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Study on characteristic of laterite soil with lime stabilization as a road foundation

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  • Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia

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Regional growth and development led to an increase in infrastructure especially roads. Along with that, material requirements as the road foundation also increased. Meanwhile, the number of qualified materials in certain areas is limited, difficult to obtain and expensive. Therefore, efforts are required to exploit the potential of local soils as a qualified road foundation material. One of them is laterite soil which is only wasted from mining activities. This study aims to analyze and produce the characteristics of laterite soil with lime stabilization to be used as a road foundation. Physical and mechanical properties, mineral content, and chemical composition, obtained from laboratory testing. Meanwhile, to obtain soil bearing capacity, the physical model of the road foundation was examined. The addition of lime with compositions of 3, 5, 7, and 10% at maximum dry density from Proctor standard test, then cured to 3, 7, 14, and 28 days before testing. Subsequently, the soil mixture is fed into the test tub with length (L) = 8m, width (W) = 2m, and height (H) = 2.5m. The physical model of road foundation consists of a subgrade soil with 1.5 m thickness and above the subgrade is placed lime treated base with 0.1 m thickness. Dial gauge to read the magnitute of vertical deformation occurs when loading is placed on surface with 0.2 m distance. Furthermore, static loading test on each mixture of lime treated base. The results show that, stabilization of 10% lime for 28 days curing time yields the strength and bearing capacity of the soil three times higher than soil before stabilization. Subgrade modulus increased significantly with increasing of lime content and curing time. Comparing the relation of subgrade modulus and CBR values for common soil and sediment soil with cement stabilization, it was found that performance of laterite soil with lime stabilization is better than sediment soil with cement stabilization and approaching of common soil. It is concluded that laterite soil with lime stabilization has potential as a road foundation.
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International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4687
Study on Characteristic of Laterite Soil with Lime Stabilization as a Road
Foundation
Zubair Saing1, Lawalenna Samang2, Tri Harianto3 and Johannes Patanduk4
1Doctoral Program of Civil Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Engineering Faculty, Poros Malino Street of Gowa, Indonesia.
2Professor of Civil Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Engineering Faculty, Poros Malino Street of Gowa, Indonesia.
3Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Engineering Faculty, Poros Malino Street of Gowa, Indonesia.
4Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Hasanuddin University, Engineering Faculty, Poros Malino Street of Gowa, Indonesia.
Abstract
Regional growth and development led to an increase in
infrastructure especially roads. Along with that, material
requirements as the road foundation also increased.
Meanwhile, the number of qualified materials in certain areas
is limited, difficult to obtain and expensive. Therefore, efforts
are required to exploit the potential of local soils as a
qualified road foundation material. One of them is laterite soil
which is only wasted from mining activities. This study aims
to analyze and produce the characteristics of laterite soil with
lime stabilization to be used as a road foundation. Physical
and mechanical properties, mineral content, and chemical
composition, obtained from laboratory testing. Meanwhile, to
obtain soil bearing capacity, the physical model of the road
foundation was examined. The addition of lime with
compositions of 3, 5, 7, and 10% at maximum dry density
from Proctor standard test, then cured to 3, 7, 14, and 28 days
before testing. Subsequently, the soil mixture is fed into the
test tub with length (L) = 8m, width (W) = 2m, and height (H)
= 2.5m. The physical model of road foundation consists of a
subgrade soil with 1.5 m thickness and above the subgrade is
placed lime treated base with 0.1 m thickness. Dial gauge to
read the magnitute of vertical deformation occurs when
loading is placed on surface with 0.2 m distance.
Furthermore, static loading test on each mixture of lime
treated base. The results show that, stabilization of 10% lime
for 28 days curing time yields the strength and bearing
capacity of the soil three times higher than soil before
stabilization. Subgrade modulus increased significantly with
increasing of lime content and curing time. Comparing the
relation of subgrade modulus and CBR values for common
soil and sediment soil with cement stabilization, it was found
that performance of laterite soil with lime stabilization is
better than sediment soil with cement stabilization and
approaching of common soil. It is concluded that laterite soil
with lime stabilization has potential as a road foundation.
Keywords: Laterite soil, lime stabilization, road foundation.
INTRODUCTION
Materials requirement for road foundation in certain areas is
often a problem because it is difficult to obtain, expensive,
and limited number of eligible. So the development should be
done on subgrade soil conditions such as soft soil, swelling
soil, soil from the sea, even unstable soil in case of
earthquake/vibration. One method that can be used to
overcome the problem is soil stabilization before used. The
purpose is to improve soil performance or to improve the soil
geotechnical properties chemically so that the soil meets
certain technical requirements. In addition to stabilization
methods, the efficiency of soil use as a road foundation can be
developed in areas with limited material conditions. This is
intended to reduce the type and thickness of the road
foundation, which is generally done with two types of
foundation layers, namely bottom foundation layer (LPB) and
upper foundation layer (LPA).
