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Current status of circularity for aluminum from household waste in Austria
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) represents the metal with the highest consumption growth in the last few decades. Beside its increasing usage in the transport (lightweight construction of vehicles) and building sector, Al is used ever more frequently for household goods like packaging material, which represents a readily available source for secondary aluminum due to its short lifetime.
The present paper investigates the extent to which this potential source for recycling of Al is already utilized in Austria and highlights areas for future improvements. Thereto a detailed material flow analysis for Al used in packaging & household non-packaging in 2013 was conducted. In practice, all Al flows starting from market entrance through waste collection and processing until its final recycling or disposal have been investigated. The results indicate that about 25,100 t/a (2.96 kg/cap/a) of Al packaging & household non-packaging arose as waste. At present about 9800 t/a, or 39%, are recycled as secondary Al, of which 26% is regained from separate collection and sorting, 8% from bottom ash and 5% from mechanical treatment. The type of Al packaging & household non-packaging affects the recycling rate: 82% of the total recycled quantities come from rigid packaging & household non-packaging, while only 3% of the total recycled Al derives from flexible materials. A significant amount of Al was lost during thermal waste treatment due to oxidation (10%) and insufficient recovery of Al from both waste incineration bottom ash and municipal solid waste treated in mechanical biological treatment plants (49%). Overall it can be concluded that once Al ends up in commingled waste the recovery of Al becomes less likely and its material quality is reduced. Although Austria can refer to a highly developed recycling system, the Austrian packaging industry, collection and recovery systems and waste management need to increase their efforts to comply with future recycling targets.
... It is worth describing one of those published in Waste Management that makes up the sample of this research and that also used material flow analysis (MFA). In [64], the physical flow of aluminum packaging in Austria was investigated and described, considering the various stages of the process (collection, sorting, transport and destination). ...
... The most common destination for these packages is sanitary landfills (48%) after being processed in incinerator industries or due to losses due to oxidation. The remainder (13%) is sent to the cement industries since this metal is an essential raw material for cement quality [64]. ...
... The authors note that the production of aluminum packaging from secondary raw material (recycled aluminum scrap) should be encouraged. After all, scrap helps in the reduction of energy use, extraction from the natural environment and supply insecurities, positively influencing logistical management [64]. ...
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the need to adopt a restorative and regenerative model proposed by circular economy (CE). Methods: This article aims to identify the current status of packaging waste management in the CE context through an integrative literature review using Scopus and Web of Science databases. Using the Bibliometrix package, 162 articles were analyzed. Results: A bibliometric overview is presented, including the prominent authors and journals, and most cited articles, techniques and research methods used. Most of the analyzed articles are of the theoretical-empirical, quali-quantitative type, and plastic is the most studied material when a paper focused on one waste item. The contribution of packaging waste management for the transition to CE is discussed, highlighting important actions such as the replacement of materials to increase recyclability, the installation of voluntary delivery points associated with education programs focusing on the environment and support for cooperatives of waste pickers. In addition, a research agenda was developed that highlights the main gaps identified to guide future studies. Conclusion: Finally, the managerial contributions of the study are emphasized in particular by providing insight into the implementation of this model of growing international interest.
... Nevertheless, as the results of this research show, not all the aluminium scrap is managed properly, especially during collection. Warrings & Fellner (2018) [31] suggest that despite the high collection-to-recycling rates of some product categories, if the metal is not collected separately and enters the subsequent waste treatment process, its recovery becomes much less likely and its material quality is reduced. ...
... Nevertheless, as the results of this research show, not all the aluminium scrap is managed properly, especially during collection. Warrings & Fellner (2018) [31] suggest that despite the high collection-to-recycling rates of some product categories, if the metal is not collected separately and enters the subsequent waste treatment process, its recovery becomes much less likely and its material quality is reduced. ...
... S3 presents three sub-scenarios in order to assess the gradual increase of the collectionto-recycling rates of packaging product categories, according to the EU's Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive EU 2018/852/ [28]. Packaging represents the third largest sector that uses aluminium in the EU, and unlike other sectors, its short lifetime makes it a readily available source for secondary material [31]. The results show that for sub-scenarios S3.1 and S3.2, there are no significant changes when compared with the BAU. ...
Aluminium is a metal of high economic importance for the European Union (EU), presenting unique properties (e.g., light weight and high corrosion resistance) and with applications in important sectors (e.g., transportation, construction and packaging). It is also known for its high recyclability potential, but relevant losses occur in its life cycle, compromising the amount of aluminium available for secondary production. A novel methodology that allows the identification of these losses and their impact on the aluminium flows in society is the MaTrace model. The objective of this article is to perform a dMFA of the secondary production of aluminium in the EU technosphere using the modified version of MaTrace, in order to estimate flows of the metal embedded in 12 product categories. Twelve scenarios were built in order to assess the impact of changes in policies, demand and technology. The flows were forecasted for a period of 25 years, starting in 2018. The results of the baseline scenario show that after 25 years, 24% of the initial material remains in use, 4% is hoarded by users, 10% has been exported and 61% has been physically lost. The main contributor to the losses is the non-selective collection of end-of-life products. The results of the different scenarios show that by increasing the collection-to-recycling rates of the 12 product categories, the aluminium that stays in use increase up to 32.8%, reaffirming that one way to keep the material in use is to improve the collection-to-recycling schemes in the EU.
... Nevertheless, as the results of this research show, not all the aluminium scrap is managed properly, especially during collection. Warrings & Fellner (2018) [31] suggest that despite the high collection-to-recycling rates of some product categories, if the metal is not collected separately and enters the subsequent waste treatment process, its recovery becomes much less likely and its material quality is reduced. ...
... Nevertheless, as the results of this research show, not all the aluminium scrap is managed properly, especially during collection. Warrings & Fellner (2018) [31] suggest that despite the high collection-to-recycling rates of some product categories, if the metal is not collected separately and enters the subsequent waste treatment process, its recovery becomes much less likely and its material quality is reduced. ...
... S3 presents three sub-scenarios in order to assess the gradual increase of the collectionto-recycling rates of packaging product categories, according to the EU's Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive EU 2018/852/ [28]. Packaging represents the third largest sector that uses aluminium in the EU, and unlike other sectors, its short lifetime makes it a readily available source for secondary material [31]. The results show that for sub-scenarios S3.1 and S3.2, there are no significant changes when compared with the BAU. ...
Aluminium is a metal of high economic importance for the European Union (EU), presenting unique properties (e.g., light weight and high corrosion resistance) and with applications in important sectors (e.g., transportation, construction and packaging). It is also known for its high recyclability potential, but relevant losses occur in its life cycle, compromising the amount of aluminium available for secondary production. A novel methodology that allows the identification of these losses and their impact on the aluminium flows in society is the MaTrace model. The objective of this article is to perform a dMFA of the secondary production of aluminium in the EU technosphere using the modified version of MaTrace, in order to estimate flows of the metal embedded in 12 product categories. Twelve scenarios were built in order to assess the impact of changes in policies, demand and technology. The flows were forecasted for a period of 25 years, starting in 2018. The results of the baseline scenario show that after 25 years, 24% of the initial material remains in use, 4% is hoarded by users, 10% has been exported and 61% has been physically lost. The main contributor to the losses is the non-selective collection of end-of-life products. The results of the different scenarios show that by increasing the collection-to-recycling rates of the 12 product categories, the aluminium that stays in use increase up to 32.8%, reaffirming that one way to keep the material in use is to improve the collection-to-recycling schemes in the EU.
... En este sentido, el aluminio es uno de los metales con mayor demanda (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), como material de embalaje, envases combinados y latas de bebidas (Quinkertz, Rombach, & Liebig, 2001) donde se estima un crecimiento anual entre el 2.4% (Grimaud, Perry, & Laratte, 2016) y el 3.7% en las últimas décadas (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) y de acuerdo con varios autores, su producción primaria y secundaria aun es crítica, debido al alto consumo de energía y el agotamiento de recursos, ya que la extracción del mineral bauxita se localiza en zonas tropicales, afectando los recursos naturales de estos sitios (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), además de pérdidas de materia prima durante las etapas del ciclo de vida del aluminio y la generación de residuos (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) adicionalmente, organismos como la Agencia Internacional de Energía, estiman que las tendencias relativas al suministro y consumo de energía son insostenibles (Hatayama, Daigo, Matsuno, & Adachi, 2012). ...
... En este sentido, el aluminio es uno de los metales con mayor demanda (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), como material de embalaje, envases combinados y latas de bebidas (Quinkertz, Rombach, & Liebig, 2001) donde se estima un crecimiento anual entre el 2.4% (Grimaud, Perry, & Laratte, 2016) y el 3.7% en las últimas décadas (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) y de acuerdo con varios autores, su producción primaria y secundaria aun es crítica, debido al alto consumo de energía y el agotamiento de recursos, ya que la extracción del mineral bauxita se localiza en zonas tropicales, afectando los recursos naturales de estos sitios (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), además de pérdidas de materia prima durante las etapas del ciclo de vida del aluminio y la generación de residuos (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) adicionalmente, organismos como la Agencia Internacional de Energía, estiman que las tendencias relativas al suministro y consumo de energía son insostenibles (Hatayama, Daigo, Matsuno, & Adachi, 2012). ...
