore, recommends that migration should be incorporated into climate change adaptation and development policies and programs in the sub-region.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Recently, a burgeoning literature has emerged on the return experience of migrants, with some analysts touting the benefits of return to the socioeconomic development of countries of origin, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Still, only few studies have examined how return migrants create and sustain transnational connectivity with their countries of destination upon their return to the homeland, and fewer still have analyzed how these dynamics play out in the context of West African migrants. This primarily theoretical paper explores the interconnections between return migration and transnationalism among West African migrants, focusing on the case of Ghanaian and Senegalese migrants. The insistent premise of the paper posits that contemporary migration is essentially Janus-faced, in the sense that migrants are transnational in both their pre- and post-return periods. The paper addresses the following questions: (i) What are the perspectives of Northern countries and supra-national bodies, such as the EU, on return migration, and how do these perspectives compare with those of Southern countries, such as Ghana and Senegal? (ii) How do West African migrants view their own return migration, and to what extent are their emic perspectives different from those of Northern governments and their government in the homeland? (iii) How do West African returnees—specifically, Ghanaian and Senegalese returnees—use their transitional connectivities to facilitate their resettlement and reintegration in the homeland upon their return? Clearly, return migration elicits a number of important questions, into which this Chapter stands to provide useful preliminary prescience in the context of Ghanaian and Senegalese migrants.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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Much of the discourse on West African migration ignores gender perspectives or tends to focus on women ‘as’ gender while men are portrayed as, perhaps unwittingly, neutral or un-gendered. On the contrary, both men and women migrate from their homes either permanently or temporarily with or without their families. These movements impact on the traditional family system of many countries within the region and the migrants themselves. The traditional notion of the male as a ‘bread winner’ and ‘mover’ has witnessed changes; remittances transferred by both males and female migrants are used to support and improve the wellbeing of households; gender division of labour and its associated roles are re-negotiated when females migrate independently; and some female migrants are abused and exploited at destination areas. The analysis in the chapter thus indicates that there are key gendered dynamics of the impacts of migration on migrants themselves and their households. Additionally, family relations are central in the gendered dynamics of remittances, migration aspirations, and return migration. In the process, masculinity and femininity ideals are negotiated and changed, even if patriarchal norms continue to affect notions of female migration in some settings.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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The chapter is a contribution to deepening knowledge on the historical trajectories of migration in Côte d’Ivoire. Based on a critical review of documents and literature, the chapter highlights the different waves of migration into Côte d’Ivoire. Both colonial and post-colonial coercive and attractive migration policies created the country as an important migration hub in West Africa. We situate the development of the cash crop economy in Côte d’Ivoire and its 20 years economic boom between 1960s and early 1980s, within the history of labour migrations into the country and the later crises that ensued as a result. While the development of the Ivorian economy was the driver for the policies during the period, the colonial era labour movements into the area hinged on repressive labour policies while the latter period was an attractive open door policy which included favourable land, citizenship and voting right grants to migrants. We reflected on how demographic growth and economic recession of the 1990s blurred this dynamic, thus leading to a change in the relationship between indigenes and migrants. The situation has led to a rigidity of Ivorian laws that cumulated in military, political and post electoral crises and civil strife thereby putting a brake on immigration. We reflected on the accentuation of migrant flows and transfers into the country in the recent Ivoirian migration and civic discourse and narratives which silences the contribution of migrants to the economic development of Côte d’Ivoire and the historical foundations of immigration and of a strong presence of foreign labour in the country. This we argue has ramifications for the management of migration in the country.