One of the most important challenges in the design of
structures on soil is the reaction of the soil when in contact
with the structure. The mechanical behavior of the soil is very
complex, since the soil is naturally non-linear, anisotropic,
heterogeneous, and deformed depending on the load given.
Thus, in engineering work to design structures, soil modeling
is made with all its complexity, with a simple system called a
subgrade reaction model [1]. The determination of soil
strength to support the above structure is determined by the
soil reaction coefficient (ks) and the soil elasticity modulus
(Es). The soil stiffness assumption model as the ratio between
pressure () and vertical displacement () is linear, and is
known as the soil reaction coefficient (MN/m3). This theory
simulates the soil behavior as an independent spring group,
with a linear-elastic model. This theory is widely developed
for the calculation of stresses on a flexible foundation [2].
The value of soil reaction modulus can be determined based
on field testing, laboratory testing, empirical equations, and
tabulation values. Field tests using plate loading test,
laboratory test using consolidation test and triaxial test [3]
and [13].
One of the soil that can be developed is potentially laterite
soil in Sorowako, East Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi. This
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4688
area is relatively difficult to obtain the soil type that meets the
technical requirements as road foundation, even must be
imported from other regions. Instead it is dominated by
laterite soils with relatively high metal content, especially
iron oxide (Fe2O3), which is simply wasted from nickel
mining [12], [18-20].
Recent study on laterite soil and soil stabilization with various
methods has been widely practiced, especially in countries
with many of these soils types, such as Asia and Africa. Some
previous studies include; the higher content of clay minerals
in the laterite soil causes a decrease in soil strength [4], the
addition of lime and cement is more efficient in 2% cement
and 3% lime mixture [5], sediment soil with cement
stabilization increases the soil strength up to three times more
than strength of original soil [6], laterite soil with polymer
solution (GKS) stabilization resulting in increased soil
compressive strength as the increasing of the curing time after
7 days [7], laterite soil stabilization using a mixture of
charcoal and cement resulted in the most effective
stabilization conditions in addition 6% charcoal sugar cane
and 5% cement addition [8], laterite soil stabilization with
corn cob ash (CCA), resulted in maximum increase of
maximum dry density at 1.5% CCA content and increase the
CBR value at 1.5% CCA [9], laterite soil stabilization using
liquid sodium silicate, resulting in the addition of 9% sodium
silicate increased soil strength [10], an increase of soil
hydraulic gradient if mixing with fed gasoline [11].
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The material used in this research is laterite soil from
Sorowako East Luwu Regency South Sulawesi with
coordinates S 2o56'21,16" and E 121o36'26,54". Tests of
physical and mechanical properties of the soil were conducted
in laboratory according to American Standard for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), as shown in Table 1. Soil stabilization
using quick lime with CaO = 97,8% and silica oxide (SiO2) =
2,2%. The addition of lime with compositions of 3, 5, 7, and
10% at maximum dry density from Proctor standard test. The
physical model test is performed on a test tub with dimension;
height (H) = 2.5 m, length (L) = 8 m, and width (W) = 2 m.
The physical model of road foundation layer consists of 1.5 m
thick of subgrade layer and 0.1 m thick of laterite soil with
lime stabilization (lime treated base) layer. The process of soil
compacting in the test tube was conducted accordance with
standard Proctor compaction process in the laboratory to
ensure the suitability of soil density. After each layer was
compacted, then the dial gauge for reading the magnitude of
vertical deformation that occurs when loading is placed on the
surface with 0.2 m distance, the next stage is the static
loading for each soil mixture composition. The test results
was used to determine of soil subgrade modulus (k), which is
the ratio of pressure change (∆and vertical deformation
change (). The physical model test as shown in Fig. 1.
Table I: ASTM Standard for Soil Testing
Type of Testing
ASTM Standard
Number
Grain size analysis
C-136-06
Liquid limit (LL)
D-423-66
Plastic limit (PL)
D-424-74
Plastic index (IP)
D-4318-10
Spesific gravity (Gs)
D-162
Water content (Wc)
D-2216-98
Unconfined compression Test
(qu)
D-633-1994
Compaction test
D-698
CBR laboratory test
D-1833
Direct shear test
D-3080
XRD test
D3906-03
(2013)
SEM test
E986-04
(2010)
EDS/EDAX
E1508-12a
Figure 1: Physical model test of lime treated base as road
foundation
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4689
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results of physical and mechanical testing of alluvial soil
and laterite soil are shown in Table 2, while mineral content
and laterite soil chemical composition are shown in Tables 3
and 4.