... Diversos autores señalan que alrededor del 39% se recicla como aluminio secundario, de estos el 26% se recupera de la recolección y clasificación por separado, el 8% de cenizas y el 5% del tratamiento mecánico (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). Asimismo, una vez que el aluminio se convierte en residuo mezclado, su recuperación se vuelve menos probable y su calidad se reduce (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). ...
ABSTRACT
The recycling of aluminum (Al) has increased in recent years by 5% per year. The objective of this study is to analyzer the contribution in terms of potential energy according to the Al sent for recycling, which is generated in the daily activities of the Faculty of Engineering Sciences and Technology of the Autonomous University of Baja California (FCITEC-UABC). The methodology used consisted of conducting a documentary investigation of the records of aluminum cans sent for recycling during 2018 and 2019 and based on the Individual Waste Model of the Environmental Agency Protection (iWARM-EPA) to determine their equivalent in energy units. According to the records of FCITEC- UABC during the analysis period, 1 77.7 kilograms of aluminum cans were sent to recycling , equivalent to 13,600 units , based on these data and the model used , the Faculty contributes with this material sent to recycling, a net energy saving potential equivalent to 3,960.3 kWh [4] . Here, for example, equal to 300.000 times available, for its use in saving bulbs 60W or 79,000 computers laptops.
Keywords: Environmental impact, renewable energy, solid waste.
... En este sentido, el aluminio es uno de los metales con mayor demanda (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), como material de embalaje, envases combinados y latas de bebidas (Quinkertz, Rombach, & Liebig, 2001) donde se estima un crecimiento anual entre el 2.4% (Grimaud, Perry, & Laratte, 2016) y el 3.7% en las últimas décadas (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) y de acuerdo con varios autores, su producción primaria y secundaria aun es crítica, debido al alto consumo de energía y el agotamiento de recursos, ya que la extracción del mineral bauxita se localiza en zonas tropicales, afectando los recursos naturales de estos sitios (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), además de pérdidas de materia prima durante las etapas del ciclo de vida del aluminio y la generación de residuos (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) adicionalmente, organismos como la Agencia Internacional de Energía, estiman que las tendencias relativas al suministro y consumo de energía son insostenibles (Hatayama, Daigo, Matsuno, & Adachi, 2012). ...
... En este sentido, el aluminio es uno de los metales con mayor demanda (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), como material de embalaje, envases combinados y latas de bebidas (Quinkertz, Rombach, & Liebig, 2001) donde se estima un crecimiento anual entre el 2.4% (Grimaud, Perry, & Laratte, 2016) y el 3.7% en las últimas décadas (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) y de acuerdo con varios autores, su producción primaria y secundaria aun es crítica, debido al alto consumo de energía y el agotamiento de recursos, ya que la extracción del mineral bauxita se localiza en zonas tropicales, afectando los recursos naturales de estos sitios (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), además de pérdidas de materia prima durante las etapas del ciclo de vida del aluminio y la generación de residuos (Maurice, Niero, Bey, & Paraskevas, 2017) adicionalmente, organismos como la Agencia Internacional de Energía, estiman que las tendencias relativas al suministro y consumo de energía son insostenibles (Hatayama, Daigo, Matsuno, & Adachi, 2012). ...
... Diversos autores señalan que alrededor del 39% se recicla como aluminio secundario, de estos el 26% se recupera de la recolección y clasificación por separado, el 8% de cenizas y el 5% del tratamiento mecánico (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). Asimismo, una vez que el aluminio se convierte en residuo mezclado, su recuperación se vuelve menos probable y su calidad se reduce (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). ...
El reciclaje de aluminio ha aumentado en los últimos años en un 5% anual. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la aportación en términos de energía potencial de acuerdo con el aluminio enviado a reciclaje, el cual es generado en las actividades diarias de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología de la Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (FCITEC-UABC). La metodología empleada consistió en realizar una investigación documental de los registros de latas de aluminio enviadas a reciclaje durante 2018 y 2019 y con base en el Modelo Individual de Residuos de la Environmental Agency Protection (iWARM-EPA) determinar su equivalente en unidades de energía. De acuerdo con los registros de FCITEC-UABC durante el periodo de análisis, se enviaron a reciclaje 177.7 kilogramos de latas de aluminio, equivalente a 13, 600 unidades, con base en estos datos y el modelo utilizado, la facultad aporta con este material enviado a reciclaje, un potencial de ahorro de energía neta equivalente a 3960.3 kWh[1]. Éstos, por ejemplo, equivalen a 300,000 horas disponibles, para su uso en focos ahorradores de 60W o 79,000 en computadoras portátiles.[1] Kilovatio-hora
... In recent years the authors have conducted detailed analyses of Al flows (Buchner et al., 2014;Warrings and Fellner, 2018) in Austria; because of this, the management of Al packaging in Austria has been chosen as the case study to assess if and what measures need to be taken to secure future recycling targets and what costs arise from these measures. ...
... Because Al melts during the combustion process at 600°C and nuggets are formed (Bunge, 2015), often in conjunction with other materials, Al particles found in BA cannot be recognized by their origin (packaging or non-packaging). To determine the quantities of Al from packaging present in BA, the input of Al from packaging into MSWI and the respective losses of Al from packaging via oxidation and FA were calculated using oxidation rates from a study by Biganzoli et al. (2012) and the distribution of material thickness between packaging and nonpackaging from a study by Warrings and Fellner (2018). In relation to the recovery of Al from BA, detailed information on recovered volumes of non-ferrous metals was provided by the largest BA plant operator in Austria. ...
... In relation to the recovery of Al from BA, detailed information on recovered volumes of non-ferrous metals was provided by the largest BA plant operator in Austria. In addition, data on the Al content in BA from different Austrian waste incineration plants (see Huber et al., 2019) were utilized and combined with the losses to FA and Al oxide identified by Warrings and Fellner (2018) to determine a representative transfer coefficient for the recovery of Al packaging from BA. ...
The recycling of aluminium (Al) packaging as a single fraction is a new obligation within the Circular Economy Package of the EU, with mandatory recycling rates of 50% for 2025 and 60% for 2030. The case study of Al packaging in Austria has been chosen to assess if and what measures need to be taken to achieve these recycling rates and what costs arise from these measures. In particular, the following options of Al recovery, and combinations thereof, have been investigated: bottom ash (BA) treatment; material recovery facilities (MRF) for mixed municipal solid waste; and changes to the selective collection system. The results of the study reveal that the present recycling rate of 55% for A1 packaging in Austria might be improved most significantly by MRF (up to 94%) and advanced BA treatment (up to 72%). Only minor improvements in the recycling rate (+2%) are achievable via a change in the collection system from selective metal to a mixed selective collection (joint collection of metal and lightweight packaging). If the only aim were to increase the recycling rates for Al packaging beyond the future target of 60%, an improvement in the Al recovery rates from BA treatment would be sufficient. With regard to increased recycling quantities of all recyclables, plastics in particular, the implementation of complex systems such as MRF makes sense, even if this results in higher costs for Al recovery (increasing from the current 480 to 640 € t ⁻¹ of recycled Al).
... The report concluded that 98 0.82% of alu-minium ingots are recoverable from RBCs. Findings from Warrings and Fellner [7] show that about 25,100 t/a (2.96 kg/cap/a) of Al used in packaging industries ends up in waste carriers. Whereas only about 9800 t/a, or 39%, are recycled as secondary aluminium. ...
... Only 8% and 5% were from bottom ash and mechanical treatment respectively. Warrings and Fellner [7] further supported the findings of Juniarsih et al [6] that only 3% of the total recycled aluminium comes from flexible materials and 10% are lost to flux during thermal waste treatment. The report of Bitpinar [8] strengthened the fact that aluminium alloy castings are gaining better acceptance in safety-critical applications in the automotive and aerospace industries as a result of improvement in the quality and flux reduction practices. ...
... The least modulus was observed in sample I, an alloy of 4.5 wt% Zn. This improved modulus was linked to an increase in 0.5 wt% Zn that supported the formation of hardening precipitates like MgZn 2 in the presence of Mg [7]. ...
The astronomic growth in drinking beverage cans waste calls for an innovative conversion of this huge resources to aerospace and automobile applications. Unfortunately, the can-to-can cycle has been maintained for decades. Past studies nosedived in converting Recycled Beverage Cans (RBCs) to experimental 7 series alloys. Literature on evaluating the consequence of heat treatments on formation of hardening compounds and modulus of this novel alloy is scarce. The aim of this study is to investigate compounds, phase formations and the effect of the duo on the modulus hardening of the experimental Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy cast from RBCs after heat treatments. Weight percent (wt. %) of Zn was varied at 4, 4.5 and 5; annealing at 350, 380 and 413 °C; artificial ageing temperature and time were equally varied at 100, 120 and 145 °C and 5, 10.5 and 15 hrs respectively. The highest modulus of 566.0 MPa was observed in an alloy of 5 wt% Zn, annealed at 350 °C, 100 °C T6- temperature and 6 hrs soaking time. When the annealing temperature and wt. % Zn were increased to 380 °C and 4.5 wt%, the modulus was 170.0 MPa. Simples artificially aged at 120 °C and 100 °C, when time was held at 10.5 hrs recorded a peak modulus of 137.3 MPa and least of 127. 8 MPa. The maximum obtainable hardness of 151.6 Hv was observed in an alloy with 4 wt% Zn, 145 °C T6-Temperature and aged for 15 hrs. Al, FCC (ICDD 004–0787), Zn (ICDD = 004–0831) were among identified phases. Simulations to predict the mushy zones of this alloy and other properties, the introduction of graphene in RBCs for property enhancement are opinions open to further investigations.
