No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Playfulness and humor in psychology: An overview and update
Abstract
The main aim of this overview is to discuss theoretical work and empirical studies on the proposed association between humor and playfulness. Starting point is McGhee’s (1996, Health, healing and the amuse system: Humor
as survival training. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt; 1999, The laughter remedy: Health, healing and the amuse system. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt) notion that humor is a variant of play – the play with ideas. Research on play and layfulness
is discussed in light of this proposition and an updated definition of
playfulness as a personality trait in adults is presented. The latter differentiates
among four facets; namely, Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and
Whimsical. One methodological problem is highlighted in particular: Items
such as “I have a good sense of humor” are to be found in both, measures for
the sense of humor and playfulness and sometimes used as both predictor and
criterion in the same analysis. Overall, there is evidence that the proposed
overlap between humor and playfulness exists, but that it does not indicate
redundancy. Avenues for future research are presented.
... Playfulness is "a personality trait that underlies the individual's tendency to be intrinsically motivated, with a clear fun orientation, and to engage oneself spontaneously in an unconstrained manner" (Shen, Chick, & Zinn, 2014:68). However, not only individual playfulness traits (Proyer, 2018;Shen et al., 2014a) but also group dynamics shape workplace playfulness (Mainemelis et al., 2015;Sørensen & Spoelstra, 2012;S. West et al., 2017). ...
... Playfulness at work has been considered an inducer of innovative behavior (Pellegrini et al., 2007), creativity (Mainemelis & Ronson, 2006;West et al., 2013), problemsolving (Hess & Bundy, 2003), psychological safety in groups (West et al., 2013), and learning (Glynn, 1994). It has also been suggested that workplace playfulness acts as an inducer of interest, pride, and involvement (Proyer, 2018) and that it enables employees to better express their capabilities (Rood & Meneley, 1991). While there have also been studies that reveal negative sides of playfulness at work, such as the evocation of cynicism (Fleming, 2005), feelings of being forced to play (Bolton & Houlihan, 2009), bullying and poor performance, these studies are few in number (16 out of 122 studies analyzed) and those that report negative effects also find positive effects (Celestine & Yeo, 2021). ...
... Playful tendencies are widely considered by researchers as personality traits (Glynn & Webster, 1992;Proyer, 2018) that are "relatively stable dispositions that manifest themselves This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4347552 ...
Despite the known benefits of playfulness in the workplace, we know little about how workplace playfulness arises from individual playfulness traits. We consider a bottom-up/ab initio approach to study how the experience of workplace playfulness arises from individuals to the group level. Through a four-step approach, we develop a robust measurement of the experience of workplace playfulness. We then conducted a survey with our developed questionnaire on workplace playfulness together with questions about individual playfulness to five different offices of two organizations spread over four countries. We analyzed our survey data by conducting within-group correlation (rWG) and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)analysis, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, and factor score regression. The exploratory factor analysis confirms that different individual playfulness trait items can be grouped into factors representing higher-order group-level dimensions. Our analyses demonstrate the feasibility and plausible nature of an overarching dimension of the experience of workplace playfulness. We find that the perception of workplace playfulness is strongly related to the individual's fun belief, initiative, and reactivity. Additionally, colleagues' behaviour in the workplace and the leaders who support playfulness are the important determining factor for the perception of workplace playfulness.
... In addition to the HSQ, we measured playfulness, an increasingly prominent construct in humor research (Proyer, 2018). Past theory and research suggest close ties between a playful, non-serious approach to events, experiences, and ideas and the appreciation and production of humor (Chafe, 2007;Proyer, 2012bProyer, , 2013Proyer, , 2018. ...
... In addition to the HSQ, we measured playfulness, an increasingly prominent construct in humor research (Proyer, 2018). Past theory and research suggest close ties between a playful, non-serious approach to events, experiences, and ideas and the appreciation and production of humor (Chafe, 2007;Proyer, 2012bProyer, , 2013Proyer, , 2018. Need for uniqueness, the preference for being distinctive and standing out from other people (Lynn & Snyder, 2002), was measured as well. ...
... This overall pattern-high correlations with affiliative humor, and smaller correlations with the rest-supports our view of humor efficacy and identity as constructs focused on the interpersonal use of humor. For playfulness, both humor efficacy and identity had positive correlations, large in effect size (see Table 6), with SMAP scores, consistent with the view that playfulness and humor are closely connected (Proyer, 2018). Likewise, both efficacy and identity correlated positively with need for uniqueness, with effect sizes in the small to medium range (see Table 6), suggesting that people high in humor efficacy and identity prefer to be distinctive and stand out from others. ...
Although humor is a universal feature of human communication, people vary widely in how they create and use humor. Guided by a broader model of creative self-beliefs, we developed the Humor Efficacy and Identity Short Scales (HEISS), a pair of 4-item scales measuring humor self-efficacy (“I can” beliefs reflecting confidence about one's ability to be funny) and humor identity (“I am” beliefs reflecting the centrality of humor ability to one's self-concept). Using a large sample of English speakers (n = 1842), an item response theory analysis found a suitable range of item difficulty, good item discrimination, and essentially zero gender-based differential item functioning. Three follow-up samples with English (n = 304, n = 400) and Polish (n = 385) speakers found conceptually consistent relationships with humor backgrounds and experiences (e.g., taking classes and holding jobs involving humor), with Big 5 personality traits, and with humor styles and playfulness. Taken together, these scales show promise for research on people's humor self-concepts and for studies of gendered aspects of humor use, creation, and appreciation.
... Furthermore, they demonstrate the ability to employ their playfulness, even in challenging situations, to alleviate tension, whether in social interactions or work-related scenarios. Playfulness is also linked to a preference for complexity over simplicity and an inclination toward, as well as a fondness for, unconventional activities, objects, topics, or individuals (Proyer, 2018). ...
... To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the associations between the SMAP and comic styles. Overall, we expected that playfulness relates to comic styles without being redundant (for a discussion, see Proyer, 2018). ...
Adult playfulness describes the personality of the quick initiation and strong intensity of enjoyable experiences coupled with the frequency of engaging in playful behaviors. In addition to examining
the reliability and validity of the Short Measure for Adult Playfulness (SMAP), we compared the psychometric properties of the SMAP across (a) 4- and 7-point answer formats; (b) German and
English language versions; and (c) gender. The SMAP and criterion validity measures were distributed across three independent samples from Canada (Ntotal = 1,177) and a German sample (N
= 660). Results supported a unidimensional solution with strong factor loadings for all items (>.50 across all samples) and high test-retest reliability (r = .67, BF10>100). In item response theory analyses, high discrimination parameters were found across the latent continuum. Although both the four-point and seven-point Likert scale versions showed robust item properties, the seven-point Likert scale version yielded more precise measurement of higher playfulness (θ > 1.50). No significant differential item functioning was located across gender or language. Finally, results supported external construct validity via associations with broad personality traits, humor, and orientations to happiness. The present investigation provides support for the reliability and validity of the English SMAP for concise adult playfulness measurement.
... Proyer and Brauer (2023) stated that the dimension of manifest joy might also be a consequence of being playful, because playfulness predicts positive emotions. The same distinction between structure and consequence of playfulness is assumed to apply to humor and creativity (Proyer, 2018;Proyer et al., 2019). Bundy et al. (2001) found that the inclusion of physicality as part of the spontaneity dimension makes the CPS inappropriate for physically disabled children. ...
... Further research is needed to investigate the basis of children's playfulness. It remains a concern of research into children's playfulness to examine the distinction between the multidimensional structure of playfulness and its consequences in-depth on a theoretical and empirical level (e.g., Proyer, 2018). Second, not all items of the CPS were used in our analyses. ...
Even though playfulness has been found to be highly relevant to the development and wellbeing of young children, hardly any longitudinal findings are available on stability and changes in children's playfulness. This study examined developmental trajectories of children's playfulness in two- to six-year-olds over a two-year period and analyzed whether individual and family characteristics and transition to primary school explain these trajectories. The sample included 839 children (47.3% girls, MAge = 4.87 years, SDAge = 1.39) from 38 childcare centers and 47 kindergartens in Switzerland. Children's playfulness was assessed at three measurement time points at one-year intervals using the multidimensional Children's Playfulness Scale to gather parent and teacher reports. Second-order linear growth curve models showed significant interindividual differences in children's playfulness at initial baseline. These differences correlated with effects for age, migrant background, and maternal education. The growth-related processes varied depending on children's age, and the individual dimension of children's playfulness whether an increase, stability, or decline was observed. In particular, social components of playfulness were found to change. On average, children's playfulness increased in early years but decreased from school age onwards. However, closeness in parent–child relationships proved to be supportive of children's playfulness at all time points. The results indicate the significance of positive parenting to children's playfulness, but they also draw attention to how playful qualities can be maintained and more highly valued in the school environment. In general, the study can contribute to a better understanding of the construct of playfulness in childhood.
... Likewise, the instructional content employed in HILL can be serious; the treatment of the content and teaching delivery, however, may render it humorous. In other words, being playfully creative in language classroom is not only a matter of 'what to teach 'but also 'how to teach ' (Barabadi et al., 2022;Bell, 2012;Proyer, 2018;Proyer et al., 2019). This point, in turn, hints at the notion of humor literacy (and also play literacy) which, among other issues, will be addressed in the next section (see also Heidari-Shahreza, 2021;Prichard & Rucynski, 2020). ...
... He reasons that this can greatly contribute to a state of 'flow' (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). That is, humor can help learners have an 'optimal learning experience' through full engagement and enjoyment (Proyer, 2018;Waring, 2013). Similarly, as Dörnyei (2001) argues pedagogical humor makes "learning stimulating and enjoyable for the learner by increasing the attractiveness of the tasks" (p. ...