Table II: Physical and Mechanical Properties of Alluvial and
Laterite Soil
No
Soil Characteristics
Unit
Alluvial
Soil
1
Specific Gravity
(Gs)
-
2,65
2
Water content (w)
%
38,85
3
Sieve analysis
a. gravel
%
-
b. sand
%
41,80
c. Silt/clay
%
58,20
4
Atterberg limits
a. Liquid limit (LL)
%
65,46
b. Plastic limit (PL)
%
33,90
c. Index plasticity
(PI)
%
31,56
5
Standard Proctor
compaction
a. Maximum dry
density (d maks)
kN/m3
14,01
b. Optimum moisture
content (wopt)
%
30,79
6
Unconfined
compression strength
(qu)
kN/m2
48,85
7
California Bearing
Ratio (CBR)
a. CBR unsoaked
%
7,33
8.
Direct shear test
a. Cohesion (C)
kN/m2
12,19
b. Internal friction
angle ()
( 0 )
13
9.
Soil classification
a. USCS
CH
b. AASTHO
A-7-6
Table III: Chemical Composition of Laterite Soil with 10%
CaO Stabilization
Chemical
Compound
(%)
Laterite
Soil
Laterite Soil + 10% CaO
(%)
3
days
7
days
14 days
28
days
MgO
0,83
2,61
1,98
0,07
3,21
Al2O3
5,73
10,18
7,46
3,90
10,07
SiO2
2,28
6,75
5,35
3,41
8,92
K2O
-
0,32
0,29
0,00
0,00
TiO2
-
0,00
0,39
0,40
0,00
FeO
86,55
62,44
67,06
78,52
60,53
NiO
2,78
2,69
2,72
2,62
0,00
Cr2O3
-
1,73
2,18
2,06
1,94
P2O5
-
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
SO3
1.05
2,64
1,59
0,80
2.31
Na2O
-
3,47
1,70
0,00
2,51
CaO
0,25
6,84
9,25
8,22
10,51
Based on the results of Tables 2, it is known that alluvial soil
and laterite soil grains are dominated by silt/clay material
respectively 58.20% and 94.89%, with plasticity index of
31,56% and 30,77%. These results indicate that alluvial soil
and laterite soils are included in clay classification with high
plasticity (A-7-6 according to AASTHO and CH according to
USCS). While based on mineral content on Table 3, showed
that laterite soil was dominated by illite-montmorillonite
minerals, and based on chemical composition showed on
Table 4, laterite soils are dominated by iron oxide content up
to 86.55%.
Table IV: Minerals content of laterite soil with 10% CaO
stabilization
Minerals Content
(%)
Laterite
Soil
Laterite Soil + 10% CaO
(%)
7
days
14
days
21
days
28
days
hematite HP,
iron(III) oxide
7
7
8
38
25
Kaolinite
8
6
11
9
5
Illite-
montmorillonite
(NR)
80
42
9
26
18
Forsterite
3
-
25
8
37
Portlandite
-
45
47
18
15
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4690
Subsequently, the strength test result of some variation CaO
content and curing time is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2: Relationship of laterite soil strength with lime
content and curing time
The addition of lime causes the soil to become harder and
stiff. An increase in compressive strength until it reaches the
peak of strength indicates fragile collapse. Figure 2 shows the
relationship of soil strength with lime content and curing
time. It is seen that the increase in lime content and increase
of curing time leads to increase the compressive strength of
soil. In 10% lime content with 28 days cured, the compressive
strength increased 300% (three times higher than untreated
soil).
Increasing of soil compressive strength occurs due to clay
particles have a high negative charge on the surface that can
attract cations (positive charge ions) and water dipoles. Two
reactions occur, that is cation exchange and flocculation-
agglomeration, are rapid and direct result in increased
strength due to decreased soil plasticity and increased soil
capacity. The direct effects of CaO addition on the soil are
obtained during curing and construction stage, related to
cation exchange reactions and agglomeration flocculations.
The effect of long-term stabilization occurs during and after
curing, this is very important for soil strength. When this
effect is produced to some extent due to cation exchange and
agglomeration-flocculation, the resulting pozzolanic strength
is predominantly generated. The addition of CaO to the soil
directly undergoes a hydration process due to its chemical
combination with water and heat release. The soil becomes
dry because the water in the soil is reacted and evaporates.
During stabilization and increasing the amount of CaO and
H2O contents, pH of soil directly rises above 10.5 causing the
clay particles to broken. Silica and alumina react with calcium
from CaO in the form of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH). This forms a matrix that
contributes to producing strength layers of laterite soil with
lime stabilization [14] and [15]. This condition leads to an
increase of soil strength. The chemical reaction mechanism
occurring in the stabilization of laterite soil with lime as
shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Chemical reaction of soil with lime stabilization
(After Jaritngam, et. al., 2014)
According to Fig. 3, the chemical reactions occurring as a
result of the addition of CaO and water (H2O) to the laterite
soil containing SiO2.Al2O3.Fe2O3 are described as showed in
Equation 1.