... Cabe descrever um dos publicados na Waste Management que compõe a amostra da presente pesquisa e que também utilizou a Análise de Fluxo de material (AFM) ou em inglês, Material Flow Analysis (MFA). Em Warrings & Fellner (2018) investiga-se e descreve-se o fluxo físico das embalagens de alumínio da Áustria, considerando as diversas etapas que compõe o processo (coleta, triagem, transporte e destinação). ...
... A destinação mais comum dessas embalagens são os aterros sanitários (48%), após o aproveitamento nas indústrias incineradoras ou devido às perdas por oxidação. O restante (13%) é encaminhado para as indústrias cimenteiras, uma vez que este metal é matéria prima importante para a qualidade do cimento (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). ...
Resumo: A pandemia da COVID-19 acelerou a urgência de transição para um modelo restaurativo e regenerativo, como a Economia Circular (EC) propõe a ser. Este trabalho buscou identificar o estado da arte da gestão de resíduos de embalagens no contexto da EC a partir de uma Revisão Integrativa da Literatura utilizando as bases científicas Scopus e a Web of Science. Com o auxílio do pacote Bibliometrix, 162 artigos foram analisados e o panorama geral bibliométrico foi apresentado. Os resultados apontam os principais autores, journals e papers mais citados, principais técnicas e métodos de pesquisa utilizados. A partir do conteúdo destes artigos, discutiu-se a contribuição da gestão de resíduos para a mudança rumo à EC e foi elaborada uma agenda de pesquisa com as principais lacunas identificadas. Implicações teóricas e gerenciais podem ser observadas à medida que aumenta a robustez científica e traz insights sobre as práticas de EC.
... Ferronato y colaboradores (2020) estiman que las universidades son como pequeñas ciudades, con actividades académicas, de investigación y administrativas (FERRONATO, y otros, 2020), las cuales requieren para su funcionamiento agua, alimentos, energía y otros recursos que en su operación generan residuos sólidos urbanos. Por tanto, en las universidades además de contar con una gestión eficiente en materia ambiental, es pertinente aceptar su responsabilidad institucional (CARLOS, GALLARDO, EDO-ALCÓN, & RENAU, 2016), impulsando acciones de sostenibilidad, sobre todo encaminadas a la sensibilización y compromiso de los jóvenes (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). Así pues, el objetivo de este trabajo es documentar y evaluar la contribución al medio ambiente, en términos de la energía potencial que puede obtenerse a través de las acciones realizadas del acopio y reciclaje de latas de aluminio durante el periodo 2018 y 2019 en la Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología (FCITEC). ...
... En este sentido, el aluminio es uno de los metales con mayor demanda (WARRINGS & FELLNER, 2018), como material de embalaje, envases combinados y latas de bebidas (QUINKERTZ, ROMBACH, & LIEBIG, 2001) donde se estima un crecimiento anual entre el 2.4 % (GRIMAUD, PERRY, & LARATTE, 2016) y el 3.7 % en las últimas décadas (MAURICE, NIERO, BEY, & PARASKEVAS, 2017) y de acuerdo con varios autores, su producción primaria y secundaria aun es crítica, debido al alto consumo de energía y el agotamiento de recursos, ya que la extracción del mineral bauxita se localiza en zonas tropicales, afectando los recursos naturales de estos sitios (WARRINGS & FELLNER, 2018), además de pérdidas de materia prima durante las etapas del ciclo de vida del aluminio y la generación de residuos (MAURICE, NIERO, BEY, & PARASKEVAS, 2017) adicionalmente, organismos como la Agencia Internacional de Energía, estiman que las tendencias relativas al suministro y consumo de energía son insostenibles (HATAYAMA, DAIGO, MATSUNO, & ADACHI, 2012). Por otra parte, Grimaud y colaboradores (2016), señalan que el reciclaje de aluminio se incrementa en un 5 % anual, siendo una alternativa, sobre todo en términos de consumo de energía utilizada en su obtención primaria (GRIMAUD, PERRY, & LARATTE, 2016) donde la demanda puede reducirse entre 90 y 95 % en comparación con la producción primaria de éste, representando una oportunidad para minimizar el impacto ambiental si se maneja de forma sostenible (MAURICE, NIERO, BEY, & PARASKEVAS, 2017) además de agregar valor al aluminio reciclado.Diversos autores señalan que alrededor del 39 % se recicla como aluminio secundario, de estos el 26 % se recupera de la recolección y clasificación por separado, el 8 % de cenizas y el 5 % del tratamiento mecánico(WARRINGS & FELLNER, 2018). Asimismo, una vez que el aluminio se convierte en residuo mezclado, su recuperación se vuelve menos probable y su calidad se reduce ...
A obra intitulada “Estudos contemporâneos acerca do meio ambiente e ecologia vol.1”, publicada pela Brazilian Journals Publicações de Periódicos e Editora, apresenta um conjunto de onze capítulos que visa abordar trabalhos voltados sobre ecologia, sustentabilidade e preservação e cuidados com o meio ambiente. Logo, os artigos apresentados neste volume abordam: O construto de sustentabilidade ambiental - hipóteses e desafios; a importância dos recursos patrimoniais no desenvolvimento sustentável dos sistemas localizados de produção; impactos da influenza na população brasileira: Infecções respiratórias e letalidade; análise das fitofisionomias, meio ambiente e plantas medicinais nas áreas das comunidades quilombolas em Vitória da Conquista no estado da Bahia, Brasil, entre outros. Dessa forma, agradecemos aos autores por todo esforço e dedicação que contribuíram para a construção dessa obra, e esperamos que este livro possa colaborar para a discussão e entendimento de temas relevantes para a área ambiental, orientando docentes, estudantes, gestores e pesquisadores à reflexão sobre os assuntos aqui apresentados.
... For the beverage packing sector of aluminium cans two papers proven the use of the proxy non-renewable indicator called Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) more usefully to obtain preliminary estimation of the environmental impacts due different options Scipioni et al. 2012). Such as integrated pattern, the essence of circular economy can be seen at Warrings and Fellner (2018) paper of Austrian aluminium packaging industry. Austria keeps higher indexes of recovery rates (ReR), recycling rate (RR) and Oxidation Rates (OR) for aluminium packaging. ...
... Additionally, CED Scipioni et al. 2012) can contribute to estimate environmental impacts, stimulating the sector to elaborate a correct LCA and C2C in beverage packages and other aluminium packages to establish a diagnose of the products and developing alternatives of reuse, repair and recycling due to improve of the products life cycle information. Finally, the improvement in the sector keeps on setting and developing indexes of ReR, RR and OR, comparable to the study of Warrings and Fellner (2018) in Austria. The above article considers this index to be a suitable instrument for correctly measuring Al recycled in different stages of recovery. ...
The Circular Economy is an important alternative to capture environmental profit from polluters and increase the competitiveness of productive sectors. This study aims to analyse how the Circular Economy (CE) indicators can contribute to improving the sustainability of recycling aluminium beverage packages in the Brazilian scenario. A literature review was conducted about CE indicators in aluminium-recycling context and a set of CE indicators were found and criticized in the context of sustainability. According to results, beverage packages have alternatives to be more circular, with correct ways to measure improvements and develop the sector, decreasing environmental threats and increasing recycling content. This study provided information to the metal industry, metal users, and the recycling industry of aluminium beverage packaging in Brazil.
... Alicia Ravelo García 10 Gerardo César Díaz Trujillo 11 Eric Efrén Villanueva Vega 12 62 introducción Se estima que la población mundial incremente más de 9 billones, con ello se ejercerá presión sobre la demanda de energía, infraestructura y se estima que el consumo de recursos, principalmente aquellos provenientes de fuentes fósiles de todo tipo (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), se elevara al doble para el 2050 y en consecuencia el incremento de 1.2 a 1.4 Kilogramos en la generación de residuos por persona por día (oCDE, 2020), generando efectos negativos al ambiente (Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). Por otro lado, la composición de los residuos varia con relación al país, su economía y estilo de vida, como puede apreciarse en la Tabla 1, donde se observa una diferencia en porcentajes de los distintos tipos de residuos a nivel internacional y su composición en México. ...
... En este contexto, algunos países como Estados Unidos de América han analizado sus productos desde el enfoque de ciclo de vida y el cambio de un proceso productivo lineal a uno cíclico, donde la reutilización de los materiales se incorpore a dicha actividad(Warrings & Fellner, 2018) y mejore la eficiencia en el aprovechamiento de recursos a fin de contrarrestar la presión sobre los elementos económicos, ambiental y social generado debido al uso lineal de recursos. Se estima que la aplicación de una economía circular creara más de 500,000 nuevos empleos y una reducción anual de emisiones de Co 2 de más de 400 millones de toneladas(Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). ...