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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This chapter analyses how return and reintegration programmes for irregular migrants and rejected asylum seekers construct and create vulnerabilities. The chapter analyses the lived experiences of returnees in Edo state, Nigeria. It examines the experiences of irregular migrants and rejected asylum seekers who were returned to their places of origin through AVRR programmes or other forms of return assistance programmes. First it examines the context of return migration in Nigeria and the legal-bureaucratic construction of vulnerability in the Nigerian context. Then it proceeds to analyse the efforts of the Nigerian state in implementing return and reintegration programmes. Based on 15 in-depth interviews with returnees, civil society organisations and government officials, it examines the experiences of returnees and their perspectives of vulnerability and precarity in returning to their communities of origin. The research finds that poorly implemented return programmes, may worsen the vulnerabilities of migrants instead of promoting their integration. However, migrants may reinforce their vulnerabilities in order to benefit from perceived advantages offered by the state or international organisations. Lastly, family and community efforts help migrants cope with the vulnerabilities they are exposed to in their communities of origin.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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The civil wars that devastated Liberia between 1989 and 2003 displaced an estimated 800,000 people internally, with more than a million people travelling to neighbouring countries in West Africa in search of protection and the opportunity to rebuild their lives. More than 15 years after the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed, tens of thousands of Liberians continue to be displaced in Liberia, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire. Whilst some have been resettled – primarily to Canada, the US, Australia, and European countries – most have been left ‘hanging in the air’, living in extreme poverty, marginalised from mainstream development policies and planning, and unable to either contribute to, or benefit from, efforts to rebuild peace and security in their home country. Their needs, interests and aspirations have been largely ignored by academics and policymakers in the Global North whose focus, particularly over recent years, has been primarily on the drivers of migration from West Africa across the Mediterranean to Europe. At a regional level, there have been efforts by the Economic Committee of West African States (ECOWAS) to provide alternative models of integration, particularly since the United Nations High Commissioner Refugees (UNHCR) announced the cessation of refugee status for Liberian refugees in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire in June 2012. However, significant barriers to both local integration and safe-third country resettlement remain. This chapter examines the experiences of Liberian refugees living in Ghana and their struggles to secure national and international protection in a context where returning to Liberia remains impossible for many.
... These local religious traditions invoke ancestral spirits and spirits related to certain places. Magic is an important part of the ritualistic tradition in Nigerian society and performed to influence the course of events in the world with the help of hidden forces (Carling, 2006). Sara Hamood's (2006) research on migration from West Africa through Libya to Europe is also very relevant for our analysis. ...
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This quasi-theoretical chapter examines the peculiar protection vulnerabilities that face voluntary migrants in times of crises in destination countries. It argues that while protection regimes broadly exist for involuntary migrants (i.e. refugees, asylum seekers and stateless persons) within the ambit of intergovernmental/international organisations such as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, International Red Cross Society or even the International Organisation for Migration, there is a yawning gap in national protection mechanisms for voluntary migrants in destination countries during episodes of crises situations. Using Ghana in the West African sub-Region as a case study, the chapter evaluates the potential of a national protection platform to safeguard the rights of predominantly West African migrants in Ghana during crises situations. The chapter conceptualises protection preparedness as a continuous cyclical phenomenon within the three main phases in disaster management – pre-disaster phase (prevention, mitigation), the disaster phase (response), and the post disaster phase (recovery). It draws on data from three national inter-ministerial workshops held in Accra, Ghana in 2018 towards establishing a multi-stakeholder protection platform for voluntary migrants. The chapter concludes that existing generic national disaster management agencies are inadequate in providing specific support for voluntary migrants during disasters. It recommends a public-private partnership in preparedness as it pertains to migrants in destination countries.
... First, social-demographic information revealed that most of participants (26 out of 36) came from Edo State which is known for being one of the cruelest states within the Niger Delta. Here, in addition to human trafficking which mainly involves women, poverty, criminality, corruption, violence, conflicts between bands, political, cult groups, and communities also contribute to the current mass migration [10]. According to participants, the main reasons why they fled from Nigeria regarded community/familiar threat, the possibility to improve their living conditions, and terroristic/religious persecution. ...