SiO2.Al2O3.Fe2O3 + CaO + H2O → CaO.(SiO2).H2O +
CaO.Al2O3.H2O + CaO. 2Fe(OH)3 (1)
Where, SiO2.Al2O3.Fe2O3 is a laterite soil content, CaO is
quick lime as a stabilizing agent and H2O is water. The
resulting reaction consists of CaO. (SiO2). H2O is Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (CSH), CaO.Al2O3.H2O is Calcium
Aluminate Hydrate (CAH), and CaO.2Fe(OH)3 is Calcium
Ferro Hydroxide (CFH).
In addition of soil compressive strength, the test of soil
bearing capacity on some variation of CaO content and curing
time was conducted. The change of CBR value showed in Fig.
4. Based on these figure, showed that increasing of CaO
content to 10% and 28 days cured, causing the bearing
capacity of the soil increased 300% (three times higher than
untreated soil). Pozzolanic reaction causes pozzolanic
strength which causes dry and dense soil due to CaO and
water reaction, where calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and
calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH) form a cementation layer
matrix causing the increase of soil strength. This resulted in
bearing capacity of the soil also experienced significant
increase. The dominance of clay minerals with high plasticity
such as montmorillonite and illite with high iron oxide
content and lime addition, will result in reaction forming CSH
and CAH, which closes the micro pore of soil, so the soil
becomes denser and causes the strength and bearing capacity
increase as reaction in Equation 1. This condition is shown in
Fig. 5.
lime
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4691
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
keV
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
cps/eV
O Mg
Al
Si
S Ca
Ca
V
V
Mn
Mn
Fe
Fe
Ni
Ni
a
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
keV
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
cps/eV
O Si
Al
Na
Mg
Ca
Ca
Cr
Cr
Fe
Fe
b
Figure 4: Relationship of laterite soil CBR value with CaO
content and curing time
Figure 5: SEM Microphotograph of laterite soil; a) untreated
soil; b) soil treated with 10% lime after 28 days cured
Based on Fig. 5, showed that, soil micro pores are relatively
large and scattered before stabilized. The addition of CaO
causes an ion exchange charge reaction in the soil. Release of
negative ions on the surface and sides of the clay minerals as
well as the exchange of negative and positive ions of hydrous
oxide of iron and aluminium as reaction in Equation 1. This
ion exchange reaction that causes the formation of cemented
minerals that form the matrix and into the soil strength layers,
as shown in Fig. 5b.
Utilization of laterite soil with lime stabilization as road
foundation was conducted with physical model placed in a
test tub with maximum dry density according to the
laboratory results. Furthermore, the physical model is given
static loading to find the bearing capacity and vertical
deformation. The results test of road foundation physical
model using laterite soil with lime stabilization are shown in
Fig. 6. These figure shows the relation of pressure and
vertical deformation that occurs due to loading applied in
physical model of road foundation. An increased of addition
lime content causes increased soil strength and decreases
vertical deformation. This is in accordance with the results of
soil capacity and soil microstructure characteristics. In
addition, according to Fig. 6 can be determined the value of
subgrade modulus, soil deformation, and the pressure for each
percent of lime addition, as well as the pre-determined CBR
field values, as shown in Table 5.
Figure 6: Relationship of pressure vs vertical deformation
Table V: Subgrade modulus and CBR value of laterite soil
with lime stabilization
CaO
Content
(%)
Pressure,
q (kN/m2)
Vertical
deformation
(10-3m)
Subgrade
modulus,
k (kN/m2
per mm)
CBR
Value
(%)
3
330,0
8,2
40,2
12,00
5
362,5
6,0
60,4
31,92
7
387,5
4,5
86,1
40,91
10
437,5
3,3
132,6
45,00
Based on Table 5, relationship between the soil subgrade
modulus and CBR value and compared with similar curves
for general soil (PU. Bina Marga, 2003) and sediment soil
with cement stabilization (Yusuf, H., et al, 2013) as shown in
Fig. 7.
International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 12, Number 14 (2017) pp. 4687-4693
© Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
4692
Figure 7: Relationship of subgrade modulus vs CBR
Based on Fig. 7, it is seen that the laterite soil with lime
stabilization curve lies between the general soil curve and the
sediment soil cement stabilization. The laterite soil with lime
stabilization showed better performance than the sediment
soil cement stabilization. These results indicate that laterite
soil with lime stabilization is good for use as road foundation.