This manuscript is a conceptual article that intends to address 'playful creativity' as an under-explored but potentially insightful component of TESOL programs. To this aim, playful creativity is first defined under a critical purview of traditional and recent conceptualizations of creativity. Afterward, 'creative TESOL' is briefly addressed. 'Pedagogical humor' is next put forth as a practical outlet for playful creativity in language education. To further elaborate on (and operationalize) such creative TESOL, 'humor-integrated language learning' (HILL) is outlined. HILL is argued as an innovative pedagogical approach with far-reaching effects. The article anchors the contention for humorizing creative TESOL in a) the literature-informed benefits of pedagogical humor, b) new directions in creativity programs, and c) the criticality of creativity. Several instructional designs and a sample activity are also outlined to better familiarize readers with this approach. The paper finally addresses practical considerations and further developments in HILL within the framework of playful creative TESOL.
... In the psychological literature, four styles of humour are identified: affiliative humour, selfenhancing humour, aggressive humour, and self-defeating humour (Evans & Steptoe 2018;Proyer, 2018;Martins et al., 2003). Affiliative humour uses aspects of everyday life to create humour with the purpose of enhancing one's relationship with others in a positive and benevolent way. ...
... Affiliative humour uses aspects of everyday life to create humour with the purpose of enhancing one's relationship with others in a positive and benevolent way. Proyer (2018) suggests that affiliative humour ends up relieving tension and improving relationships. Self-enhancing humour is meant to promote a good-natured attitude toward life with the ability to make humour out of present circumstances in a productive manner. ...
The first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic has been described as stressful. People make light of stressful situations in different ways. Ghanaians are known to be able to make humour out of any situation. During the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, Ghanaians shared memes and posters on social media, making light of the seriousness of the pandemic. "Kwatakwata by June diεε…", shortened from the phrase: [kwatakwata by June diεε na obiara ewu] to wit "Latest by June, we will all be dead", has become a catchphrase on social media and the streets of Ghana to make fun of the serious impact of the virus. This current study examines internet humour that became popular with Ghanaians during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. We examined videos, memes, and posters from various social media sites to learn about the Ghanaian use of humour during a public health crisis. Content analysis of the data showed that The European Journal of Humour Research 10 (1) Open-access journal | www.europeanjournalofhumour.org 135 Ghanaians created humorous content to express how they felt about the public health crisis and educate citizens about the pandemic. Recurring themes observed from the data include humour concerning death, isolation, and keeping children occupied. Our analysis showed that Ghanaian social media users largely used self-enhancing humour. We discuss these themes to show the types of internet humour Ghanaians shared during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Taking the short description of the strength into account (i.e., "humor [playfulness]: liking to laugh and joke; bringing smiles to other people") it seems as if this, again, focuses on the entertainment and social functions of playfulness (humor). Proyer and Ruch (2011) have shown that there is an overlap between humor and playfulness in this approach, but that they are distinct (for a more in-depth discussion of the overlap between humor and playfulness see Proyer, 2018). Given that the most frequently used measure for the VIA-classification (the VIA-IS; Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005) does not cover playful contents well (cf. ...
... Interestingly, none of the proposed models has a hierarchical structure and future research will show whether such a conceptualization is feasible. Finally, an important point of concern is that several models (and their associated assessment instruments) share substantial overlap between what constitutes playfulness (i.e., its core characteristics) and its consequences as well as with parts of the nomological net (for an overview see Proyer, 2018Proyer, , 2019. We will discuss this point with sample items when giving an overview of available instruments to assess playfulness. ...
... An observation for the subjective measurement of playfulness in adults is that in some cases the criterion and the predictors are virtually interchangeable. For example, item contents such as being happy and cheerful are used as indicators of playfulness, while being satisfied with one's life is the criterion that should be predicted and the overlap between being happy and satisfied is evident (Proyer, 2017). Similarly, it has been shown that items used for the assessment of playfulness strongly overlap with broader personality traits (primarily extraversion and emotional stability) and that the item contents used there frequently deal more with the consequences of being playful rather than the core of playfulness itself (Proyer, 2012(Proyer, , 2017Proyer and Jehle, 2013). ...
... For example, item contents such as being happy and cheerful are used as indicators of playfulness, while being satisfied with one's life is the criterion that should be predicted and the overlap between being happy and satisfied is evident (Proyer, 2017). Similarly, it has been shown that items used for the assessment of playfulness strongly overlap with broader personality traits (primarily extraversion and emotional stability) and that the item contents used there frequently deal more with the consequences of being playful rather than the core of playfulness itself (Proyer, 2012(Proyer, , 2017Proyer and Jehle, 2013). Hence, studies on the predictive validity of playfulness (and humor) with any external variable could be influenced by an overlap of the criterion and the predictor(s). ...
We provide an overview on research on the association between humor and well-being and comment on methodological issues in this line of research. Overall, findings are mixed; most robust findings point to an association with greater pain tolerance. Research conducted within the field of positive psychology shows a promising path for future research with a particular focus on humor-based positive psychology interventions.
... Hence, they can use their whimsical playfulness for humor, but can also do other things with their observations. Humor and playfulness are related (to various degrees), but they are not interchangeable (see e.g., Proyer, 2018;Proyer and Ruch, 2011). In the case of creativity, it is probably best to think of a playful state as a facilitator of creativity (Proyer, Tandler, and Brauer, 2019). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to invite Professor René Proyer, a leading positive psychologist and authority on play, to tell his story, share highlights from his research and insights into playfulness, mental health and positive psychology.
Design/methodology/approach
A positive autoethnographic case study approach is used to enable Professor Proyer to narrate his story while also addressing topics within a Q&A format.
Findings
Play is important for childhood, adolescent and adult mental health and well-being. Although distinct from one another, humor, laughter, creativity and playfulness exhibit overlap. Proyer’s research has even shown that just reflecting on playful moments can increase happiness and alleviate depression.
Research limitations/implications
The experiences, perspectives and insight of one person are narrated in this case study and these cannot be generalized.
Practical implications
Play can be widely defined, and there are many ways to enjoy it freely and at no cost, making it highly accessible and practical to support mental health and well-being. By seeking out and creating playful situations, we can embrace playfulness as adults.
Social implications
As Proyer relays by quoting Christopher Peterson, one definition of positive psychology is “ Other people matter ”. By finding ways to playfully interact with others, we can find immediate enjoyment but also build and strengthen relationships and support our health and well-being, and that of others too.
Originality/value
Professor Proyer is a positive psychologist and authority on playfulness. Here, he shares with us multiple insights in the areas of mental health and play.
... Humor research draws upon a wide range of academic disciplines, including cultural studies, education, communication, film and media studies, literature, philosophy, and psychology davis, love, and Killen 2018;Morreall 2014;Proyer 2018). Multiple academic journals have addressed the study of humor from different perspectives (e.g. ...
... To refine our scope, we narrowed down the coaching types by specifying them, such as career coaching, executive coaching, workplace coaching, life coaching, and mental coaching. We further broadened the humor range by adding the keywords "humor intervention" and "playfulness," the latter being closely related to humor and recognized as a special variant of play (Proyer, 2018). This resulted in a keyword string: [("career coaching" OR "workplace coaching" OR "life coaching" OR "executive coaching" OR "mental coaching") AND ("humor" OR "humor" OR "playfulness" OR "humor intervention")]. ...
Introduction
Extensive research has explored the incorporation of humor in therapy, revealing its potential positive effects on clients’ mental well-being and personal growth. However, limited research exists on how coaching could benefit from humor as an intervention and how its utilization impacts the interaction processes and outcomes for both the coachee and coach. Therefore, our research focuses on the use and effects of spontaneous humor within professional dialogues. This paper aims to extract insights from academic literature on humor in adjacent fields and apply these insights to the context of coaching.
Methods
This paper offers implications for coaching theory and practice, alongside a proposed research agenda. The initial phase involves analyzing reviews on humor in professional contexts, and coaching. Secondly, following the PRISMA guidelines for review, we identified 13 empirical studies, which address the role of humor in counseling, psychotherapy, and mentoring.
Results and discussion
Our findings suggest that humor serves as a valuable tool for establishing and deepening the working alliance, fostering adaptive coping mechanisms in clients, and enhancing the cognitive and behavioral process. Moreover, humor is shown to be advantageous for professionals in navigating challenging client relationships. These findings hold significance for the realm of coaching practice as well. In light of these insights, we propose the integration of humor use in education toolkits for coaching professionals.
... In line with prior theoretical and empirical findings (Proyer, 2018), we found positive associations between all indicators of playfulness and the strength of humor, but no evidence for their redundancy. When testing the differential relationships with the OLIW facets beyond humor in regression analyses, we found overall small-to-medium regression effect sizes. ...
Objective: Playfulness describes individual differences in (re)framing situations in a way that they are experienced as interesting, intellectually stimulating, or entertaining. We extended the study of playfulness to groups of middle-and higher age and examined the relations of four facets of playfulness (Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical) to indicators of positive psychological functioning. Method: We collected self-report data from 210 participants aged between 50 and 98 years. Results: The playfulness expressions in this age group were comparable to younger adults. We found that playfulness relates to life satisfaction, the PERMA domains of well-being, and character strengths with small-to-medium correlation effect sizes. The OLIW facets showed differential associations, with regression analyses revealing that particularly Other-directed is positively associated with positive psychological functioning. Conclusion: This highlights the importance of playful relationships across the lifespan. We discuss the findings regarding the role of playfulness for healthy aging.