El clima que se tiene en el planeta tierra es el óptimo para el desarrollo de cualquier tipo de vida, y es producto de la interacción entre la atmósfera, océanos, capas de hielo, continentes, seres vivos, y el sol como fuente principal de energía. De manera natural, en la atmósfera se encuentra una capa de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) formada por vapor de agua, dióxido de carbono, ozono y metano principalmente, permiten la entrada de la radiación solar para que se caliente la superficie terrestre, creando un efecto invernadero y manteniendo la temperatura promedio en 14.6ºC, sin esta capa de gases, la tierra sería en promedio 30ºC más fría. El clima lo conforma la temperatura, lluvia, humedad y el viento de cada región, y su variación depende de la latitud geográfica, altitud, distancia del mar, el relieve, la dirección del viento y las corrientes marinas.
Es llamado cambio climático a la variación del clima de manera natural y que persiste por largos periodos de tiempo. En la historia del planeta ha ocurrido en diversas ocasiones cambios en el clima, debido a variaciones en la órbita terrestre, cambiando la cantidad de energía solar que recibe la tierra ocurriendo cada miles y millones de años. Pero en la actualidad, el cambio climático es debido a las actividades humanas y en periodos de tiempo cortos.
Las diversas actividades que se realizan para cubrir las necesidades humanas de energía y alimentación principalmente han modificado la composición atmosférica, aumentando la cantidad de GEI alterando el clima. El cambio climático ha generado el aumento de la temperatura global en la atmósfera y océanos, causando temperaturas extremas, derretimiento de los glaciares, cambios en las temporadas de lluvia, sequías extremas, inundaciones, aumento del nivel del mar, cambio en la distribución de especies, desacoplamiento de procesos biológicos, acidificación de los océanos, intensidad y frecuencia de tormentas y huracanes. En México, la temperatura promedio ha aumentado 0.85ºC en el último siglo, las lluvias en ocasiones se adelantan y otras se atrasan, afectando principalmente a la agricultura de temporal, ocurren eventos extremos como lluvias torrenciales y sequias, en la Península de Yucatán los eventos fríos se han incrementado, ha cambiado el patrón de floración de algunas plantas, o de la reproducción y nacimiento de algunos animales, los huracanes han incrementado en intensidad, el número de días fríos está descendiendo y el de noches
cálidas aumentando, al igual que el nivel del mar, afectando la llanura costera tamaulipeca, las llanuras y pantanos tabasqueños, así como también la costa de la Península de Yucatán, además los glaciares de montaña se están derritiendo.
En el 2015 el mundo se comprometió mediante el Acuerdo de París, a limitar el aumento de la temperatura global del planeta en menos de 2ºC durante este siglo, e incluso un grupo de países entre ellos México, propuso limitarla a 1.5ºC. Para lograr este objetivo global, cada país estableció sus metas al año 2030 de acuerdo a sus posibilidades para disminuir en un 22% las emisiones GEI y en 51% las de carbono negro, conservar, restaurar y manejar sustentablemente los ecosistemas, lograr una tasa cero de deforestación, generar alertas tempranas de prevención ante eventos climáticos extremos, reducir la vulnerabilidad de la población, los ecosistemas y la infraestructura ante el cambio climático.
Hoy en día, México cuenta con la Ley General de Cambio Climático en el que se definen los instrumentos políticos, modalidades de planeación y arreglos institucionales. También se cuenta con el establecimiento del Sistema Nacional de Cambio Climático y el Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático (INECC), que genera e integra conocimiento técnico y científico para la toma de decisiones para la mitigación y adaptación al fenómeno, también se cuenta con la Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático y con los programas transversales de Cambio Climático para los tres órdenes de gobierno. El cambio climático no es exclusivamente un problema ambiental, es un tema que afecta el bienestar social, económico y la seguridad, por lo que todos somos parte de él. La participación de la ciencia y la tecnología es importante en la generación de conocimiento y nuevos productos que favorezcan el bienestar de la población en el país y en la comunidad internacional, encaminando esfuerzos a la lucha frente al cambio climático en la reducción de emisiones, disminuir la vulnerabilidad de la población y los ecosistemas, contribuyendo al desarrollo sustentable. La generación nacional de GEI está distribuida en ocho sectores, siendo el transporte el principal generador con una contribución del 26.2%, seguido de la generación de energía eléctrica con un 19%, la industria un 17.3%, refinación del petróleo 12.1%, la agricultura con un 12%, uso del suelo 4.9%, los residuos 4.6% y lo residencial con un 3.9%. Por lo anterior, la investigación de mecanismos, equipos y tecnologías que tienen por objeto evitar, reducir o controlar emisiones, así como promover prácticas de eficiencia energética se presentan en esta obra.
Éste libro es producto de un trabajo multidisciplinario entre investigadoras e investigadores inmersos en diversas líneas de estudio sobre el cambio climático: energía eólica, transporte, salud, agricultura, calidad del aire, reciclaje de residuos, etc. No se pueden ignorar las evidencias científicas que demuestran la alteración del ambiente, el cambio climático es una verdad y su discusión es irrefutable.
Dra. Catalina González Nava
Profesora Investigadora
Universidad Politécnica de Guanajuato
... Alicia Ravelo García 10 Gerardo César Díaz Trujillo 11 Eric Efrén Villanueva Vega 12 62 introducción Se estima que la población mundial incremente más de 9 billones, con ello se ejercerá presión sobre la demanda de energía, infraestructura y se estima que el consumo de recursos, principalmente aquellos provenientes de fuentes fósiles de todo tipo (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), se elevara al doble para el 2050 y en consecuencia el incremento de 1.2 a 1.4 Kilogramos en la generación de residuos por persona por día (oCDE, 2020), generando efectos negativos al ambiente (Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). Por otro lado, la composición de los residuos varia con relación al país, su economía y estilo de vida, como puede apreciarse en la Tabla 1, donde se observa una diferencia en porcentajes de los distintos tipos de residuos a nivel internacional y su composición en México. ...
... En este contexto, algunos países como Estados Unidos de América han analizado sus productos desde el enfoque de ciclo de vida y el cambio de un proceso productivo lineal a uno cíclico, donde la reutilización de los materiales se incorpore a dicha actividad(Warrings & Fellner, 2018) y mejore la eficiencia en el aprovechamiento de recursos a fin de contrarrestar la presión sobre los elementos económicos, ambiental y social generado debido al uso lineal de recursos. Se estima que la aplicación de una economía circular creara más de 500,000 nuevos empleos y una reducción anual de emisiones de Co 2 de más de 400 millones de toneladas(Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). ...
Diversos autores han señalado que los residuos sólidos, además de generar costos económicos y ambientales en su manejo y disposición final para las autoridades locales, también pueden representar una oportunidad no solo a partir de la recuperación de materiales, sino también como una fuente de energía disponible (Tomic & Schneider, 2017), como puede apreciarse en la gráfica 1, donde el aluminio reciclado puede generar 200 millones de BTU por tonelada de latas enviadas a reciclaje, adicional a un impacto positivo por la disminución en la generación de los gases de efecto invernadero (Zakir, Hasna, Unddin, & Tofayal, 2014). El propósito de este estudio es evaluar el impacto de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología (FCITEC) en relación con los envases vacíos de Tereftalato de Polietileno (PET), Polietileno de Alta Densidad (PEAD), cartón y latas de aluminio enviados a reciclaje durante el periodo 2017 al 2019 y calcular el potencial de ahorro de energía mediante el Waste Reduction Model (WARM) (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2019).
... Alicia Ravelo García 10 Gerardo César Díaz Trujillo 11 Eric Efrén Villanueva Vega 12 62 introducción Se estima que la población mundial incremente más de 9 billones, con ello se ejercerá presión sobre la demanda de energía, infraestructura y se estima que el consumo de recursos, principalmente aquellos provenientes de fuentes fósiles de todo tipo (Warrings & Fellner, 2018), se elevara al doble para el 2050 y en consecuencia el incremento de 1.2 a 1.4 Kilogramos en la generación de residuos por persona por día (oCDE, 2020), generando efectos negativos al ambiente (Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). Por otro lado, la composición de los residuos varia con relación al país, su economía y estilo de vida, como puede apreciarse en la Tabla 1, donde se observa una diferencia en porcentajes de los distintos tipos de residuos a nivel internacional y su composición en México. ...
... En este contexto, algunos países como Estados Unidos de América han analizado sus productos desde el enfoque de ciclo de vida y el cambio de un proceso productivo lineal a uno cíclico, donde la reutilización de los materiales se incorpore a dicha actividad(Warrings & Fellner, 2018) y mejore la eficiencia en el aprovechamiento de recursos a fin de contrarrestar la presión sobre los elementos económicos, ambiental y social generado debido al uso lineal de recursos. Se estima que la aplicación de una economía circular creara más de 500,000 nuevos empleos y una reducción anual de emisiones de Co 2 de más de 400 millones de toneladas(Kachirimandanidou, Maina, & Koutinas , 2017). ...