CONCLUSIONS
The addition of CaO up to 10% with curing after 28 days
showed significant improvement of soil strength and bearing
capacity three times higher than untreated soil. The laterite
soil reaction with CaO form the cementation matrix of
calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium alumina hydrate
(CAH) as a coating that contributes to increased strength and
soil bearing capacity. Subsequently, the addition of lime to
10% leads to increased soil strength and decreases vertical
deformation. Comparing the relationship of subgrade
modulus and the CBR values for common soil and sediment
soil with cement stabilization, it was found that laterite soil
with lime stabilization curves is in between common soil and
sediment soil with cement stabilization. This condition
indicated that performance of laterite soil with lime
stabilization is better than sediment soil with cement
stabilization and in accordance with common soil. It is
concluded that laterite soil with lime stabilization has the
potential of utilization as road foundation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank Soil Mechanics Laboratory
Hasanuddin University for permits to use material testing
tools, and special thank to Indonesian Ministery of Research
Technolgy and Higher Education for funding this research.
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to Subgrade Material Implementation”, International
Journal of Science and Research, 5 (11), pp 582-586.
... This is intended to reduce road foundation layer type and thickness, which is generally done with two kinds such as sub-base layer (LPB) and the base layer (LPA). Efforts to reduce LPA and LPB into only one layer with sufficient thickness and meet technical requirements can be developed by conducting a study of soils that have been stabilized by methods and model tests to obtain a foundation layer such as lime treated base (Saing, 2017). One of the soil is lateritic Halmahera soil which is potential in East Halmahera regency, North Maluku ...
... Province. This area has lateritic soils with relatively high iron oxide metal content (Fe2O3) (Saing, 2017;Saing, 2018a;Saing, 2018b). This soil is because wasted from nickel mining excavation, furthermore it will cause environmental damage because of the full disposal area. ...
... Lateritic soils contain relatively high clay minerals, mainly illite and montmorillonite (Portelinha et al. 2012;Saing, 2017). Clay minerals and high metal elements can be used for various needs both in construction, industrial and other. ...
... When the soil-binder ratio is high, the impact of the water-binder ratio on the bleeding is minor. However, when the soilbinder ratio falls below 0.6, the water-binder ratio's impact becomes more significant, displaying a near-linear relationship, as shown in Figure 13b and Equation (12). Additionally, the fly flash-cement ratio inversely correlates with the slurry bleeding rate when the soil-binder ratio is less than 0.6, and directly correlates when it exceeds 0.6, as illustrated in Figure 13c and Equation (13). ...
... When the soil-binder ratio is high, the impact of the water-binder ratio on the bleeding is minor. However, when the soil-binder ratio falls below 0.6, the water-binder ratio's impact becomes more significant, displaying a near-linear relationship, as shown in Figure 13b and Equation (12). Additionally, the fly flash-cement ratio inversely correlates with the slurry bleeding rate when the soil-binder ratio is less than 0.6, and directly correlates when it exceeds 0.6, as illustrated in Figure 13c and Equation (13). ...
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As shield tunnels increase, managing shield muck strains construction and the environment. To mitigate this problem, shield muck replaced bentonite in silty clay to improve synchronous grouting slurry. Initially, the physical attributes and microstructural composition of shield muck were obtained, alongside an analysis of the effects of the muck content, particle size, and general influencing factors on the slurry properties through standardized tests and regression models. Subsequently, leveraging three-dimensional response surface methodology, admixture interactions and multiple factor impacts on the slurry were explored. Finally, utilizing the SQP optimization technique, an optimal slurry blend ratio tailored for actual project needs was derived for improved muck slurry. The findings reveal with the decreasing bleeding rates as the muck content rises, the particle size diminishes. An inverse relationship exists between the muck content and slurry fluidity. At soil–binder ratios below 0.6, a decrease in the soil–binder ratio intensifies the influence of the water–binder ratio on the slurry density, bleeding rate, and setting time. The fly flash–cement ratio inversely correlates with the slurry bleeding rate, while the ratio greater than 0.6 is positively correlated. For muck particle sizes under 0.2 mm, the fly flash–cement ratio inversely impacts the density, while over 0.2 mm, it correlates positively. The optimal proportion for silty clay stratum synchronous grouting slurry, substituting muck for bentonite, includes a water–binder ratio of 0.559, binder–sand ratio of 0.684, fly flash–cement ratio of 2.080, soil–binder ratio of 0.253, particle size under 0.075 mm, and water-reducing admixture of 0.06.
... Latifi et al. (2017) [7], found that the addition of chemical stabilizers like TX-85 and SH-85 to a clayey laterite soil can increase its strength within a short time, making them a viable option for engineering projects. Saing et al. (2018) [8] showed that, laterite soils subjected to 10% lime treatment and 28 days of curing lead to a significant improvement in their bearing capacity. ...