... Regarding the different kinds of humor, this study's results showed that with respect to the positive and benevolent role of clown doctors in healthcare settings, the participants showed high-level scores for all adaptive styles and low-level scores for Sarcasm and Cynicism. Considering that the main aim of clowning is to induce positive emotions, relieve stress, and mitigate negative emotions [8], we therefore assumed that clown doctors use gentle play, distinguished by adaptive forms of humor [23]. This finding aligned with those regarding the salient role of clowns in healthcare environments: providing affiliative and positive forms of humor to entertain their audience and to inhibit the use of maladaptive humor that could harm their patients [24]. ...
Clown doctors play a crucial role in enhancing the well-being of patients through the use of humor. However, little is known about how the use of humor by clown doctors changes in relation to the developmental age of patients. This research explores the interplay between the type of humor used by clown doctors, their experience (in terms of years of clowning and type of clowning), and the developmental age of the patients (children, adolescents, adults, elderly). Data for this cross-sectional study were collected through an online survey distributed to 210 Italian clown doctors (143 females, 67 males), aged between 18 and 75 years (M = 47.34, SD = 12.31), affiliated with different Clown Care Units. The survey included the Comic Styles Markers, questions on the patients’ developmental age, type of clowning (Auguste vs. Whiteface), and years of experience. The findings enhance our understanding on how clown doctors interact with patients of different developmental ages. The discussion draws connections to previous studies conducted on groups of clown doctors, providing a broader context for understanding the implications of humorous interactions in this unique healthcare domain.
... Humor can be seen as a special variant of play; therefore, playfulness represents the basis for a sense of humor [17], with a special focus on the fun and amusement component [18]. Numerous studies have shown how playfulness helps relieve stress, improves brain function, boosts creativity, improves connections with others, and heals emotional wounds [19]. ...
Healthcare clowning represents a well-established method for relieving patients and their relatives of discomfort during hospitalization. Although studies concerning the effectiveness of this approach are increasing in number, state-of-the-art studies conducted to evaluate the psychological characteristics of clown doctors are scarce. In this cross-sectional study, a convenient sample of 210 clown doctors (143 females, 67 males) aged between 18 and 75 years (M = 47.34, SD = 12.31) completed a demographic questionnaire, the Comic Styles Markers, and the Short Measure for Adult Playfulness. The results demonstrated that clown doctors bring higher levels of fun, benevolent humor, and nonsense and a lower level of cynicism compared to the populace. Moreover, the participants with more experience tend to use less irony, sarcasm, and cynicism than those with less experience. Playfulness was primarily related to the lighter styles of humor, and specific differences between the Whiteface and the Auguste clown doctors were observed. The results are discussed with reference to previous studies conducted on groups of clown doctors.
... Humor research draws upon a wide range of academic disciplines, including cultural studies, education, communication, film and media studies, literature, philosophy, and psychology (Hatzithomas, Zotos, and Boutsouki 2011;Davis, Love, and Killen 2018;Morreall 2014;Proyer 2018). Multiple academic journals have addressed the study of humor from different perspectives (e.g. ...
Humor has received increasing attention in environmental educational research in recent years as it can have a variety of positive effects on learning atmosphere, outcomes, and student-educator relationships. In most cases, humor is used by educators while students act as consumers. However, this does not exploit the full potential of humor for environmental education. This article shows how humor can be applied as a distinct learning method and what outcomes and effects can be achieved. Our method draws on approaches from comedy-writing schools, thus bridging this community of practice to environmental education. It provides students with an understanding of the basics of humor, empowers them with practices to develop their own humorous texts, and guides them towards high-quality comedy scripts. We implemented several master courses at the Vienna University of Economics and Business based on this method. In 2021, we assessed the effects on students’ sustainability knowingness, attitudes, and behavior and analyzed qualitative outcomes. It was revealed that humor can play a pivotal role in environmental education as it fosters critical thinking and creativity, helps students cope with emotionally difficult topics, and supports them in becoming agents of change.
... L'effetto di moderazione riscontrato suggerisce la possibilità che cogliere, anche solo a livello implicito, questo aspetto "drammatico" nella sua componente più o meno volontariamente teatrale -come se l'altro stesse rappresentando, mettendo in scena e recitando (play) un muso -ovvero osservare il muso da una prospettiva ironica e giocosa, ne possa mitigare l'effetto doloroso. In altri termini, una propensione ad affrontare il muso altrui con uno stato mentale giocoso (McGhee & McGhee, 1999;Proyer, 2018) sembra attenuarne i portati drammatici. È alla luce di questa ipotesi che, nell'ampio ventaglio delle possibili influenze, positive e negative, delle diverse mentalità sociali indagate, riscontrare un unico effetto di moderazione e proprio a carico della mentalità giocosa, è parso a chi scrive un dato degno di menzione. ...
IT La letteratura sull'ostracismo sociale costituisce ad oggi il principale punto di riferimento concettuale per comprendere il fenomeno del "muso". Sebbene le esperienze interpersonali caratterizzate dal muso siano estremamente comuni ed appaia evidente la sofferenza che questo comporta, tuttavia la ricerca specifica sull'argomento è poco sviluppata; in particolare, non esistono indicazioni univoche su quali fattori possano mitigarne l'impatto negativo. Nel presente studio, sono stati confrontati gli effetti provocati dalla rievocazione di due episodi, uno di dolore fisico e uno di muso; la Social Mentalities Scale è stata utilizzata per valutare l'effetto di mediazione di alcune disposizioni interpersonali a base evoluzionistica sull'impatto delle due esperienze sfavorevoli. I risultati mostrano che unicamente il gioco, e non l'attaccamento o il senso di appartenenza, consente di mitigare l'effetto negativo del muso. Parole chiave: muso, silent treatment, ostracismo, mentalità sociali, sistemi motivazionali, gioco EN The literature on social ostracism currently represents the main conceptual framework for understanding the phenomenon of the "silent treatment" (Williams, 2001). Although the silent treatment is extremely common and the suffering that it entails is evident, specific research on the subject is underdeveloped; in particular, there are no unambiguous indications on which factors can mitigate its negative impact. In the present study, the Social Mentalities Scale (SMS, Brasini et al., 2020), was used to evaluate the mediating effect of some evolutionary-based interpersonal dispositions on the impact of two unfavourable experiences: physical pain vs silent treatment. The results show that only playfulness, and not attachment or a sense of belonging, effectively mitigates the negative effect of the silent treatment.
... • can range from a spontaneous, irrational, fun-enhancing, relaxed, and free-spirited to structured and even compulsive event (Proyer, 2018;Huizinga, 2014) • embodies free movement within rigid and ordinary behaviour (Salen and Zimmerman, 2004) • bends fixed frames of expectations and enables to encounter otherness (Küpers, 2017;Huizinga, 2014) • broadens horizon of experience (Fullerton et al., 2004) • enables us to gain a meaningful experience (Huizinga, 2014). ...
... Among Rene T. Proyer's extensive research agenda are achievements such as the development of a new structural model of adult playfulness (OLIW-model; Proyer, 2017). Furthermore, he is interested in new individual differences variables for how people deal with laughter and ridicule (Ruch & Proyer, 2008Proyer, 2018). Moreover, his research focuses on the effects of positive psychological interventions (e.g., targeting character strengths, happiness, humor; e.g., Buschor et al., 2013;Gander et al., 2016Gander et al., , 2017Proyer et al., 2014Proyer et al., , 2015aProyer et al., , 2016aProyer et al., , 2016bProyer et al., 2013Proyer et al., , 2015bWellenzohn et al., 2016aWellenzohn et al., , 2016b. ...
The chapter at hand consists of four major subsections. First, the chapter starts with a brief description of the relevant countries of Western Europe (i.e., Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland) with respect to general characteristics (e.g., location, size, number of inhabitants, official languages, form of government, Human Development Index, averaged happiness according to the World Database on Happiness, policies that are in line with the basic, positive psychological assumptions). Second, the chapter continues by giving a methodological description about how major positive psychologists were identified for each of the countries in Western Europe (e.g., searching for relevant members of national or European Positive Psychology associations, authors in central academic journals, keynote speakers at conferences). Furthermore, the chapter provides an overview on relevant positive psychologists of each of the countries. This overview includes short biographies, and highlights the general contributions to the development of the field (e.g., foundation of an association, offering courses on Positive Psychology). Additionally, there is a description of the more specific contributions of each of presented positive psychologists (i.e., with respect to the development of new theories, research topics, assessment tools, and/or intervention methods). Third, suggestions for the future of Positive Psychology in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland are given. This includes a discussion on supporting and hindering conditions in this region that influence research on and dissemination of Positive Psychology. Fourth, the chapter closes with a section providing an overview and contact information about national associations and positive psychologists presented in the chapter at hand as well as reading recommendations.
... For example, Peterson and Seligman (2004) list playfulness as a synonym of humor in their classification of strengths and virtues (Values-in-Action classification, VIA). There, humor/playfulness is seen as a strength of character, a morally positively valued trait (for a more in-depth analysis of the association between humor and playfulness in terms of the VIAclassification see Proyer & Ruch, 2011 and for a discussion of the overlap between humor and playfulness see Proyer, 2018). It has been argued that play and being playful are associated with the elicitation of positive emotions. ...