... Warrings and Fellner reported that approximately 11 wt.% of the aluminium is lost due to oxidation in incineration plants [12]. Chen et al. [13] investigated the metallic aluminium content of the aluminium fraction in bottom ash for sizes between 0.5 and 1.6 mm, and an aluminium content of 6 to 71 wt.% was reported. ...
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is incinerated to reduce the volume and recover energy and materials. The generation of MSW has been increasing over the past few decades due to the increase in population and changing consumption habits. Rising environmental and economic concerns have increased the importance of waste treatment and recovery. Currently, MSW may take three alternate or parallel routes: direct recycling, incineration, or landfill, depending on the country and location. MSW incineration has three products in addition to energy: bottom ash, fly ash, and off-gas. After incineration, bottom ash usually still contains many materials to be recovered, such as glass, ceramics, and metals with a degree of oxidation. This study focuses on aluminium recovery from MSW incineration bottom ash from two different countries. The 2–30 mm fraction of aluminium particles was characterized in terms of its size, shape, and oxide thickness, and its effects on aluminium recovery were investigated. In addition, the ability of mechanical pre-treatment to remove oxides prior to melting was studied. The results were compared with the analytical modeling developed in this study. An increasing particle size and surface area resulted in an increase in aluminium recovery. Mechanical pre-treatment increased the yield for smaller particles to a larger extent than larger particles due to the difference in the oxide/metal ratio.
... The accumulation of unwanted impurities may deteriorate the effectiveness of aluminium recycling [47], such as motor engine blocks and household aluminium waste [79]. Utilizing MSE to refine secondary phases might open up recycling to highly polluted waste not commercially relevant to dilute or conventional recycling. ...
Metal screw extrusion (MSE) is a continuous, solid-state forming method utilizing an inherently high degree of deformation to consolidate fragmented input materials into a solid bulk by breaking their oxide skins. Severe plastic deformation with equivalent strain in the range of 10–20 can be achieved depending on set process parameters. Rigorous mixing can be employed to form sophisticated materials like bulk composites, nanocomposites, particle-reinforced metals, and fine-grained materials. Furthermore, the inherent solid-state processing is well suited for recovery of difficult-to-recycle materials. A range of non-ferrous materials has been manufactured by MSE and further characterized in terms of microstructural evolution and mechanical and functional properties. Furthermore, MSE has been studied in terms of flow, accumulated strain, and environmental impact. The following review aims to critically highlight the existing work performed on MSE, compare it to existing and emerging technologies as well as explore future development and possible applications. MSE has the potential to be utilized for numerous commercial applications. To realize industrial use of MSE, key aspects of the process and the influence of processing parameters on the resulting product must be understood.
... It determines whether recyclates can represent direct or indirect substitutes for primary materials [138]. Purity is not only the result of waste quality [51,140], but is also determined by sorting and collection systems as well as recycling process itself [77,99,134,138,170,172]. The role of recycling quality within CE was highlighted by many authors, and downcycling is stated to be a barrier for CE. ...
In the context of the Circular Economy (CE), quality is one of the most widely used keywords, but generally perceived as an ambiguous term without further definition or explanation. The present paper analyzes the use of the term product quality in the context of the CE through a systematic literature review including 132 peer-reviewed journal articles. The results reveal that the term quality, although not always explicitly defined, is associated with a variety of topics, namely market value, customer perspective, functionality, technical attributes, longevity, R-strategies and design, and environmental aspects. The aforementioned topics are used in different application contexts and partly show reciprocal relationships amongst each other. They further refer to the three sustainability perspectives (environmental, economic and social). The quantification of quality is observed to be rather limited and mainly based on assumptions. When it is quantified, technical properties, functionality and longevity are most frequently mentioned aspects, which are used within circularity or environmental impact assessment. While acknowledging the limitations arising from the scope of the included studies, which may be influenced by the keywords chosen, the review revealed that quality in the CE literature is complex and ambiguous. Therefore, for future research, we recommend authors to clearly define quality and its characteristics in the context of their respective research. By doing so, a better interpretation and comparability of the results can be achieved.
Graphical Abstract
... Various chemical science processes such as back diffusion of chemical activity and natural biological effects designed wetland adsorption, pyrolysis, biological processes, and various new technologies such as advanced oxidation processes and membrane technologies [9], which are currently used for the treatment of household waste [10]. Chemical science methodologies are inefficient, require excessive use of chemicals, and produce large amounts of sludge [11]. ...
Nowadays, there is a problem related to wastewater handling which is released from different activities. e electrocoagulation method has been a dominant treatment method for wastewater treatment. ere are different forms of electrocoagulation methods for wastewater treatment. Nevertheless, there was no comparison made for the removal efficiency of the sonoalternate current (SAC), alternate current (AC), sonodirect current (SDC), and direct current (DC) electrocoagulation process. e efficiency of electrocoagulation methods was compared for their removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD) from Jimma University domestic wastewater. Batch Reactor DC/AC electrocoagulation cell was used to determine the removal efficiency. During the comparison, the response surface methodology (RSM) was used to analyze and optimize the data taken from the laboratory. Besides, ANOVA was used to analyze the interaction effects of different parameters. e removal of COD from domestic wastewater was achieved with DCE, ACE, SDCE, and SACE which were 82.6%, 86.58%, 88.6%, and 92.5%, respectively, under optimal experimental conditions. From the finding, SACE was more successful at removing % COD than the DCE, ACE, and SDCE methods. For DCE and SDCE, the formation of an impermeable oxide layer at the cathode and the occurrence of corrosion at the anode due to oxidation made the COD removal process less efficient compared with SACE processes. From the experimental results it can be concluded that the SACE has the lowest power consumption and higher process efficiency than the other EC methods and can be a promising solution for removing pollutants from domestic wastewater.
... But if AL packaging was recyclable, its LCA could be improved even further (Bayus et al., 2016;Bukowski and Richmond, 2018;Nonclercq, 2016;Xie et al., 2011). Especially the recyclability of aluminium could have a significant positive impact, as the recycling of aluminium from secondary sources reduces the energy consumption compared to its production from ore by 95% (Warrings and Fellner, 2018). Moreover, aluminium can be recycled repeatedly without losing its properties, making it an ideal circular economy material (European Aluminium, 2020). ...
Aluminium laminated (AL) pouch packages and aluminium laminated Tetra-Pak cartons are considered unrecyclable, reducing their otherwise excellent lifecycle performance. This paper describes experimental results on pilot plant trials to recycle AL packages with a molten metal pyrolysis reactor. The experimental evidence shows that both package formats can be recycled and that clean aluminium can be recovered. However, the recovered aluminium from Al pouches may require mechanical cleaning as the consumer's information is printed onto the aluminium, leaving a carbon residue on the recovered aluminium. On the other hand, over 90% of the polypropylene plastic layer on the AL packaging pyrolysed into waxes, pointing to excellent kinetics. Moreover, an economic analysis of a 4,000 t/y commercial-scale plant demonstrates that a molten metal AL recycling plant is economically viable, achieving an internal rate of return (IRR) of over 20%.
... Demand was projected to witness 5 % consistent increases, recycling rate improved from 45 % in 2017 to 50 % in 2018 [2]. Currently, less than 60 % of the RBCs are recycled, with a projection to surpass 75 % by 2030 [3]. Conventional peak ageing HT was not suitable for the Al-Zn alloys to be used in bumper beam applications. ...
The literature is a deficit of the effect of fractographic and microstructural analyses on the yield strength (δy) of experimental 7xxx alloy fabricated from Recycled Beverage Cans (RBCs). This paper aims at fabricating a novel Al-5Zn-1.5Mg-1Mn-0.35Cu alloy from RBCs and correlate between fractography, microstructures, chemical compositions, and δy with respect to heat treatment (HT) parameters. Both intergranular and intergranular fractures were found predominantly ductile with micro dimples. Prolonged ageing time increased the thickness of boundaries and precipitated free zones (PFZs). Micro-voids and flake-like patterns indicated the formation of secondary phases. Maximum δy of 129 MPa and elongation of 16.3 % were observed in an alloy annealed (o) at 413 °C, artificial aged (T6) at 145 °C, for 6 h. Thus, modifications of HT process has significantly influenced the δy and microstructure of the alloy fabricated from RBCs. Future studies should concentrate on investigating the effect of variations in the wt. % Zn on the mechanical properties.
... However, the recyclable aluminium content is not well established due to the high oxygen affinity of aluminium and subsequent oxidation/ metal loss during incineration (Hu et al., 2011). Warrings and Fellner (2018) reported that approximately 11% of the aluminium mass is oxidized during incineration, while Bunge (2016) stated that a third of the mass of used beverage cans (UBCs) is oxidized if they undergo this process. The oxidation of aluminium alloys is a time and temperature dependent phenomenon (Smith et al., 2018b ;Thiele, 1962). ...