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Laterite soils are one of the predominant soils found in the eastern and southern region of Odisha. These soils are known to display a wide range in their engineering characteristics like plasticity, permeability, shear strength etc. Bhubaneswar is one of the fastest developing cities in eastern India and large parts of the city are underlain by a lateritic soil. In this study, laterite soils sample were collected from four different parts of the city and their index properties and engineering properties like plasticity, percentage of fines, shear strength parameters (under dry and wet conditions), compaction characteristics and permeability were studied. These were accomplished using methods like the standard proctor test, direct shear testing and falling head permeability testing. From the study it was found that the soils had high values of maximum dry density, moderate permeability and low to medium shear strength characteristics. It was observed that while the engineering parameters varied in a fairly narrow range, they were mainly affected by the fines content of the soil. Investigations like this can be used for a general understanding of soil properties in the Bhubaneswar region for future infrastructural projects.
... These reactions occur when a significant proportion of lime and clay minerals are in the soil. Based on the dissolution potential of silica, alumina, and iron oxides in high pH environments, this process enhances mechanical properties, creating bonds akin to hydraulic binders [8]. ...
... Due to the tropics and subtropics climate of the region, vigorous chemical weathering has occurred resulting to high content of fine particles. Similar to this, another research was done on the soil samples collected from Sorowako East Luwu Regency South Sulawesi to study the characteristics of stabilized laterite soil as a road foundation (Saing et al., 2017). In this research, the laterite soil has percentages of sand and silt/clay of 5% and 95% respectively. ...
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The aim of this review is to gain insights of the geotechnical properties of lateritic soil that make it suitable to be used as a subbase material, and discuss the improvements done on the properties to further strengthen them. Several additives are reviewed for the lateritic soil stabilization, and fly ash is chosen to be the material of interest. This is so to answer the problem statement of would fly ash be a potential material for soil stabilization. Based on this review, it is understood that lateritic soil is commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions and is classified as sandy clay or silty clay. Studies also have shown that fly ash is potential to be used as a stabilizer in soil improvements. The presence of free lime may react with the silicates and aluminates, resulting to a long-term strength gain in soil. Class C fly ash contains more free lime that would lead to better strength gain in the earlier stage as compared to Class F fly ash. In addition to that, the particle size of the fly ash would also affect the improvement results, as smaller particle size allows more effective surface for the pozzolanic reaction to occur. The significance of this review is to show the potential of fly ash in improving lateritic soil, other than providing more evidence to encourage the incorporation of industrial waste in soil stabilization.
... In addition, an increased PL is likely the consequence of a decrease in the size of the soil particles diffused double layer, which subsequently enhances the shear resistance . This finding is consistent with previous studies about the effect of lime on the Atterberg limit value of treated soil (Liu et al., 2019;Muntohar and Khasanah, 2019;Saing et al., 2017). ...
Article
Dredged sediment soil (DSS) is a type of soil that cannot be directly used for construction due to its hard and strong characteristics in dry conditions and its lose and weak characteristics in wet conditions. Several feasible engineering treatments to improve its properties include stabilization. The dredged sediment soil sample was collected from Lam Glumpang, Banda Aceh. This research aims to determine the shear strength and compressibility of lime-stabilized dredged sediment soil. Various physical and mechanical laboratory experiments were performed on both treated and untreated dredged sediment soil. In addition, scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the morphological change of stabilized dredged sediment soil with lime treatment (SEM). This experiment was carried out by mixing the soil and lime in different ratios of 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% of the dry weight of the soil. According to AASHTO, the soil is classified as an A-4(8) soil type and according to the USCS, it is classified as an inorganic silt soil type (ML). Findings demonstrate that after lime stabilization, the shear strength and compressibility of dredged sediment soil gradually increased. The combination internal friction angle and cohesion value indicated that the shear strength of the soil was enhanced with the addition of lime up to 6% but then declined with the addition of lime to 8%. In addition, the study of micrographs indicates that the formation of aggregate particles has a substantial effect on the increase in shear strength and compressibility of treated dredged sediment soil.
... The formation of a matrix from stabilisation by using CaO mainly contributes to improving the laterite soil strength [25,26]. [27]. Previous researchers investigated the effects of quicklime and cement on the soil strength of laterite Halmahera soil, which contained a certain portion of (50.1%) iron oxide [29,30]. ...
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To date, the instability, as well as the strength of laterite soils in the construction application, has been widely addressed by many scholars. One of the main strategies to improve the laterite soil’s characteristics is to utilise an effective soil stabiliser (i.e., chemical stabilisation). Previous studies have shown that the strength of the laterite soil has been increased considerably through the utilisation of effective soil stabilisers in various applications. Besides tackling the limitations of laterite soils, concerted efforts worldwide have sought to achieve the desired engineering soil properties by using a cost-effective and environmental-friendly approach. To this end, this study aims to thoroughly review the existing soil stabilisers in the literature, which were developed in previous experimental studies. First, an introduction of the laterite composition and the laterite soil’s stabilisation mechanism was provided, followed by a detailed discussion on a variety of soil stabilisers. Various materials were investigated in terms of their effectiveness as efficient soil stabilisers. However, this study primarily focused on economical and eco-friendly materials, including industrial solid waste, agricultural wastes, mineral solid wastes, chemical materials, geo-polymeric binders, and various ashes. The effectiveness of these materials has been assessed using the unconfined compressive strength test and the California bearing ratio test. Finally, several key challenges and future scope of the laterite soil stabilisation using soil stabilisers were carefully addressed.