There is robust support for the notion that playfulness is important for how people initiate and engage in their romantic relationships. Our study sought to extend the knowledge on associations between four facets of playfulness (Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical; OLIW) with facets of relationship satisfaction (RS) in 116 middle-to-older age couples (median = 54 and 57 years in women and men). In comparison to younger samples, we found lower expressions in Other-directed playfulness. Using Actor-Partner Interdependence Modelling, we found that (a) older couples showed comparatively higher similarity in the single OLIW facets and their profiles than previously found in younger couples; (b) similarity is again unrelated to RS; and (c) findings on playfulness-RS associations partially replicated, with Other-directed and Whimsical playfulness showing the numerically strongest actor and partner effects, but mainly in women. We discuss the differences in similarity with regard to an attrition effect. Overall, we conclude that playfulness is important in older couples in similar ways as in younger couples.
... • can range from a spontaneous, irrational, fun-enhancing, relaxed, and freespirited to structured and even compulsive event (Proyer, 2018;Huizinga, 2014), ...
In this article we consider intervention methods for idea generation workshops in the automotive industry. The growing complexity of innovation, particularly through combining products and services in a sustainable way, require methodical approaches that facilitate creativity and integrate multiple perspectives. Hands-on modelling, playfulness, and bodily experience are principles that are gaining growing interest beyond artists and designers. However, in the rather traditional innovation environment of the automotive industry the question arises, what intervention methods based on these principles can contribute to innovation? We therefore applied three different methods: drama intervention, tool-kit-based modelling, and gaming, independent of each other in idea generation workshops of an automobile producer. We assessed the quantity and quality of ideas developed with each method, and also the workshop experience of participants in an exploratory study. It turned out that there is no significant difference between the methods, however in comparison to traditional workshops, the output number and quality is higher. Furthermore, participants capitalized from the workshop experience and considered it as inspiration for their daily collaboration.
... The current surge in interest in humor is undoubtedly also associated with the emergence and dynamic development of positive psychology (Edwards and Martin 2014;Proyer 2018;Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2014). The authors representing this research trend focus on the functional aspects of humor and its role in promoting the well-being of individuals (Kruczek and Basińska 2018;Wilkins and Eisenbraun 2009). ...
The goal of the present study was to investigate whether generativity and wisdom played a mediating role in the relationships between gero-transcendence and humor styles among people in late adulthood. The study included 399 participants aged 60-85 years. The following measures were used: Gerotranscendence Scale Type 2 (GST2), Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ), Loy-ola Generativity Scale (LGS), and the Self-Assessed Wisdom Scale (SAWS). The analyses revealed that generativity and wisdom, taken together, were mediators in the relationship between gerotranscendence and the four styles of humor in late adulthood. The results of the survey show that gerotranscendence is a factor that protects individuals against the use of aggressive humor, at the same time pre-disposing them to using humor that expresses self-acceptance and strengthens interpersonal relations. An interesting result was obtained for self-defeating humor. It was shown that gerotranscendence, by increasing generativity and wisdom , increases the tendency to poke fun at oneself and to talk about one's own weaknesses or mistakes. This tendency, as suggested by the specific character of the relationships observed, does not have to be non-adaptive. Our results demonstrate that the processes related to the shaping of humor among people in late adulthood have a unique nature.
... As Table 1 shows, there is heterogeneity among the models; for example, regarding the dimensionality (unidimensional vs. multidimensional) or type (e.g., state-like, trait-like, or neutral vs. morally positively valued). Some of the current measures and operationalizations also lack distinctiveness by using items such as "I have a good sense of humor" or "creative versus noncreative" for both the assessment of playfulness and (sense of) humor/creativity (for details, see Proyer, 2018;Proyer et al., 2019b). This leads to biases in testing the overlap with external variables and limits understanding the predictive power of playfulness for different outcomes. ...
There is increasing interest in the study of individual differences in playfulness in adults; the way people frame or reframe situations in a way that they are experienced as personally interesting, and/or intellectually stimulating, and/or entertaining. In this review, we describe and discuss its role for romantic life. After a brief introduction, we will describe theoretical approaches as to why playfulness is important in romantic life (e.g., the signal theory of playfulness) and give an overview on empirical findings on assortative mating and its role in romantic relationships (e.g., for relationship satisfaction). Finally, we discuss future directions on playfulness in romantic life and singles and open research questions.
... The model has been derived through a multi-methodological approach (i.e., literature review, qualitative-, psycho-linguistic-, and psychometric analyses). It has been argued that it overcomes problems of other conceptualizations such as the strong overlap with broader personality traits or the lack of distinctiveness with related variables such as humor, creativity, or curiosity (Proyer & Jehle, 2013;Proyer, 2017Proyer, , 2018Proyer, Tandler, & Brauer, 2019). ...
Previous research has shown that adult playfulness contributes to relationship satisfaction (RS). Using 211 heterosexual romantic couples we test the association between four facets of playfulness (Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical; OLIW) and indicators of RS in an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM)-design. The four OLIW components are differentially associated with indicators of RS. Out of the OLIW facets, predominantly Other-directed and Intellectual playfulness were associated with high RS. Couple similarity was unrelated to RS. Overall, the findings support the notion that distinguishing between the facets of playfulness and those of RS is needed for a comprehensive understanding of their association. We discuss the findings with respect to theoretical and practical implications.
... Moreover, there is general agreement that playfulness is a basic component of the sense of humor (see McGhee 2010). Recently, research on playfulness in adults has shown that it indeed relates to the sense of humor, yet it is a distinct trait (e.g., Proyer 2012Proyer , 2018. We assume a playful frame of mind to be an important condition for humor. ...
This study proposes two links between facets of mindfulness and different forms of humor: First, the common benevolence should link mindfulness positively to light forms of humor and negatively to darker forms of humor. Second, similar cognitive mechanisms should underlie both mindfulness and humor ability (humor detection, comprehension, and production). Third, both are malleable, and we hypothesize that fostering humor and mindfulness may mutually influence each other, leading to innovative and practical interventions for settings such as the workplace. In three studies, the relationship of humor and mindfulness as outlined in the Humor Mindfulness Relationship Model was investigated. In Studies 1 and 2, the relationship of different forms of humor and mindfulness was investigated in a sample of health care professionals and a broad online sample. In Study 3, the effect of a mindfulness intervention on humor as a character strength was investigated, giving preliminary insights into the mutual malleability of both. Results confirmed the positive relationship among light forms of humor and mindfulness as well as negative relationships of darker forms of humor with mindfulness. The mindfulness intervention fostered humor as a character strength. These results indicate that humor and mindfulness may be fruitfully combined in positive interventions as well as in the vocational setting. Moreover, the results suggest initial evidence for the Humor Mindfulness Relationship Model.
... Future studies should aim at investigating the incremental validity of the State-Trait Cheerfulness Inventory in the prediction of humor related outcomes when controlling for broader personality traits (i.e., the "Big Five, " especially extraversion). Also, future studies should investigate the relationship of different models describing the sense of humor and related traits (such as playfulness, see Proyer, 2012Proyer, , 2018, as well as looking more deeply into cheerfulness interventions (see Schulter, 2008, 2010). Moreover, future studies may opt for more balanced samples in terms of gender ratio. ...
The State-Trait Model of Cheerfulness assesses the temperamental basis of the sense of humor with the traits and respective states of cheerfulness, seriousness, and bad mood. Cheerfulness is a dominant factor in current measures of the sense of humor and explains both, the disposition to engaging in smiling and laughter, as well as humor behaviors, and trait seriousness and bad mood are antagonistic to the elicitation of amusement (albeit for different reasons). Several studies have shown the validity and reliability of the STCI questionnaire in German and other language versions (i.e., Spanish). In this study, the English language version with 106 items (STCI-T <106>) was translated, checked for its item and scale characteristics, and tested with a confirmatory factor analysis approach (N = 1101) to investigate the factorial validity of the STCI-T <106> scale. Results show good psychometric characteristics, good internal consistencies, and a fit to the postulated underlying structure of the STCI-T. Then, the standard form with 60 items (STCI-T <60>) was developed and the psychometric characteristics initially tested. In an independent sample (N = 169), the characteristics of the standard form were compared to the parent form and German equivalent. It showed good psychometric characteristics, internal consistencies, as well as a good self- and peer-report congruence. To conclude, the STCI-T <106> is the measure of choice for the assessment of the temperamental basis of the sense of humor and the separate facets of the traits, while the standard form (60 items) allows of an economic assessment of cheerfulness, seriousness, and bad mood, free of context-saturated items and humor preferences.
... While there is no agreement in the literature about a definition of playfulness in adults as a personality trait, the recent years have seen an increase in the study of the variable. It has been argued that research has partially suffered from the usage of conceptualizations and assessment instruments that have failed to clearly differentiate between the core of playfulness and its consequences (e.g., when using statements such as "I laugh a lot" for the study of individual differences in playfulness; Proyer, 2012a;Proyer and Jehle, 2013), a lack of distinctiveness from related traits (e.g., humor, creativity, or curiosity; e.g., Proyer, 2018), and unwanted overlap with basic personality traits (mostly extraversion and emotional stability; Proyer and Jehle, 2013). Based on a mixed-methodology (e.g., psycho-linguistic, psychometric, and qualitative approaches; for an overview see Proyer, 2017) a new definition that aims at focusing on the core characteristics of playfulness has been proposed; namely, "Playfulness is an individual differences variable that allows people to frame or reframe everyday situations in a way such that they experience them as entertaining, and/or intellectually stimulating, and/or personally interesting. ...