The increasing use of aluminimum in packaging applications results in many different aluminium-based products ending up in consumer mixed-waste bins. This waste is typically incinerated, generating an aluminium-containing bottom ash. The current work investigates the recyclability of the aluminium fraction in the bottom ash from waste incineration plants in the USA, UK and Denmark. Incinerated Al-samples from different size fractions (2–6 mm, 6–12 mm and 12–30 mm) were characterized in terms of inherent oxide thickness, re-melting yield/coagulation and composition. The measured average oxide thickness on Al particles was 68 µm (SD=100), with the metal yield and coagulation efficiency measured to between 76 and 92% and 87–99% respectively. Larger particle size fractions resulted in a higher metal yield due to their higher mass to surface ratio. A simplified model correlating metal yield and particle size was proposed. The aluminium content of the melted material was determined to between 95.6 and 98.5% with main impurities being Fe, Si, Mn, Zn, Mg and Cu, corresponding to major aluminium alloying elements and waste charge components.
... Data uncertainty was assumed to be normally distributed, because of its mathematical convenience (Tran et al., 2018). These assumptions have also been made by Muchangos et al. (2019), Eygen et al. (2018), Tran et al. (2018), Makarichi et al. (2018), and Warrings and Fellner (2018) while executing Laner et al. (2016) approach. The CVs are the standard deviation divided by the mean (Eygen et al., 2017). ...
Plastic packaging has been used increasingly worldwide in a broad range of application. Plastic packaging has a short lifetime, which generates a large amount of waste. However, robust information on plastic packaging waste flow is generally not available, especially for developing countries such as Brazil. We analyzed and quantified Brazilian post-consumer plastic packaging waste (PPW) flows using material flow analysis (MFA) for the year 2017. The system modeled covered from the manufacturing stage of plastic packaging up to its waste management stage. We used a range of data sources, whose quality we assessed using uncertainty characterization. The results showed that Brazil generated 12 Mt of PPW in 2017, and the management of 63% of that was not monitored. The majority of monitored PPW was disposed of into landfills, but 0.8 Mt of PPW was improperly disposed. Informal collection was 24% greater than formally managed selective collection. Only 4.5% of the PPW generated in Brazil was recycled. The results identified the major national challenges in relation to PPW management as being that information systems needed to be improved, informal waste collectors needed to be socially and productively included in the management systems, and recovery systems needed to be developed towards a circular economy.
... Jednak w ostatnim dziesięcioleciu kraj ten powiększył znacznie możliwości produkcyjne w zakresie wytwarzania aluminium i powstało tam kilka nowych hut tego surowca. Było to konsekwencją wprowadzenia w kraju nowego systemu recyklingu, co też przyczyniło się do powstania dwóch nowych hut stali (Warrings, Fellner, 2018). ...
Hutnictwo uchodzi od czasów rewolucji przemysłowej za strategiczną gałąź przemysłu. Gospodarka narodowa ani przemysł zbrojeniowy żadnego państwa nie może się rozwijać bez zabezpieczenia dostaw stali i innych półproduktów metalowych. Ucierpiałoby na tym budownictwo, transport, rozwój infrastruktury i różnych usług oraz odrębnych gałęzi przemysłu. Dlatego z racji powyższej, niniejszy artykuł ma na celu zbadanie rozmieszczenia i analizę zmian w hutnictwie w trzech dekadach 1990–2020, w których mieliśmy do czynienia z upadkiem komunizmu i transformacją ustrojów gospodarczych państw byłego bloku wschodniego oraz kryzysem finansowym, a także największym rozwojem technologicznym w historii. Zgromadzone dane opatrzono wnioskami z nich płynącymi na podstawie porównania kartogramów przedstawiających produkcję hutniczą w ujęciu regionalnym. Badanie obejmuje Europę, bez Rosji i Turcji, i przedstawia wiele procesów towarzyszących: globalizacji, integracji gospodarczej poszczególnych regionów, rozwojowi technologicznemu, eksploatacji nowych złóż surowców, czy wygaszania starych zagłębi przemysłowych. Wybrano do analizy następujące produkty: stal i surówka żelaza, miedź hutnicza i rafinowana, ferrostopy, aluminium, cynk, ołów i nikiel. Artykuł zaopatrzony jest w szczegółowe ryciny przedstawiające rozmieszczenie największych hut w omawianym okresie, których analiza umożliwiła wysnucie wniosków, jaki był rozkład produkcji hutniczej.
... Of course, estimation a sort of metal scrap and in-use stock of an industry is popular in researchers nowadays. The building stocks from urban to transnational scales was analyzed by Mastrucci et al. (2017) through bottom-up life cycle assessment, and Warrings and Fellner (2018) conducted a detailed material flow analysis for aluminum used in packaging & household non-packaging in 2013 in Austria. A MS (material stocks) accounting for 10 materials in 6 major infrastructures in Beijing, Tianjin and Shanghai were conducted by Huang et al. (2017). ...
... The only primary packaging that can be classified as both recyclable and recycled in practice are beverage cartons and glass bottles, with recycling rates of 30% (Getränkekarton Austria, 2019) and 86% (Altstoff Recycling Austria, 2018) respectively. Further, recycling rates of aluminum lids and closures are assumed to be 38% (Warrings & Fellner, 2018). ...
Background
Food waste is a major ecological concern around the globe. While the main function of packaging is to contain and protect food, it may also lead to food waste if residues remain in a package after emptying. Such residues could be attributed to wasteful behavior of consumers, but also to properties of packaging (e.g., geometry, surface tension) and food (e.g., surface tension, viscosity).
Methods
In this study, the technical emptiability (ability of packaging to be emptied entirely) of 36 dairy products is analyzed. Firstly, the amount of food residues in packaging after emptying at room and refrigerator temperature was weighed and set in relation to the original filling quantity. Secondly, streamlined life cycle assessments (LCAs) based on the Product Environmental Footprint guidance with a functional unit of “one kg of consumed dairy product at room or refrigerator temperature in the home of the consumer” are conducted. Finally, technical emptiability was included in the streamlined LCA and attributed to the primary packaging in order to evaluate its environmental impact.
Results
Technical emptiability for both temperatures combined was found to be between 0.25% (±0.11) and 5.79% (±0.43) for the analyzed dairy products. While there were differences in emptiability results of the same product and different temperatures, no significant trend ( p = 0.94) between emptiability and temperature could be observed. Liquid yogurt, cream, and buttermilk in beverage cartons and plastic bottles yielded the highest amounts, while milk in beverage cartons and glass bottles yielded the lowest amounts regarding food residues. Looking at global warming potential, poor technical emptiability of cream in a beverage carton leads to even higher environmental impacts than the production and waste management of its packaging.
Discussion
The streamlined LCA results show that food residues can contribute substantially to the footprint of packaging and can have similar or even higher environmental impacts than packaging production and waste management. Yet, emptiability is remarkably under-researched to this day. Future studies should further develop the methods presented in this paper, while LCA analysts should include technical emptiability when assessing the sustainability of packaging, particularly for those containing resource-intensive goods.
The EU defined recycling rate targets for aluminum and ferrous metal packaging wastes. According to the European Commission, aluminum and ferrous metal packaging recovered through waste sorting and bottom ash treatment can also be considered for target achievement, in addition to separate collection. Lack of data causes that many countries don't report these recovered amounts. This study determined the aluminum and ferrous metal packaging recovered by waste sorting and bottom ash treatment and the contribution of these amounts to the recycling rate in Austria by material flow analysis. Results show that waste sorting and incineration bottom ash treatment increases the recycling rate of aluminum packaging from 33 % to 58 % and of ferrous metal packaging from 65 % to 93 %. The recycling rate for the sum of metal packaging thus increases from 53 % to 80 %. Data-improvement is required for future calculation of recycling rates of metal packaging.
The paper provides a systematic literature review to investigate whether circular economy (CE) performance in the technical cycle will contribute to the sustainable development. Two academic databases, namely Scopus and Web of Science were used to retrieve research papers which span over the period 2000–2019. The research articles were classified according to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG's) addressed, industries involved, key areas of CE, pillars of sustainability, CE principles (R-Imperatives and Systems perspective), type of cycle in CE, and transversality (generic, product-specific and sector-specific). The review highlights various research gaps concerning the proposed classification. The research gaps will provide new emerging areas to the CE and will help to align the CE performance with the SDGs.
EU directive 94/62/EU describes the targets that member states need to attain in relation to the recycling and recovery of packaging waste. This directive is altered with respect to the calculation method of recycling rates. This alteration is described in the new, amended directive EU 2018/852 and further elaborated in an implementation decision EU 2019/665. This change in legislation implies that the measurement point for recycling is shifted. Under the current legislation the method to calculate the recycling rate varies with the material and the recycling or recovery methods. The new implementation decision aims to determine the recycling rate with the weights of packaging waste that are introduced in a recycling operation, to the extent that this is possible. For most materials this implies that the measurement point is shifted further in the chain towards recycling. The new implementation decision therefore influences the recycling rates that the Netherlands reports for the various packaging materials. The Dutch ministry of Infrastructure and Water management commissioned Wageningen Food & Biobased Research to study the effects of the new implementation decision EU 2019/665 on the recycling rates reported by the Netherlands for paper & board, glass and
metal.
The recycling of household aluminium waste metals will be very effective and efficient only when a proper process of recycling is chosen.