... Numerous studies reported the utilization of sediment from mountain areas as construction material [10][11]. Many attempts have been made to increase the quantity and quality of re-usable debris flow sediment material as a construction material while protecting the environment [12]. ...
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On 13 July 2020, a huge landslide-induced debris flow struck Masamba city and its vicinity, providing a massive amount of sedimentation materials. The landslide-induced debris flow was triggered by heavy rainfall, causing damages such as life and property losses, traffic disruption. Landslide-induced debris flow is a sudden natural hazard in mountain regions characterized by fast velocity, huge impact area, large scale, and often causes disastrous accidents. This study aims to investigate the properties of the debris flow materials including the soil size distribution, density, shear strength and bearing capacity. The results showed that the sedimentation material at landslide sites containing a large amount of sand which is classified as a poorly graded sand (SP). The engineering properties such as density, cohesion, internal friction angle and the value California Bearing Ratio (CBR) were also discussed.
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Changing material into a lightweight geomaterial such as EPSCS is one of the considerable methods to improve the geotechnical performance in the field. This material is already used in numerous construction projects due to its light characteristics. Lightweight Modular Block or LMB is a type of EPSCS composed of dredged Soil, cement, and Expanded Polystyrene (EPS). The amount of cement composition are 3%, 5%,7% and 9%. Meanwhile, Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) are 0.5% and 0.75%. This paper aims to briefly explain the performance of LMB as road foundation materials, such as subbase and base, through CBR laboratory tests. Based on the data, adding EPS can reduce density by 18% - 29% depending on the chosen mixture. Whereas adding more cement tends to increase the CBR value. All the test results will be analyzed and compared to SNI 03-3438-1994 for its qualification as a road foundation layer.
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Lateritic soils are widely spread in the Brazilian territory and they have been used as subgrade of pavement layers. Specifically, the Red-yellow latosols are usually clayey soils and are characterized as low bearing capacity materials for flexible pavement layers. As a conventional solution, soil stabilization with hydrated lime or Portland cement has been used as pavement layers reinforcement. However, the addition of low contents of stabilizers, referring to the soil modification, has not been applied on regular basis in highway designs. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the use of low contents of lime and cement in the modification of a lateritic soil properties concerning the behavior of mixtures since of the beginning of construction to the resulting final product. At this point, the workability, chemical properties, mechanical behavior and mineralogical composition were evaluated. Mechanistic analyses were performed in order to verify fatigue failures on asphalt layers in roadways structural layers. Experimental results showed that addition of 2% and 3% of lime or cement was enough to change the soil workability and mechanical strength. Additionally, mechanistic analyses supported the soil modification technique as valuable practice with low elastic strains in the asphalt layer when applied in pavement base layers.
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This study aim to analyze and produce vertical deformation of lime treated base model of laterite soil. The samples of laterite soil were obtained from Sorowako Regency of East Luwu, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil are obtained from laboratory testing, according to American Standard for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The lime treated base of the laterite soil layer is modeled with the dimension of length (L) = 4 m, width (W) = 2 m, and height (H) = 1.5 m. Stabilization of laterite soil with lime was conducted with variations of lime addition of 3, 5, 7, an 10%, under the maximum density conditions of standard Proctor test results. The model of the layers consists of soil subgrade layer (1.5 m), and lime treated base layer of laterite soil (0.1 m). Furthermore, the physical model is numerically analyzed by the finite element method. The results showed that the lime treated base layer with 10% lime content reduced the vertical deformation three times less than the laterite soil without stabilization. While the vertical deformation of the lime treated base layer meets the maximum deflection (L/240) in the addition of 7-10% lime.