Adult playfulness is a personality trait that enables people to frame or reframe everyday situations in such a way that they experience them as entertaining, intellectually stimulating, or personally interesting. Earlier research supports the notion that playfulness is associated with the pursuit of an active way of life. While playful children are typically described as being active, only limited knowledge exists on whether playfulness in adults is also associated with physical activity. Additionally, existing literature has not considered different facets of playfulness, but only global playfulness. Therefore, we employed a multifaceted model that allows distinguishing among Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical playfulness. For narrowing this gap in the literature, we conducted two studies addressing the associations of playfulness with health, activity, and fitness. The main aim of Study 1 was a comparison of self-ratings (N = 529) and ratings from knowledgeable others (N = 141). We tested the association of self- and peer-reported playfulness with self- and peer-reported physical activity, fitness, and health behaviors. There was a good convergence of playfulness among self- and peer-ratings (between r = 0.46 and 0.55, all p < 0.001). Data show that both self- and peer-ratings are differentially associated with physical activity, fitness, and health behaviors. For example, self-rated playfulness shared 3% of the variance with self-rated physical fitness and 14% with the pursuit of an active way of life. Study 2 provides data on the association between self-rated playfulness and objective measures of physical fitness (i.e., hand and forearm strength, lower body muscular strength and endurance, cardio-respiratory fitness, back and leg flexibility, and hand and finger dexterity) using a sample of N = 67 adults. Self-rated playfulness was associated with lower baseline and activity (climbing stairs) heart rate and faster recovery heart rate (correlation coefficients were between −0.19 and −0.24 for global playfulness). Overall, Study 2 supported the findings of Study 1 by showing positive associations of playfulness with objective indicators of physical fitness (primarily cardio-respiratory fitness). The findings represent a starting point for future studies on the relationships between playfulness, and health, activity, and physical fitness.
... While there is no agreement in the literature about a definition of playfulness in adults as a personality trait, the recent years have seen an increase in the study of the variable. It has been argued that research has partially suffered from the usage of conceptualizations and assessment instruments that have failed to clearly differentiate between the core of playfulness and its consequences (e.g., when using statements such as "I laugh a lot" for the study of individual differences in playfulness; Proyer, 2012a;Proyer and Jehle, 2013), a lack of distinctiveness from related traits (e.g., humor, creativity, or curiosity; e.g., Proyer, 2018), and unwanted overlap with basic personality traits (mostly extraversion and emotional stability; Proyer and Jehle, 2013). Based on a mixed-methodology (e.g., psycho-linguistic, psychometric, and qualitative approaches; for an overview see Proyer, 2017) a new definition that aims at focusing on the core characteristics of playfulness has been proposed; namely, "Playfulness is an individual differences variable that allows people to frame or reframe everyday situations in a way such that they experience them as entertaining, and/or intellectually stimulating, and/or personally interesting. ...
Adult playfulness is a personality trait that enables people to frame or reframe everyday situations in such a way that they experience them as entertaining, intellectually stimulating, or personally interesting. Earlier research supports the notion that playfulness is associated with the pursuit of an active way of life. While playful children are typically described as being active, only limited knowledge exists on whether playfulness in adults is also associated with physical activity. Additionally, existing literature has not considered different facets of playfulness, but only global playfulness. Therefore, we employed a multifaceted model that allows distinguishing among Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical playfulness. For narrowing this gap in the literature, we conducted two studies addressing the associations of playfulness with health, activity, and fitness. The main aim of Study 1 was a comparison of self-ratings (N = 529) and ratings from knowledgeable others (N = 141). We tested the association of self- and peer-reported playfulness with self- and peer-reported physical activity, fitness, and health behaviors. There was a good convergence of playfulness among self- and peer-ratings (between r = 0.46 and 0.55, all p < 0.001). Data show that both self- and peer-ratings are differentially associated with physical activity, fitness, and health behaviors. For example, self-rated playfulness shared 3% of the variance with self-rated physical fitness and 14% with the pursuit of an active way of life. Study 2 provides data on the association between self-rated playfulness and objective measures of physical fitness (i.e., hand and forearm strength, lower body muscular strength and endurance, cardio-respiratory fitness, back and leg flexibility, and hand and finger dexterity) using a sample of N = 67 adults. Self-rated playfulness was associated with lower baseline and activity (climbing stairs) heart rate and faster recovery heart rate (correlation coefficients were between −0.19 and −0.24 for global playfulness). Overall, Study 2 supported the findings of Study 1 by showing positive associations of playfulness with objective indicators of physical fitness (primarily cardio-respiratory fitness). The findings represent a starting point for future studies on the relationships between playfulness, and health, activity, and physical fitness.
This chapter uses the example of play to draw out the complex relationship between emotions, creativity and learning. Taking a critical stance on the underlying systems of education that place value on easily compartmentalised forms of knowledge, we will explore how developing forms of knowing based on the relations between people can support creativity and learning. We argue that play and playfulness demonstrate the mutuality of creativity, emotion and relational forms of knowing in learning at all ages and should be recognised as politically important. We conclude by suggesting that laying the foundations for creativity can contribute to developing learners as emotionally astute individuals and community members, able to empathetically relate to themselves, others and the world around them.
Playfulness represents the disposition to play and has important mental health benefits. Children’s playfulness is mainly rated by parents, teachers or trained assessors but playfulness is not always reflected in overt behavior. Fortunately, even young children are able to provide a perspective on their playfulness, as illustrated by research with the Child Self-Report Playfulness questionnaire (CSRP). This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Dutch translation of the CSRP. We included 332 children (M age = 5.43 years). Internal consistency of the Dutch version of the CSRP was suboptimal at first administration and acceptable during retest. Test–retest reliability (with an interval of 8 weeks) was adequate. Confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated that a one-factor model fits the CSRP, which supports the idea that playfulness in young children is a unidimensional construct. Scores on the CSRP were not significantly correlated with scores on a parent-rated questionnaire and an observation tool measuring playfulness. Further research to discover how informant and administration discrepancies affect playfulness scores is warranted given this lack of convergence. Children’s self-perception of playfulness may complement more traditional measures such as parent reports in future research.
This presentation sought to introduce laughter exercises as a positive psychology intervention (PPI) to a Middle Eastern audience. It aimed to provide a brief delineation of related concepts (specifically laughter, playfulness and humour) and situate them in the context of positive psychology, mainly through their link to positive emotions and the Broaden and Build theory. Laughter Yoga, a form of laughter exercise based on unconditional laughter, yogic breathing and playfulness, was introduced as an example of a laughter PPI. Limitations of laughter yoga in the context of cultural suitability were discussed, specifically with respect to fear of happiness.
Emerging research into the evolution of play indicates that complex social play may
serve important functions in anxiety management and the development of emotional
calibration. Bowen family systems theory posits that the behavior of all living things is
organized by underlying emotional circuitry, and that each living system is characterized
by its capacity to self regulate in relation to the reactivity of the emotional network within
which it is embedded. The clinical supervisory system is often at the nexus of multiple
anxious systems and its members must find ways to manage this anxious emotional field.
This study used interpretative phenomenological analysis to explore the functions of play
and humor in supervisory systems. The study utilized the lens of Bowen family systems
theory, with particular interest in Bowen’s (1992) emphasis on developing the flexibility
to maintain an emotional distance “between seriousness and humor” (p. 299). The
findings of the study suggest that neutral objectivity; not taking oneself, others, or the
situation too seriously; the emotional climate/circuit; emotional distance; and changing
perspective are all significant factors in the expression of play as a manifestation of the
emotional process, and are important aspects of the emergence or absence of play in the
supervisory system.
Keywords: Play, humor, playfulness, clinical supervision, Bowen family systems theory
The aim of the present study is to locate eight comic styles in basic and broad concepts of humor, namely the temperamental basis of the sense of humor, humor appreciation, and humor creation. The comic styles represent individual differences in how people display humor, differentiating between fun, (benevolent) humor, nonsense, wit, irony, satire, sarcasm, and cynicism. Two samples of 234 and 223 German-speaking adults completed the Comic Style Markers, the standard self-report measure to assess the eight comic styles, as well as self-reports of cheerfulness, seriousness, and bad mood (Sample 1) or behavior tests of humor appreciation (funniness and aversiveness of incongruity-resolution, nonsense, and sexual humor) and humor creation quantity and quality (Sample 2). The results showed that the comic styles could be uniquely and meaningfully located in these basic and broad humor concepts. Specifically, the comic styles spanned the affective component of the temperamental basis of the sense of humor, from cheerfulness to bad mood. Furthermore, the findings supported the convergent validity of the nonsense and wit scales of the Comic Style Markers, as they related to behavior tests of the appreciation of nonsense humor and the quantity and quality of humor creation, respectively. This study thus contributes to the growing field of the psychology of humor by extending the nomological network of the comic styles to the general tendency to enjoy and engage in humor and by providing a behavioral validation of the Comic Style Markers. © 2019, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
Play and playfulness have repeatedly been suggested to promote learning and performance, also in environments traditionally not connotated with play. However, finding empirical evidence for these claims has been aggravated by the lack of a definition of play and playfulness fitting to this description. This paper proposes to consider playfulness as an attitude, mode or mental stance, that can be modulated independent of the activity pursued and of the general character of the person. It furthermore introduces the micro-phenomenological method to assess the process and outcome of such modulation. To explore this, we devised a simple building task in a controlled within-subject design, interviewing each participant on how they accomplished the task when asked to perform it so that it either felt playful or not playful. The outcomes of this data driven approach supported this notion of playfulness as a stance, and allowed for specific hypotheses about the temporal course and mechanisms of becoming playful. They suggest that an experience of autonomy and self-expression may be key to the success of the modulation. They furthermore indicate that the resulting playful state may allow for an exploratory engagement with materials that can lead to surprising results. Such unexpected results seem to enhance participants’ feeling of competence which, in turn, may increase the motivation for the task. We discuss these results within the framework of Deci and Ryan’s motivational theory and in relation to current research on gamification and learning.