This paper is an attempt to provide a non-traditional method of utilising the exothermic heat of different Al sources (from automobiles, appliances, windows and doors and other products) for recycling and producing ferrotitanium alloy. Titania slag (75% TiO2) produced from carbothermic reduction of low-grade ilmenite (50% TiO2) and its produced fine dust from top dome are taken as a feed material. Aluminothermic processing of fine dust gives a possibility in the direction of ferrotitanium, followed by the successful execution with titania slag, which include smelting of titania slag with household Al scrap chips and lime in a thermal plasma reactor. The alloy formation is supported with characteristic properties of XRD and FESEM.
To explore the high value of aluminum ash development and utilization, factors (granularity of aluminum ash, leaching temperature, leaching time, sulfuric acid concentration, and liquid solid ratio) affecting the leaching rate of aluminum were evaluated. The kinetics of the leaching process was also investigated. The results indicate that the leaching rate of aluminum in aluminum ash can reach 88.9% under the following conditions: leaching temperature, 100 °C; leaching time, 120 min; sulfuric acid concentration, 2.5 mol/L; and liquid–solid ratio (mass ratio), 1.3:1. Studies on the leaching dynamics of aluminum in aluminum ash showed that leaching was divided into two stages. At the initial stage (i.e. at the leaching rate x ≤ 0.3), the external diffusion resistance and the diffusion resistance of the solid product layer are negligible, and leaching is controlled by chemical reaction at the interface. The apparent activation energy was 5733.25 J/mol. At the leaching rate x = 0.3–0.9, the leaching rate was controlled by the non-steady diffusion of the liquid film in the porous solid by the fluid reactant H2SO4. The apparent activation energy was 25390.87 J/mol.
The circular economy (CE) and the marketing activities are the key subjects to attract the market share in today’s complex supply chain. Here, dual selling channels, the online delivery time, and the distributor sales effort are considered as marketing activities to attract the customers. Moreover, in order to meets the economic and environmental principles of the CE, three responsibilities to ease the carbon emission, as approaches for the return on investment, are devised, including investment in the green production, the cap and trade regulation, and the hybrid remanufacturing via both the manufacturer and the distributor under the technology license. This such complex supply chain needs to determine the equilibrium amounts of the distinguishing elements, including the pricing strategy, remanufacturing approaches, delivery time, and sales effort to abate the conflicts between the members, and consequently, to enhance the economic and CE objectives of the supply chain (SC). In order to obtain the equilibrium decision makings, three game theoretical approaches, including the manufacturer-Stackelberg game (SM), the distributor-Stackelberg game (SR) and the Nash game (N) are employed. The interaction between the game sequences and the remanufacturing process is the key purpose of this paper to not only maximize the profit of SC but also to enrich the CE and marketing goals of this research. The outcomes presented that the SM game, where the manufacturer remanufactures most of the defected products which are collected via the distributor, is the best game strategy to improve the profits of both the distributor and the manufacturer, and also to enhance the other distinguishing elements. In addition, in the SR game, when most of the returns remanufacture via the distributor under the manufacturer license, it not only maximizes the profits of members but also lead to the improvement of the distinguishing elements. In the Nash game, however, there is a conflict between the members about the remanufacturing process, which reduces the SC profit in this game as compared to other ones.
In 2015, in Flanders, 45 279 t of household metal packaging was brought on the market, of which 25 639 t was separately collected via the dedicated waste bags after consumption. Literature data showed that 16 880 t of the household metal packaging was present in residual waste that is incinerated in waste-to-energy (WtE) plants; together with the separately collected waste corresponding to 93.9% of the household metal packaging brought on the market. Metals that are present in the incinerated waste largely remain in the bottom ash. A representative sorting experiment showed that the different metal scrap fractions recovered from WtE bottom ash consisted for 2.2 to 11.3% of packaging. Combining these percentages with waste and bottom ash mass flows pointed out that only 2 577 t of metal packaging was present in WtE bottom ash, together with the metal packaging separately collected corresponding to an overall recycling rate of 62.3%. The difference between the household metal packaging mass flows obtained from literature data and from the sorting experiment is remarkable, even taking into account the uncertainty on the results of the sorting experiment and those due to assumptions made in the material flow analysis and the possible material losses to other ash fractions in the WtE process. It shows the need to gather more accurate information on the composition of the different household waste streams and of all WtE ash fractions to establish realistic recycling rates.
Upon excitation of the visible light, probes show colorimetric and fluorescent responses to the specific metal ion, which can be easily detected by the naked eye. Owing to the excitation of the visible light at 423 nm, a novel and simple Schiff-base receptor based chromone derivative called 7-methoxychromone-3-carbaldehyde-(indole-3-formyl) hydrazone (MCIH2) had been investigated as a selective and sensitive probe for Al ³⁺ with colorimetric and fluorescent responses. Upon addition of Al ³⁺ to compound MCIH2 solution, compound MCIH2 could respond to Al ³⁺ with a good selective colorimetric signal, which was easily observed from colorless to yellow-green by the naked eye. Furthermore, a remarkable fluorescence emission enhancement with an “OFF-ON” signal by over 700-fold was triggered, but other various metal ions had no such significant effects on the fluorescence emission. In addition, the detection limit of compound MCIH2 for recognizing Al ³⁺ was evaluated to be as low as 1 × 10 ⁻⁷ M level, which was sufficiently low for sensing Al ³⁺ widely distributed in various environmental and biological systems.
Aluminum
is widely used in daily household consumable goods such as food and drink packaging materials, storage containers, etc. The disposal of such goods into household waste means that this waste stream contains a significant amount of aluminum
. Domestic waste is commonly sent to incinerator plants where the organics are combusted while the metallic content stays in the bottom ash
, which is subsequently separated into various metal streams. Because of the importance of aluminium
in the circular economy
, there is a need for efficient recovery
procedures for this metal source. This paper discusses the recyclability and the recovery
rate of aluminum
from the bottom ash
through remelting with a molten salt. The remelting experiments were performed under a 50–50 wt% NaCl:KCl mixture with a 2 wt% CaF2 addition to promote metal coalescence. The oxide thickness and trace element content of the starting metal and the composition of the resulting metal were characterized as these parameters largely determine the recovery
rate and recyclability of these secondary metal streams. The laboratory
results showed the coalescence efficiency up to 99.5% and the material yield up to 92%. High deviation in oxide content based on the oxide layer thickness measurements
was observed which crucially affects the metal losses in recycling
.KeywordsRecyclingIncinerated metalBottom ashAluminum
Features:
- Continues to serve as the only book on material flow analysis (MFA)
- Updates information concerning MFA/SFA development
- Includes software STAN and links to STAN2WEB
- Contains new case studies about resource management and waste management
- Provides a fresh, data-based treatment of uncertainty
Summary:
Since the first issue of the handbook was published in October 2003, the field of material flow analysis (MFA) has developed rapidly, including hundreds of MFA studies all over the globe. MFA methodology has become a widely used technique in environmental management, resources management, and waste management. Today, most MFA done on a global basis uses the MFA methodology described in this handbook, because the methodology offers a concise, transparent, reproducible, and well-accepted framework for performing MFAs and substance flow analyses (SFAs).
The software STAN (subSTance flow ANalysis) is a new user-friendly freeware that supports performing material flow analysis (MFA) according to the Austrian standard ÖNORM S 2096 (MFA-Application in waste management) under consideration of data uncertainties. After building a graphical model with predefined components (flows, processes, subsystems, system boundaries and text fields), known data (mass flows, stocks, concentrations and transfer coefficients) with corresponding physical units can be either entered or imported for different hierarchical layers (good, substance, energy) and time periods. A graph of the model with flows displayed as Sankey arrows (i.e. the width of a flow is proportional to its value) can be printed or exported into various graphical formats. If sufficient data are given calculation algorithms can be used to reconcile uncertain data and to compute unknown variables including their uncertainties (error propagation). Statistical tests are used to detect gross errors in a given data set. The features of STAN are demonstrated on the example of a fictitious waste management company.
The bottom ashes resulted annually from the incineration of municipal solid waste in Europe contain about 400,000 tonnes of metallic aluminium and 200,000 tonnes of heavy non-ferrous metals, such as copper and zinc. Efficient re-covery of this non-ferrous metal resource requires state-of-the-art separation technologies and a continuous feedback of laboratory analyses of the metal products and the depleted bottom ash to the operators of the bottom ash treatment plants. A methodology is presented for the optimization of the production of non-ferrous metal value from Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator bottom ash. Results for an incineration plant in the Netherlands show that efficient recycling can have a significant impact on value recovery as well as on non-ferrous metal recycling rates, producing up to 8% more revenue and 25% more metals from the ash.
Bottom ash is the major by-product of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI), and is often reused as an engineering material, such as road-base aggregate. However, some metals (especially aluminum) in bottom ash can react with water and generate gas that could cause expansion and failure of products containing the ash; these metals must be removed before the ash is utilized. The size distribution and the chemical speciation of metals in the bottom ash from two Chinese MSWI plants were examined in this study, and the recovery potential of metals from the ash was evaluated. The metal concentrations in these bottom ashes were lower than that generated in other developed countries. Specifically, the contents of Al, Fe, Cu and Zn were 18.9–29.2, 25.5–32.3, 0.7–1.0 and 1.6–2.5 g/kg, respectively. Moreover, 44.9–57.0 wt.% of Al and 55.6–75.4 wt.% of Fe were distributed in bottom ash particles smaller than 5 mm. Similarly, 46.6–79.7 wt.% of Cu and 42.9–74.2 wt.% of Zn were concentrated in particles smaller than 3 mm. The Fe in the bottom ash mainly existed as hematite, and its chemical speciation was considered to limit the recovery efficiency of magnetic separation.