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This study provides a culturally sensitive quantitative investigation aimed at assessing the post-traumatic symptomatology, post-migratory difficulties, and resilience of 36 Nigerian male asylum seekers hosted in the province of Caserta, South Italy. A survey composed by the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire-Revised (HTQ-R), the Post-Migratory Checklist (PLMD), and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC) was administered to participants. Descriptive and correlation analyses were made in order to describe the mental health risk and protective factors and understand the relation between these. A linear regression analysis was used to evaluate the influence of post-migratory difficulties and resilience on PTSD. Stratified bivariate analyses were also computed to detect PTSD group and no-PTSD group differences about post-migration difficulties and resilience levels. Regression analysis showed that PMLD numbers significantly increased the risk of having PTSD. No significant effect emerged for the level of resilience. Statistically significant differences between the PTSD group and non-PTSD group in relation to post-migratory difficulties were also found. No differences in the resilience factors emerged. The results offer a glimpse into a specific ethnic group of asylum seekers and its mental health risks and protective factors, taking into consideration the specificities of their past and current life-story experiences. Clinical implications for professionals working in the field of forced migration will be outlined.
... Moreover, Nigerian nationality was the second nationality of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation purposes at the European level (EUROSTAT, 2016). This fact clearly places individuals of Nigerian nationality at risk in the detection of trafficking situations, as already reflected in several studies at the European level (Carling, 2006;Campana, 2015;Mai, 2016). On the other hand, of the 49 women who were interviewed, it was suspected that 3 of those women might be exercising the role of «controlling». ...
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In the 1980s, the Southern Frontier of Spain became one of the southern borders of the European Union after Spain entered into the European Economic Community (EEC). On the African continent, the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla that border with Morocco are physically separated from Spain by the Mediterranean Sea. Those two cities became a privileged enclave for immigration control, but also for the detection of vulnerable conditions of the migrant population. This paper has a double objective: to describe the action research developed in the Center for the Temporary Residence of Immigrants in Ceuta and to analyze 49 biographical interviews with women residents of the Center within the framework of said action research. The results show the diversity of situations of vulnerability in which migrant women can find themselves in this border context. Hence, it is important to rethink the intervention to avoid secondary victimization within critical and humanistic models of intervention. This work, precisely, addresses the design of a tool for biographical narratives from the perspectives of integral health and care.
... Nigeria in the last years has gained a very negative reputation, as a result of a high rate of human trafficking, notoriously for prostitution in countries like Italy, Libya, Lebanon, Malaysia, United Arab Emirates, among others (Carling, 2006;Noah, 2021).This development according to Benevento can be viewed from the perspective of active exploitation, and an indictment of the recipient countries, because, without their patronage, the crime would have ended natural(Benevento et al., 2021). This position has been collaborated by Sabon, who averred that human trafficking is oppressive in all its ramification, and intentionally paid attention to persons in poverty, the disadvantage, the vulnerable people especially children and women (Mika'Il and Muhammad, 2020; Sabon, 2018)A 2017 report by the International Organization for Migration IOM indicated that 119,000 trafficked persons arrived Italy in a year, of the number 18,185 were from Nigeria, and 5,425 were women, with 94% coming from Edo State (Edegbe and Imafidon, 2021; Noah, 2021). ...
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Transnational crimes have remained one of the menaces that has continued to threaten global security, peace, and tranquillity, hence requiring a multilateral and multilevel approach in effectively curtailing them. One among these transnational crimes is human trafficking, which has been estimated to be generating $150.3 billion annually (IMF, 2018), with the Asia-Pacific region ranked as the most lucrative .It is against this background that this paper examines the crime of human trafficking in Nigeria, tracing the evolution of human trafficking in general, the efforts at tackling the crime in Nigeria, as well as some of the challenges hampering the total elimination of the crime in Nigeria. Using secondary sources of data for analysis, the paper identified some of themajor drivers of the crime in Nigeria to include but not limited to, poverty and underdevelopment, weak laws and inadequate enforcement, systematic corruption, stigmatization, sophistication and financial war chest of cartels, influence of the social media, traditional and cultural practices, among others. To mitigate the crime of human trafficking in Nigeria, the paper proffers: the addressing of social in equality, creation of more employment opportunities, awareness campaigns at all levels, and the use of ―triangulated nexus of human-trafficking enforcement‖ among countries, among others.