Playfulness is an individual difference variable that enables people to (re-)frame everyday situations in a way such that they experience them as entertaining, and/or intellectually stimulating, and/or personally interesting. It has been argued that humor is a specific variant of play (the behavior associated with playfulness)—the play with ideas. Recently a new structural model for playfulness has been proposed that differentiates among its other-directed, lighthearted, intellectual, and whimsical facets. We provide an overview on studies, testing the playfulness–creativity overlap in different contexts (e.g., sports, schools), samples (e.g., students, employees), and assessment methods of creativity (e.g., domain-specific, scenario-based, performance measures). Overall, the associations are typically somewhat lower than expected. We conclude that there is a conceptual overlap, but it is probably best seeing play and playfulness as a facilitator of creativity without them being redundant. We also discuss potential applications and directions to study the causal relationship.
Adult playfulness is an understudied personality trait. A new 28-item questionnaire (the OLIW) is proposed that assesses four basic components; namely, Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical playfulness. Study 1 provides support for the factorial validity in an Exploratory (N = 628) and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (N = 1168). Item- and scale-statistics were satisfactory. Correlations in the expected range with other playfulness questionnaires provide support for the convergent validity of the scale; there was between 3 and 30% shared variance with the big five personality traits. Test-retest reliabilities were between 0.67 and 0.87 for one-week, two-week, one-month, and three-month intervals (N = 200; using a reduced set of 12 items). Study 2 found convergence between self- and peer-reports in the expected range (i.e., 44–0.57). Participants in Study 3 (N = 295) collected daily behavior ratings for 14 days for Play, Aggression, Exhibitionism, and Impulsivity, and completed respective trait measures on day one. The OLIW demonstrated correlations between 0.29 and 0.36 for the aggregated behavior ratings, which was in the expected range. Overall, the findings for the psychometrics, reliability (internal consistency, test-retest), and validity (factorial, convergent, discriminant) are satisfactory and further use of the OLIW is encouraged.
Playfulness has been referred to as a disposition that involves reframing a situation to amuse others and to make the situation more stimulating and enjoyable. It may serve to shift one’s perspective when dealing with environmental threats. Despite all the benefits of playfulness towards psychological well-being, it remains a largely understudied subject in psychology, particularly in Chinese societies. Hence, this study examined the association between adult playfulness, humor styles, and subjective happiness among a sample of 166 university students in Hong Kong and 159 students in Guangzhou, who completed a self-administered questionnaire, including the Short Measure for Adult Playfulness, the Chinese Humor Styles Questionnaire, and the Subjective Happiness Scale. Results showed that adult playfulness was positively correlated with affiliative humor, self-enhancing humor, and subjective happiness in both Hong Kong and Guangzhou samples. By its implication, highly playful Chinese students preferred using affiliative and self-enhancing humor to amuse themselves and others.
The recent emergence of positive psychology gave rise to the idea to conceptualize humor from a “good character” perspective. Present constructs, however, show a “virtue gap,” and the two concepts of benevolent and corrective humor were developed to fill this gap. The former describes a humorous outlook on life that entails the realistic observations and understanding of human weaknesses (and the imperfection of the world) but also their benevolent humorous treatment. By contrast, corrective humor involves moral-based ridicule—that is, the use of mockery to fight badness and mediocrity. Corrective humor, akin to satire, uses wit to ridicule vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings with the intent of shaming individuals and groups into improvement. Participants (N = 340) filled in statements assessing the two virtue-related humor concepts, general sense of humor (subsample of n = 144), mockery, and 24 character strengths. As expected, benevolent humor showed positive correlations with most of the 24 character strengths and uniquely related to the strengths of several virtues (justice, temperance, and transcendence) beyond general sense of humor. Corrective humor related most strongly to strengths of the virtues wisdom, courage, and justice, especially once mockery was controlled for. Thus, both constructs capture important virtue-related humor aspects over and above the sense of humor and mockery and are thus suitable for—at least partially—filling the “virtue gap” in humor research. They have the potential to pave the way for developing and investigating further humor constructs that meaningfully relate to strengths and virtues.
The Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) by Martin et al. (2003) measures four humour styles, namely affiliative, self-enhancing, aggressive and self-defeating. In contrast to former humour instruments, the HSQ has strong relations to various measures of psychological well-being. However, its incremental validity in relation to basic personality traits has not been sufficiently studied. Two studies analysed how much unique variance the HSQ contributed to predicting psychological well-being over and above personality. While the affiliative, self-enhancing and self-defeating humour style were potent predictors of well-being in Study 1, the results also indicated that these humour styles had small effects when personality was controlled for. Study 2 tested a possible explanation for these findings, namely that the context (i.e., non-humorous components) of the HSQ items dominates their humour-specific content. Two questionnaires were utilised to separate context and humour components in the HSQ. Results showed that (a) the HSQ contributed little in predicting personality and psychological well-being once context was controlled for, and that (b) the humour component of each HSQ scale correlated highly with other humour instruments and neither of them were detrimental or maladaptive in terms of psychological well-being. Thus, these two studies showed a low incremental validity of humour styles in predicting psychological well-being beyond personality and hint to a limited role that humour plays in the these relationships. Overall, the humour components of the HSQ rather resemble those of other self-report measures and mainly comprise humour appreciation and humour production in everyday life.
Playfulness is an aspect of personality that predisposes individuals to reframe boring situations into more amusing ones for themselves. This study extends knowledge about the playfulness construct by contrasting college students who were high or low in playfulness relative to the activity preferences they make, the motives they have, and their perspectives on their leisure time. Significant differences were found in perspectives and motives but not in activity preferences, leading to the conclusion that playfulness relates more to how individuals view their leisure and what they seek than in what they do. Only minor differences due to gender or race were observed.
Despite the diverse philosophical accounts of the relation of humor to virtue or vice, this ethical dimension has not been included explicitly in psychological humor instruments. Yet, behavior described in humor questionnaires covering a broad variety of components can be used to study an implicit relation of humor to vices and virtues. The main aim of the present paper was (1) to find humorous behavior and attitudes representing virtues and vices within an item pool of 12 popular humor questionnaires; and (2) to investigate the nature of the virtues represented by their item contents. A comprehensive measure of humor covered the entire range from virtue to vice, with the majority of items evaluated as neutral. Humanity and wisdom were most strongly represented, but the items cover all six core virtues (Dahlsgaard, 20047.
Dahlsgaard , K . 2004 . “ Universal virtues?—Lessons from history ” . In Character strengths and virtues , Edited by: Peterson , C and Seligman , MEP . 33 – 52 . New York : Oxford University Press . View all references) to varying degrees. Further research can now investigate the relationship of humor and individual virtues more closely.
Humor in the Values in Action (VIA) Classification of Strengths is conceptualized as a unipolar and unidimensional strength and is subsumed under the virtue of transcendence. Its scope is intentionally restricted to forms of humor that serve some moral good. The present study (N = 203) investigated the relation between five dimensions of humorous conduct, sense of humor, and the VIA-Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS). Results show (1) that the VIA-humor correlated with socially warm and competent humor, and the sense of humor, all with a common basis in humanity. (2) Each humor style showed relations to strengths. Additionally, strengths related to the virtue of temperance were also related to not showing mean-spirited and earthy forms of humor. Hence, humor in the VIA-IS can be well-located in established humor taxonomies, but does not cover all of the virtue-related humorous behaviors. Further research is requested to investigate the role of virtue in humor.
This study examined humor production in relation to attachment dimensions and interaction goals. Participants (N = 172) completed measures of attachment dimensions (anxiety, avoidance), humor production (affiliative humor, aggressive humor), and primary and secondary goals. Anxiety was negatively related to affiliative humor, whereas avoidance was positively related to aggressive humor. Affiliative humor was related to effectiveness and being playful in the interaction, as well as the secondary goals of arousal management and clarity. Aggressive humor was not related to any of the goals.
A 28-item Playfulness Scale for Adults was developed to measure a general predisposition to play. The scale, administered to 104 male and female university students, evidenced high internal consistency (alpha = .90). A factor analysis yielded 5 factors: (1) Fun-loving; (2) Sense of Humor; (3) Enjoys Silliness; (4) Informal; and (5) Whimsical. The scale's construct validity was supported by a correlation of .62 with the Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale. The researchers discuss implications of the playful personality construct for play therapists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used 5 dimensions of play (manifest joy; sense of humor; and physical, social, and cognitive spontaneity) postulated by J. N. Lieberman (1965, 1966, 1977) to develop an instrument for measuring playfulness. 26 experts in children's play and 9 experts in questionnaire development assessed the content validity of the instrument. Teachers from 7 day care centers completed the playfulness instrument for 388 children (aged 29–61.5 mo) of normal intelligence, from intact homes where both parents were present, and of middle socioeconomic status (SES). Teachers also completed playfulness instruments for each child at 1- and 3-mo follow-ups. The playfulness instrument was a reliable and valid measure of a child's predisposition to approach the environment in a playful way. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Playful people are uniquely able to transform virtually any environment to make it more stimulating, enjoyable and entertaining. Efforts to more systematically characterize the playful person have proven more fruitful with children than with adults. To determine if playfulness could be identified as a meaningful psychological construct in adults, focus groups of undergraduate students first described characteristics of highly playful and nonplayful people. Six hundred and forty-nine students rated themselves on playfulness and on these descriptors, and then identified and rated others high and low in playfulness. Fifteen qualities were found to uniquely describe a playful individual, resulting in four component qualities of “gregarious”, “uninhibited”, “comedic” and “dynamic” for both men and women. Participants defined playfulness and its inherent qualities in the same way whether they perceived it in themselves or in others.