Material flow analysis (MFA) is widely used to investigate flows and stocks of resources or pollutants in a defined system. Data availability to quantify material flows on a national or global level is often limited owing to data scarcity or lacking data. MFA input data are therefore considered inherently uncertain. In this work, an approach to characterize the uncertainty of MFA input data is presented and applied to a case study on plastics flows in major Austrian consumption sectors in the year 2010. The developed approach consists of data quality assessment as a basis for estimating the uncertainty of input data. Four different implementations of the approach with respect to the translation of indicator scores to uncertainty ranges (linear- vs. exponential-type functions) and underlying probability distributions (normal vs. log-normal) are examined. The case study results indicate that the way of deriving uncertainty estimates for material flows has a stronger effect on the uncertainty ranges of the resulting plastics flows than the assumptions about the underlying probability distributions. Because these uncertainty estimates originate from data quality evaluation as well as uncertainty characterization, it is crucial to use a well-defined approach, building on several steps to ensure the consistent translation of the data quality underlying material flow calculations into their associated uncertainties. Although subjectivity is inherent in uncertainty assessment in MFA, the proposed approach is consistent and provides a comprehensive documentation of the choices underlying the uncertainty analysis, which is essential to interpret the results and use MFA as a decision support tool.
This work reports the oxidation behaviour and waste-to-energy output of different semi-rigid and flexible aluminium packagings when incinerated at 850°C in an air atmosphere enriched with 6% oxygen, in the laboratory setting. The physical properties of the different packagings were determined, including their metallic aluminium contents. The ash contents of their combustion products were determined according to standard BS ISO 1171:2010. The net calorific value, the required energy, and the calorific gain associated with each packaging type were determined following standard BS EN 13431:2004. Packagings with an aluminium lamina thickness of >50μm did not fully oxidise. During incineration, the weight-for-weight waste-to-energy output of the packagings with thick aluminium lamina was lower than that of packagings with thin lamina. The calorific gain depended on the degree of oxidation of the metallic aluminium, but was greater than zero for all the packagings studied. Waste aluminium may therefore be said to act as an energy source in municipal solid waste incineration systems.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) plays an important role in many European waste management systems. However, increasing focus on resource criticality has raised concern regarding the possible loss of critical resources through MSWI. The primary form of solid output from waste incinerators is bottom ashes (BAs), which also have important resource potential. Based on a full-scale Danish recovery facility, detailed material and substance flow analyses (MFA and SFA) were carried out, in order to characterise the resource recovery potential of Danish BA: (i) based on historical and experimental data, all individual flows (representing different grain size fractions) within the recovery facility were quantified, (ii) the resource potential of ferrous (Fe) and non-ferrous (NFe) metals as well as rare earth elements (REE) was determined, (iii) recovery efficiencies were quantified for scrap metal and (iv) resource potential variability and recovery efficiencies were quantified based on a range of ashes from different incinerators. Recovery efficiencies for Fe and NFe reached 85% and 61%, respectively, with the resource potential of metals in BA before recovery being 7.2%ww for Fe and 2.2%ww for NFe. Considerable non-recovered resource potential was found in fine fraction (below 2 mm), where approximately 12% of the total NFe potential in the BA were left. REEs were detected in the ashes, but the levels were two or three orders of magnitude lower than typical ore concentrations. The lack of REE enrichment in BAs indicated that the post-incineration recovery of these resources may not be a likely option with current technology. Based on these results, it is recommended to focus on limiting REE-containing products in waste for incineration and improving pre-incineration sorting initiatives for these elements.
Waste incineration bottom ash fine fraction contains a significant amount of aluminium, but previous works have shown that current recovery options based on standard on-step Eddy Current Separation (ECS) have limited efficiency. In this paper, we evaluated the improvement in the efficiency of ECS by using an additional step of crushing and sieving. The efficiency of metallic Al recovery was quantified by measuring hydrogen gas production. The ash samples were also tested for total aluminium content with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). As an alternative to material recovery, we also investigated the possibility to convert residual metallic Al into useful energy, promoting H2 gas production by reacting metallic Al with water at high pH. The results show that the total aluminium concentration in the <4mm bottom ash fraction is on average 8% of the weight of the dry ash, with less than 15% of it being present in the metallic form. Of this latter, only 21% can be potentially recovered with ECS combined with crushing and sieving stages and subsequently recycled. For hydrogen production, using 10MNaOH at 1L/S ratio results in the release of 6-11l of H2 gas for each kilogram of fine dry ash, equivalent to an energy potential of 118kJ.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metal scraps are increasingly recovered from municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash and used in the production of secondary steel and aluminium. However, during the incineration process, metal scraps contained in the waste undergo volatilisation and oxidation processes, which determine a loss of their recoverable mass. The present paper evaluates the behaviour of different types of aluminium packaging materials in a full-scale waste to energy plant during standard operation. Their partitioning and oxidation level in the residues of the incineration process are evaluated, together with the amount of potentially recoverable aluminium. About 80% of post-consumer cans, 51% of trays and 27% of foils can be recovered through an advanced treatment of bottom ash combined with a melting process in the saline furnace for the production of secondary aluminium. The residual amount of aluminium concentrates in the fly ash or in the fine fraction of the bottom ash and its recovery is virtually impossible using the current eddy current separation technology. The average oxidation levels of the aluminium in the residues of the incineration process is equal to 9.2% for cans, 17.4% for trays and 58.8% for foils. The differences between the tested packaging materials are related to their thickness, mechanical strength and to the alloy.
The use of societal data inenvironmental research has indicated a need forconsidering uncertainties of data. Severalfundamental conditions for statistical treatmentare occasionally not met. The choice is either touse or to ignore the uncertain data. If used, itmay impair the quality of the result. If ignored,a possible environmental risk may remainunattended. This article discusses some of theproblems encountered with data in urbanheavy-metal metabolism, and suggests a method based onuncertainty intervals to consider theuncertainties.
A formal procedure for data quality management in life cycle inventory is described. The procedure is applied to the example of an energy inventory for 1 kg rye bread. Five independent data quality indicators are suggested as necessary and sufficient to describe those aspects of data quality which influence the reliability of the result. Listing these data quality indicators for all data gives an improved understanding of the typical data quality problems of a particular study. This may subsequently be used for improving the data collection strategy during a life cycle study. To give an assessment of the reliability of the overall result of a life cycle inventory, the data quality indicators are transformed into estimates of the additional uncertainty due to the insufficient data quality. It is shown how a low data quality can both increase the uncertainty and change the mean value. After assigning additional uncertainties to all data in the study, a calculation of the uncertainty of the overall result is made by the use of simulations. The use of default estimates of additional uncertainties is suggested as a way to both simplify and improve the procedure.
Cement will remain the key material to satisfy global housing and modern infrastructure needs. As a consequence, the cement industry worldwide is facing growing challenges in conserving material and energy resources, as well as reducing its CO2 emissions. According to the International Energy Agency, the main levers for cement producers are the increase in energy efficiency and the use of alternative materials, be it as fuel or raw materials. Accordingly, the use of alternative fuels has already increased significantly in recent years, but potential for further increases still exists. In cement, the reduction of the clinker factor remains a key priority: tremendous progress has already been made. Nevertheless, appropriate materials are limited in their regional availability. New materials might be able to play a role as cement constituents in the future. It remains to be seen to what extent they could substitute Portland cement clinker to a significant degree.
A study was performed into relations between physical properties of aluminum packaging waste and the corresponding aluminum scraps in bottom ash from three typical incineration processes. First, Dutch municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) bottom ash was analyzed for the identifiable beverage can alloy scraps in the +2mm size ranges using chemical detection and X-ray fluorescence. Second, laboratory-scale pot furnace tests were conducted to investigate the relations between aluminum packaging in base household waste and the corresponding metal recovery rates. The representative packaging wastes include beverage cans, foil containers and thin foils. Third, small samples of aluminum packaging waste were incinerated in a high-temperature oven to determine leading factors influencing metal recovery rates. Packaging properties, combustion conditions, presence of magnesium and some specific contaminants commonly found in household waste were investigated independently in the high-temperature oven. In 2007, the bottom ash (+2mm fraction) from the AEB MSWI plant was estimated to be enriched by 0.1 wt.% of aluminum beverage cans scrap. Extrapolating from this number, the recovery potential of all eleven MSWI plants in the Netherlands is estimated at 720 ton of aluminum cans scrap. More than 85 wt.% of this estimate would end up in +6mm size fractions and were amenable for efficient recycling. The pot furnace tests showed that the average recovery rate of metallic aluminum typically decreases from beverage cans (93 wt.%) to foil containers (85 wt.%) to thin foils (77 wt.%). The oven tests showed that in order of decreasing impact the main factors promoting metallic aluminum losses are the packaging type, combustion temperature, residence time and salt contamination. To a lesser degree magnesium as alloying element, smaller packaging size and basic contaminations may also promote losses.
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