... It is widely recognized that the present Nigerian society is patriarchal in nature; thus, gender roles and relations are clearly informed by the dynamics of patriarchy, which normally relegates women to a subordinate role compared to men (Carling, 2006). Therefore, in Nigeria, according to a cultural orientation to male supremacy, it is normally expected that the woman cares for the home space and nurtures the children, whereas the man takes leadership of the family and the society. ...
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The study presents a qualitative and culturally-sensitive investigation of the lived experiences of the forced migration of six Nigerian asylum seekers, three men and three women, hosted in Italy. Through a focus on gender identity issues, the study aimed to explore possible gender differences between participants and define their specific needs, requirements and characteristics. Overall, the gender-focused perspective through which we explored participants’ subjective experiences has enriched our understanding of their unique life stories, shedding light on the psychic dimensions as well as on the social and cultural inscriptions of their gender identity and providing insights on the different ways in which Nigerian women and men made sense of their experiences of displacement, migration, violence and trauma.
... Nigeria is one of the significant departure hubs for migrants into Europe (UNHCR 2017). Migration is generally common in the southern regions where food is usually more expensive compared to the northern regions (Afaha 2012;Carling 2006). With a remittance flow of $22 billion in 2017, Nigeria is the highest remittance-receiving country in Africa and 5th in the world (World Bank 2018). ...
Article
The paper argues for the need to integrate the linkages between migration, remittances and food crises in the migration-food security literature. Food crises that are exacerbated by erratic climatic changes, violence and other uncertainties are important drivers of international migration. Research on the impact of migration and remittances on food security has grown lately, but it is arguably not comprehensive in its approach. The role of remittances in improving household food security experience during food crises is a vital stream being neglected, and the impact of remittances on food security over a long-term is yet to be studied comprehensively. To fill this gap, we analysed the case study of Nigeria using a World Bank Living Standards dataset, and followed an instrumental variable approach. Our results showed that remittance is valuable in meeting both short and long-term food security, and it is a veritable instrument for meeting household food security during food crises. It is particularly crucial for female-headed households who are more vulnerable to food insecurity. Although it does not significantly improve dietary diversity, households receiving remittances are less likely to adopt unhealthy coping practices such as eating less nutritious food, and less likely to be worried about meeting household food requirements due to lack of money. We conclude that remittances do not only smoothen consumption; it also places households on higher food security equilibrium during food crises. A free version of this paper is available through shareit. Use this link https://rdcu.be/b0487
... A close look reveals that Nigeria is also a leading economy in Africa but many of its citizens migrate to South Africa and other countries for their post-secondary school education. Over 52,000 Nigerians are abroad studying (Astor et al., 2005;Carling, 2006;Haring, 2014;Adesulu, 2015;Fatunde, 2015). Although this is also ongoing in many other countries on the continent, Nigeria is considerably higher as the student-migrant population of other African countries is under-reported. ...