Background: It was hypothetisized that playfulness in adults (i.e., the predisposition to play) is robustly associated with the “good character.” Playfulness in adults can be tested via a global cognitive evaluation and an instrument for distinguishing five different facets of playful behaviors (spontaneous, expressive, creative, fun, and silly). Character strengths can be assessed within the framework of the Values-in-Action (VIA) classification of strengths.
Results: Data were collected in an online study and the sample consisted of 268 adults. A regression analysis revealed that adult playfulness was best predicted by humor, the appreciation of beauty and excellence, low prudence, creativity, and teamwork. As expected, single strengths (e.g., creativity, zest, and hope) demonstrated strong relations with facets of playfulness with its fun-variants yielding the numerically highest relations. The fun-variant of playfulness was most strongly related with emotional strengths while intellectual strengths yielded robust relations with all facets of playfulness. Strengths of restraint were negatively related with spontaneous, expressive, and silly-variants of playfulness.
Conclusions: The findings were in line with expectations and are discussed within a broader framework of research in playfulness in adults. The results indicate that playfulness in adults relates to positive psychological functioning and that more studies further illuminating the contribution of playfulness to well-being in adults are warranted.
Keywords: adult playfulness, character strengths, humor, playfulness, VIA, virtuousness
McGhee (1996, Health, healing and the amuse system: Humor as survival training. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt; 1999, Health, healing and the amuse system: Humor as survival training (3rd edition). Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt) proposed a model of the sense of humor including the six “humor skills” of enjoyment of humor, laughter, verbal humor, finding humor in everyday life, laughing at yourself, and humor under stress, measured with the Sense of Humor Scale (SHS). The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the psychometric properties of the SHS (revised version from 1999) and to develop a parallel form of the SHS to double the amount of items for each humor skill. Combing these two forms should yield reliable and factorially valid scales of the six humor skills. Participants in two online studies (n=315 and 542) completed the SHS and its parallel form, along with measures of various outcomes. The psychometric properties of the SHS were of mixed quality, and those of the parallel form were uniformly good. The parallel-test reliability was sufficiently high to regard the two scales as parallel versions. Combining the two measures resulted in reliable and distinguishable scales of the six humor skills. All humor skills correlated positively with humor-related attitude and mood, cheerfulness, and life satisfaction. Importantly, they spanned different dimensions of the sense of humor, underscoring the usefulness of each humor skill.
Adult playfulness is an understudied personality trait. A new 28-item questionnaire (the OLIW) is proposed that assesses four basic components; namely, Other-directed, Lighthearted, Intellectual, and Whimsical playfulness. Study 1 provides support for the factorial validity in an Exploratory (N = 628) and a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (N = 1168). Item- and scale-statistics were satisfactory. Correlations in the expected range with other playfulness questionnaires provide support for the convergent validity of the scale; there was between 3 and 30% shared variance with the big five personality traits. Test-retest reliabilities were between 0.67 and 0.87 for one-week, two-week, one-month, and three-month intervals (N = 200; using a reduced set of 12 items). Study 2 found convergence between self- and peer-reports in the expected range (i.e., 44–0.57). Participants in Study 3 (N = 295) collected daily behavior ratings for 14 days for Play, Aggression, Exhibitionism, and Impulsivity, and completed respective trait measures on day one. The OLIW demonstrated correlations between 0.29 and 0.36 for the aggregated behavior ratings, which was in the expected range. Overall, the findings for the psychometrics, reliability (internal consistency, test-retest), and validity (factorial, convergent, discriminant) are satisfactory and further use of the OLIW is encouraged.
Humor has been conceptualized as a character strength that contributes to fulfillment in life. Various conceptualizations of humor (e.g., sense of humor, humor styles, coping humor, trait cheerfulness) have been related to a wide range of measures of subjective well-being (e.g., higher life satisfaction, positive affect, and lower levels of depression, anxiety, and negative emotion). This chapter introduces the concept of humor and its measurement and reviews the research aimed at training humor. Special attention is given to the 7 Humor Habits Program, which is described, along with the contents of the eight group meetings, and a variety of homework activities and humor log exercises aimed at strengthening the humor habits. The training has proved to be effective in boosting humor and elevating life satisfaction. Directions for future research and application are suggested.
Playfulness is normally associated with children and remains poorly documented in adulthood. Studies have confirmed that playfulness is present in adulthood but do not provide any information on its specific nature. An enhanced comprehension of play fulness in adulthood is needed to determine its possible use in occupational therapy intervention with an adult clientele. A qualitative study led to a conceptual definition of play fulness in adulthood. Playfulness can be defined as an internal predisposition characterized by creativity, curiosity, pleasure, sense of humor, and spontaneity. This attitude extends to all life situations and modifies how adults perceive, evaluate, and approach situations. Playfulness enables adults to distance themselves from others, from situations, and from conventions to approach situations with an open mind to find original solutions to problems, to confront difficulties, and to accept failure. Therefore, it may be an important tool in occupational therapy to develop and enhance adults' ability to perform occupations.
A reform is needed in the modern account of Plato's view of humor. Modern scholars have. attended mostly to Plato's negative evaluation of comedy and his emphasis on the malicious and aggressive aspects of humor. In fact, Plato held a more nuanced view of humor and its relation to a person's character. When enjoyed moderately, the playful, incongruous quality of humor could benefit a philosophic person like Socrates. Scornful and derisive humor, however, serves only to deepen the hasty and overzealous natures of comedians and sophists.
Research on humor is carried out in a number of areas in psychology, including the cognitive (What makes something funny?), developmental (when do we develop a sense of humor?), and social (how is humor used in social interactions?) Although there is enough interest in the area to have spawned several societies, the literature is dispersed in a number of primary journals, with little in the way of integration of the material into a book. Dr. Martin is one of the best known researchers in the area, and his research goes across subdisciplines in psychology to be of wide appeal. This is a singly authored monograph that provides in one source, a summary of information researchers might wish to know about research into the psychology of humor. The material is scholarly, but the presentation of the material is suitable for people unfamiliar with the subject-making the book suitable for use for advanced undergraduate and graduate level courses on the psychology of humor-which have not had a textbook source.
We develop a theory-based measure of adults' playfulness, the Adult Playfulness Scale. Five studies, conducted in laboratory and field sites with over 300 individuals, examine the psychometric properties and correlates of playfulness. As expected, playfulness relates to a set of psychological traits, including cognitive spontaneity and creativity, as well as to functional orientation and rank. No definitive relationships were found, however, between adults' playfulness and gender or age, but playfulness related positively to work outcomes, including task evaluations, perceptions, involvement, and performance, and provided more predictive efficacy than other psychological constructs studied here. Finally, the Adult Playfulness Scale demonstrates good reliability and shows promise for the study of playfulness in the workplace.
INTRODUCTION: Little is known about what adults perceive as core functions of playfulness in their daily life.
OBJECTIVE: To compile a list of perceived functions of playfulness from nominations of laypeople and to test the association of the productions with individual levels of playfulness as a personality trait.
METHOD: Three hundred and twenty-four adults aged 18 to 62 (M = 31.6, SD = 11.5) listed perceived functions of playfulness in five areas (leisure and work and when being with work colleagues, friends, and their partner) and completed a questionnaire for playfulness.
RESULTS: The entries were grouped into seven broader categories; namely, (1) well-being; (2) humor and laughter; (3) mastery orientation; (4) creativity; (5) relationships; (6) coping strategies; and (7) coping with situations. Women noted more functions than men (t(297) = 2.99, p < .01, d = 0.35) but there were no gender differences in the playfulness scale. Individual levels of playfulness correlated only for men with a greater number of functions, while it was uncorrelated in the sample of women.
CONCLUSION: People see a broad range of functions for playfulness in their daily lives. This warrants further investigation on potential benefits of adult playfulness.
By means of a linguistic corpus analysis,
statements were derived that reflect trait-like characteristics of playful adults. These were given to a sample of 240 adults who also completed two measures of adult playfulness.Using Goldberg’s (J Res Pers 40:347–358, 2006) top-down approach, the hierarchical factor structure of playfulness in this data set was examined. A solution with seven factors fits the data well and could be clearly interpreted.
The retrieved factors were (1) cheerful-engaged; (2)
whimsical; (3) impulsive; (4) intellectual-charming; (5)
imaginative; (6) lighthearted; and (7) kind-loving. The two
playfulness measures did not cover all of these dimensions.
The intellectual-charming and the kind-loving variants of
playfulness were less well represented in these instruments.
The study contributes to the basic question of what factors
underlie playfulness and suggests that there are aspects of
adult playfulness that were hitherto less well described.
This study reports an initial evaluation of a new short measure for adult playfulness (SMAP). In data from
a construction (N = 266), and two replication samples (N = 147 students, N = 215 adults), a one-dimensional
solution showed the best fit for the data and satisfactory internal consistency (.80–.89) was found
(test–retest correlation = .74; 12–16 weeks). Younger adults scored higher in playfulness than older ones.
The SMAP demonstrated robust correlations with measures for adult playfulness and the need for play.
Cheerfulness and culture along with low seriousness and low conscientiousness were its best predictors.
In ratings of an unordered work-space and a surrealistic painting, playful adults expressed higher liking
for and lower disapproval of these compared to non-playful adults. Overall, the new scale yielded good
psychometric properties and first evidence on its validity was encouraging. The SMAP has been developed
for an economic, global assessment of adult playfulness, which is still an understudied topic in personality
research.
This study addresses the basic structure of playfulness in adults from a psycho-lexical approach and its relationship with the sense of humor. Using items derived from a corpus analysis of written accounts in the German language, five factors were derived (N = 195); i.e., (a) cheerful-engaged; (b) whimsical; (c) creative-loving; (d) intellectual; and (e) impulsive. Their contents strongly overlap in comparison with an earlier study using this approach. However, the correlation of the intellectual component with two current measures of adult playfulness was low, and the impulsive component was not correlated with these measures. The question arises as to whether these aspects exist only as components in the implicit psychological and linguistic theories. The sense of humor was most strongly related with the cheerful-engaged factor while some “humor skills” were particularly related to other factors; e.g., finding humor under stress with the intellectual component. This study helps toward a better understanding of the basic structure of playfulness in adults.
The primary aim of this study was testing the structure of adult playfulness in a joint analysis of seventeen
questionnaires and testing the relation of the factors with the big five personality traits. A sample of 244 adults completed the questionnaires and a five factor-solution fit the data best; i.e., (a) Humorousness; (b) Cheerfulness–Uninhibitedness; (c) Expressiveness; (d) Other-directedness; and (e) Intellectuality–Creativity. Correlation analyses (bivariate, canonical) and regression analyses indicated strong overlap of the broader personality factors and the Cheerfulness–Uninhibitedness-factor (extraversion and emotional stability) as well as the Expressiveness-factor (extraversion). The study contributes towards a better understanding of the structure of playfulness in questionnaires developed for adults. Implications for future research are discussed.
This study systematically examines the relations between the folk concept of ''sense of humor'' and the behavioral domain of everyday humorous conduct. Participants completed our Humorous Behavior e-sort Deck (HBQD) and a set of self-ratings contributing to an overall sense of humor index as well as personality measures including the California Psychological Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Our analyses revealed that overall sense of humor subsumed only a delimited and specific set of humor-related behaviors, in particular, socially constructive and competent forms of humorous conduct within interpersonal contexts. Results with the HBQD further indicated that overall sense of humor was positively associated with only two dimensions of humorous conduct (Socially Warm Versus Cold humorous style and Competent versus Inept humorous style) and unrelated to three others (Reflective versus Boorish, Earthy versus Repressed and Benign versus Mean-spirited humorous styles). Sense of humor was also found to be linked to socially desirable behaviors, but only those behaviors associated with social warmth and competence and not the entire range of socially desirable forms of humor. Analysis of the concept of ''sense of humor'' among subsamples of extraverts and introverts also revealed that although socially constructive uses of humor were important for both psychological types, humor competence figured more prominently in the introverts' notion of sense of humor. General personality characteristics were only minimally related to overall sense of humor, but revealed substantial and differentiated correlates to the styles of humorous conduct isolated by the HBQD. Overall, our findings argue strongly for a comprehensive approach to the assessment of individuals' understanding of humor and their styles of everyday humorous conduct.
Much of the play in daily life likely occurs at times or during activities other than those commonly viewed as leisure. Humor is one form of play that appears to accompany many nonleisure activities, while also being the basis for some forms of entertainment that engage people during leisure. With the use of a humor diary and mood measures, this study examined the frequency and types of humorous experiences of university students and their relationship to psychological well‐being during a day. Mass media provided the fewest playful incidents of humor, while social interaction generated the largest number. Increases in positive moods and decreases in negative moods were associated significantly with greater numbers of incidents of humor and overt laughter. It is argued that leisure researchers should give more attention to the psychology of everyday playful behaviors, such as humor, day‐dreaming, fantasy, and make‐believe.
Research on the relationship between humour appreciation and needs was traditionally restricted to the investigation of the significance of humour content. The present study extends this scope by relating needs to appreciation of humour structure and to liking of humour in general. Instruments allowing a more comprehensive assessment of both needs and humour appreciation were administered to subjects in two samples (n = 108 and 156) of adults. The 3 WD humour test measures funniness and aversiveness of three humour types (i.e. incongruity-resolution, nonsense, and sexual humour). A list of 14 needs was assessed via questionnaire (Personality Research Form), self-ratings and six peer-ratings. The results confirm that need for order is related to humour structure. In particular, liking of order correlates positively with funniness of incongruity-resolution based humour (containing fully resolvable incongruities) and disliking lack of order predicts aversiveness of nonsense humour (which generally provides no complete resolution of the incongruity). Certain aspects of need for play are predictive of appreciation of nonsense and sexual humour but not of incongruity-resolution humour. The main results are independent of the methods used to assess the need structure.
The theologian Hugo Rahner argued that the homo ludens is a man of ‘Ernstheiterkeit’ (seriouscheerfulness),
a person who can smile under tears but also recognizes the gravity in all earthly cheerfulness. The primary aim of this study was to test the validity of this notion: Do homines ludentes exist? Two hundred sixty-three adult subjects were measured for (1) seriousness and cheerfulness and (2) playfulness. Results provided unequivocal support for Rahner’s thesis. Numerous subjects scored high in both seriousness and cheerfulness thus confirming the existence of homines ludentes. It was further found that these subjects were among those scoring highest in playfulness. Subjects scoring high in cheerfulness but low in seriousness were, however,
even more closely associated with playfulness. The scores for homines ludentes did not differ from the rest of the subjects in the creative and dynamic facets of playfulness. The importance of developing empirical research to investigate hypotheses derived from non-scientific concepts is discussed.
The present paper examines the hypothesis that trait cheerfulness, seriousness, and bad mood form the temperamental basis of the sense of humour. American (N = 263) and German (N = 151) adults filled in the state-trait cheerfulness inventory and a sense of humour scale. Correlations between the two inventories showed that trait cheerfulness accounted for most of the variance in the sense of humour scales with seriousness and bad mood displaying some incremental validity. The sense of humour subscales and the facets of cheerfulness formed a potent first factor in a joint factor analysis of the subscales of the two inventories. While seriousness and playfulness—recently proposed as being the basis of the sense of humour—were indeed related to the sense of humour scales, they contained additional variance and loaded on the subsequent factors of trait seriousness and bad mood. The results are discussed in the context of the necessity of separating affective and mental factors in the sense of humour.
Analysis of the reported experiences of people involved in various play-forms (i.e., rock-climbing, chess, dance, basketball, and music composition) suggests that the qualities which make these activities enjoyable are the following: (a) a person is able to concentrate on a limited stimulus field (b) in which individual skills can be used to meet clear demands, (c) thereby forgetting personal problems, and (d) her or his own separate identity, (e) at the same time obtaining a feeling of control over the environment, (f) which may result in a transcendence of ego-boundaries and consequent psychic integration with metapersonal systems. The concept that certain experiences are intrinsically rewarding and its usefulness in understanding human motivation are discussed. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes the development and initial validation of the Humor Styles Questionnaire, which assesses four dimensions relating to individual differences in uses of humor. These are: relatively benign uses of humor to enhance the self (Self-enhancing) and to enhance one’s relationships with others (Affiliative), use of humor to enhance the self at the expense of others (Aggressive), and use of humor to enhance relationships at the expense of self (Self-defeating). Validation data indicate that the four scales differentially relate in predicted ways to peer ratings of humor styles and to measures of mood (cheerfulness, depression, anxiety, hostility), self-esteem, optimism, well-being, intimacy, and social support. They also relate to all five dimensions of the Five Factor Model and to Agency and Communion. The first two scales overlap with previous humor tests, whereas the Aggressive and Self-defeating humor scales largely tap different dimensions. Males scored higher than females on Aggressive and Self-defeating humor. It is expected that the HSQ will be useful for research on humor and psychological well-being by assessing forms of humor that may be deleterious to health as well as those that are beneficial.
Play A cyclopedia of education
- John Dewey
Dewey, John. 1913. Play. In P. Monroe. (ed.), A cyclopedia of education, 725-727. New York,
NY: Macmillan.
Humor: Its origin and development
- Paul E Mcghee
McGhee, Paul E. 1979. Humor: Its origin and development. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman & Co.
Health, healing and the amuse system: Humor as survival training
- Paul E Mcghee
McGhee, Paul E. 1996. Health, healing and the amuse system: Humor as survival training.
Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
The laughter remedy: Health, healing and the amuse system
- Paul E Mcghee
McGhee, Paul E. 1999. The laughter remedy: Health, healing and the amuse system. Dubuque,
IA: Kendall/Hunt.
Humor as survival training for a stressed-out world: The 7 humor habits program
- Paul E Mcghee
McGhee, Paul E. 2010a. Humor as survival training for a stressed-out world: The 7 humor habits
program. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.
Humor: The lighter path to resilience and health
- Paul E Mcghee
McGhee, Paul E. 2010b. Humor: The lighter path to resilience and health. Bloomington,
IN: AuthorHouse.
Playfulness in adults as a personality trait: Its definition, structure, and measurement
- René T Proyer
Proyer, René T. 2015 Playfulness in adults as a personality trait: Its definition, structure, and
measurement. Zurich, Switzerland Unpublished Habilitation Thesis.
Amusement The Oxford companion to the affective sciences
- Willibald Ruch
Ruch, Willibald. 2009. Amusement. In David Sander & Klaus Scherer (eds.), The Oxford companion to the affective sciences, 27-28. New York, NY: OUP.
Emotions revealed: Recognizing faces and feelings to improve communication and emotional life
- Paul Ekman
The Sense of Humor: Explorations of a personality characteristic
- Victor Raskin
Raskin, Victor. 1998. The sense of humor and the truth. In Willibald Ruch (ed.), The Sense of
Humor: Explorations of a personality characteristic, 95-108. Berlin, Germany: de Gruyter.
Ruch, Willibald. 2009. Amusement. In David Sander & Klaus Scherer (eds.), The Oxford companion to the affective sciences, 27-28. New York, NY: OUP.