Article
South Africa, in relation to other nations on the continent, has the largest number of foreigners, predominantly in its institutions of higher learning. People from all over the world, especially in Asia and other African nations, migrate into the country to acquire skills through formal and informal education. The reason behind this, however, remains unclear. This paper examined what motivates people to come down to South Africa in pursuance of higher learning, with special focus on Nigerian students in the University of Venda. The study draws from UNIVEN and Nigerians because the population of Nigerians currently studying at the University is more than the total population of South Africans studying in all Nigerian higher learning institutions combined, even though Nigeria has been the leading economy in Africa. Despite the frequent xenophobic attacks, there is an annual upsurge in the number of Nigerians who migrate into South Africa. An exploratory sequential research design was used in the study. A census of Nigerian students at the University was taken via emails, guided by a semi-structured questionnaire. Atlas-ti v8, and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 25 were used for the analysis. The analysis of the data showed that there is a general perception that degrees obtained in South Africa are rated higher than those obtained in Nigerian universities by Nigerian government institutions. Some are out to get the recognition and respect accorded those who obtained their degrees abroad. While many were attracted by the flexible education system in terms of supervision and timing, some were interested in international network opportunities, study facilities and funding opportunities. Other factors that emerged are corruption, security and economic stability in South African institution of higher education. Given these results, the study recommended further examination of the nature and typology of higher education systems practiced in both countries for possible recommendations.
... The issue of Nigerians being stigmatised by host communities was commonly mentioned by group one, the JJC. Nevertheless this is an issue the South African media have also been criticized, as playing a role in building negative perceptions of foreigners especially Nigerians and Zimbabweans (Carling 2006). ...
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In recent times many Nigerians have been singled out when it comes to criminal activities and xenophobic attacks in South Africa, which leads to disruption of the hitherto cordial relationship between South African host communities and Nigerian migrants. Nevertheless, the rate of Nigerians migrating to South Africa keeps soaring. Studies of migration between Nigeria and South Africa, have been scanty, often limited to the study of traditional economic disparity between the two countries with less emphasis on the social-cultural challenges facing Nigerian migrants in the host communities. This paper thus examined the socio-economic and cultural challenges facing Nigerian migrants in selected communities in Johannesburg, South Africa. Data for the study were collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with Nigerian migrants in Hillbrow, Braamfontein and Alexandra suburbs in Johannesburg, South Africa.
... A discriminação de género sofrida nos países de origem, especialmente no que respeita ao acesso ao emprego, torna as mulheres mais susceptíveis à exploração sexual, sendo esta muitas vezes promovida por outras mulheres (Carling, 2006). A oportunidade das mulheres migrarem em condições regulares, estando limitada pelas suas parcas qualificações académicas e pelos seus diminutos recursos económicos, leva-as a aceitar mais facilmente as falsas promessas dos/as angariadores/as e a migrar clandestinamente (Banda & Chinkin, 2004). ...
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Este artigo discute o fenómeno do tráfico de mulheres para fins de exploração sexual, usando como referência a teoria da interseccionalidade. A partir de um estudo de caso, analisam-se as vivências de uma mulher brasileira vítima de tráfico de seres humanos. As evidências encontradas neste estudo clarificam os dados apontados na literatura no que respeita à associação entre condições estruturais de desigualdade social e vulnerabilidade ao tráfico para fins de exploração sexual.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17575/rpsicol.v24i2.312
... This is of particular importance as statements by my informants and in the literature imply that there are significant differences between the experiences of migrants of different nationality (Goldschmidt, 2002). For example, trafficking played no role in the trajectories of my informants, but seems to be an important element in migrations of Nigerian nationals (Carling, 2006;Goldschmidt, 2002). Second, the research approach favored contact with independently traveling migrants. ...
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In West and Northern Africa, mobile phone coverage has been expanding parallel to increased attempts by Africans to migrate overland to Europe. This paper explores possible links between the two phenomena, looking specifically into the role of mobile phones in trans-Saharan migration. It provides a first detailed description of the telecommunication processes underlying contemporary trans-Saharan migration. An analytical framework is presented that helps to explain how mobile phones facilitate migration by interacting with the social and spatial factors shaping migrants’ mobility. By drawing on this framework and fieldwork conducted among Congolese migrants in Morocco, it is shown that the expansion of the communication infrastructure is, on the one hand, only one of several factors that have turned the region into a more ‘transita-ble’ space. On the other hand, the use of mobile phones is demonstrated to be central to the migration process: migrants draw on the unprecedented accessibility of contacts equipped with mobile phones to tie together novel, geographically expansive networks. Phones are also shown to be used by migrants’ ‘helpers’ for the purpose of internal coordination.
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Social and economic conflicts bring along irregular migrations, which are risky and dangerous and lead to humanitarian movements on a global scale. Irregular migration movements increasingly have become a problem of identity, belonging and recognition, and bring with new areas of discussion. Irregular migration, which goes beyond being a phenomenon that nation states can control alone, is perceived as a security threat, especially by European countries, and restrictions are increased with revised migration policies. The blockage of legal routes increases the demand for illegal methods and makes migrant smuggling more apparent. On the other hand, the Mediterranean, which is used as a migration route to reach Europe, has almost become identified with the bodies washed ashore. The number of recorded deaths of migrants in the Mediterranean reveals that the phenomenon of migration is a matter of right to life beyond the political, economic, and social interests of the nation states and accelerated the discussion of the problem on different platforms. Based on this, the film Terraferma, which is about irregular migration over the Mediterranean, was examined as a research subject and analyzed using the dramaturgical analysis technique. The film has been thematically interpreted on the basis of the plot, main idea, assumption, conflicts and characters. Policies such as the fact that global inequalities put pressure on the developed countries with irregular migration on one hand, and the situation of ignoring the phenomenon of irregular migration with strict migration on the other have been evaluated together.
Chapter
This book estimates the proceeds of crime and mafia revenues for different criminal markets such as sexual exploitation, drugs, illicit cigarettes, loan sharking, extortion racketeering, counterfeiting, illicit firearms, illegal gambling and illicit waste management. It is the first time that scholars have adopted detailed methodologies to ensure the highest reliability and validity of the estimation. Overall, estimated proceeds of crime amount to € 22.8 billion: 1.5% of the Italian GDP. Of this, up to € 10.7 billion (0.7 of the GDP) may be attributable to the Italian mafias. These figures are considerably lower than the ones most frequently circulated on the news, without any details about their methodology, which were defined by a UN study as “gross overestimates”. Far from underestimating criminal revenues, the results of this study bring the issue of the proceeds of crime to an empirically-based debate, providing support for improved future estimates and more effective policies. The volume’s contributions were inspired by a project awarded by the Italian Ministry of Interior to Transcrime, which produced the first report on mafia investments (www.investimentioc.it). This book was originally published as a special issue of Global Crime.
Article
This article undertakes a critical analysis of counter-trafficking measures in Italy, particularly the Social Protection Program introduced under the 1998 Migration Law for victims experiencing violence and "extreme exploitation", in relation to the experiences of Nigerian sex workers in the city of Turin. The experiences of Nigerian sex workers in Turin are diverse and complex, as most of the women are undocumented, making them highly vulnerable to exploitative debt and labor contracts, as well as abuse and violence from employers, clients and government authorities. This research found that while the protection program has been fortunate for some beneficiaries, it fails to address the vulnerabilities faced by migrant sex workers. One of the shortcomings of the program is that it protects victims only if they suffer severe forms of violence, provide information that helps in the arrest of traffickers, and tell a "convincing story" that underscores their role as "innocent victims." It ignores the complexity of the experiences of undocumented migrants who engage in commercial sex work and the multiple challenges they face. It overemphasizes a particular and narrowly defined form of victimization while rendering other forms of victimization invisible. Counter-trafficking measures may offer a modicum of protection for a specific and small group of undocumented migrants in the sex industry. However, when combined with increasing restrictions on migration and sex work, the counter-trafficking measures actually increase the vulnerability of the majority of migrant sex workers, and strengthen the networks of traffickers.
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This article presents a methodology which allows to estimate the revenues of the sexual exploitation market, both outdoor and indoor, at subnational level. It is applied to the Italian context. The findings suggest that the revenues are not equally distributed across regions since they depend on different criminal opportunities and levels of demand.
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