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This study aimed to determine and evaluated the mechanical characteristic of the potential ferro laterite soil with cement stabilization to be used as base material. Ferro laterite soil obtained from three different sampling sites at the East Halmahera Regency. The sampling process of conventional excavation on the surface, soil sample is inserted into the sample bag and labeling as LH1 for first location, LH2 for the second location, and LH3 for a third location. Furthermore, soil prepared for testing the physical properties. The sampling results were tested for physical properties of the soil according to ASTM and SNI standardization, involved testing; moisture content, particle size distribution, specific gravity, and the limits of Atterberg, as well as compaction test. Making of the soil test specimen is done by mixing the ferro laterite soil with the addition of cement in a composition of 3%, 5%, 7%, and 10% on the initial condition of maximum density and optimum moisture content standard Proctor test results. Cylindrical test specimen with dimensions H = 2D, then cured for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days before being tested for soil compressive strength with UCS testing. The test results showed that the ferro laterite soil stabilization with cement increases the compressive strength for the three types of ferro laterite soil that is significantly until the curing time of 28 days (73-357 kPa, 79-588 kPa, 62-450 kPa, respectively for LH1, LH2 and LH3), resulting with an increase in the percentage of cement addition. Based on these test results, the ferro laterite soil has the potential to be used as road base material and construction material, but it is necessary to test in detail the physical model (prototype) prior to implementation in the field.
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This study aimed to determine and evaluate the characteristics and behavior of the mechanical and microstructural of ferro laterite soil to be used as sub-base material. Ferro laterite soil obtained from three different sampling sites at the East Halmahera Regency. The sampling process of conventional excavation on the surface, soil sample is inserted into the sample bag and labeling as LH1 for first location, LH2 for the second location, and LH3 for a third location. Furthermore, soil prepared for testing the physical properties. The standard proctor compaction test is performed to determine the optimum water content and maximum density of soil, then used as the basis for sample preparation. Soil strength testing used unconfined compression test and soil bearing capacity used CBR laboratory test, before being tested, each sample cured for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. While the microstructural behavior used XRD and SEM-EDS testing. The results show that density and soil strength tend to increase with the curing time, and directly increase of CBR values. Based from both test results, mechanical and microstructural characteristic, potential ferro laterite soil of East Halmahera Regency can be developed and utilized as sub base material, but need a detailed study on the possibility of increasing its ability with soil stabilization to give more confidence before used.
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This paper reports the investigation of Corn Cob Ash as a pozzolan and a stabilizing agent for lateritic soils in road pavement construction. Corn cob feedstock was obtained from Maya, a rural community in the derived savannah agro-ecological zone of SouthWestern Nigeria, and burnt to ashes of pozzolanic quality. Reddish brown silty clayey sand material, characterized as an A-2-6(3) material and locally recognized as laterites was obtained from a borrow pit in Abeokuta, SouthWestern Nigeria and subjected to physical characterization tests according to BS 1377: 2000. The soil was subsequently mixed with CCA in varying percentages of 0%, 1.5%, 3%, 4.5%, 6% and 7.5% and the influence of CCA on the soil was determined for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Compaction Characteristics, CBR and the Unconfined Compression Test. These tests were repeated on laterite-CCA-cement mix and laterite-cement mix respectively in order to detect any pozzolanicity in CCA when it combines with Portland cement and to compare results with a known soil stabilizing agent. The result shows a similarity in the compaction characteristics of soil-cement, soil-CCA and soil-CCA-cement, in that with increasing addition of binder from 1.5% to 7.5%, Maximum Dry Density progressively declined while the OMC steadily increased. In terms of the strength parameters, the maximum positive impact was observed at 1.5% CCA addition for soil-CCA with a CBR value of 84% and a UCS value of 1.0MN/m2, compared with the control values of 65% and 0.4MN/m2 respectively. For the soil-CCA-cement mix, the strength parameters CBR and UCS continued to increase with increasing binder addition within the tested range for the ratios 1:2 and 1:1 and 2:1 CCA:cement. Significantly, the results from the soil-CCA-cement mix, indicate the pozzolanicity of CCA in that UCS values were higher by at least 14% for the 1:1 ratio, than was attained with the addition of only the corresponding quantity of cement.
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One of the most important engineering challenges in the design of structure, is the reaction of soil in contact with structure. In engineering design of structures, the subsoil can be simulated by a much simpler system called subgrade reaction model. In order to evaluate the in situ modulus of the clayey deposits of the Qazvin alluvium, the results of a large number of in situ tests carried out by many researchers were analyzed. Vertical plate load tests, standard penetration tests and test pit exploration were conducted on over 170 different locations. The results of the plate load and standard penetration tests are analyzed and discussed. The correlation between subgrade reaction modulus (K s), modulus of elasticity (E s) and corrected standard penetration test blow counts (N) are presented for clayey deposits of the Qazvin alluvium. Results show that there is a significant correlation between subgrade reaction modulus (K s) and SPT blow counts.
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This study was centered on elucidating the chemical reactions that bring about soil stabilization and modification during soil chemical stabilization without which there won't be the achievement of an anticipated improved soil for most engineering works. In the course of the study, this research has been able to establish the reactions between soil and cement, bitumen, and the chloride compounds. It has been established that the chemical compounds found in soil; quartz, feldspar, dolomite, calcite, montmorillonite, kaolinite etc. react with the chemical constituents found in different identified chemical stabilizers. Cement for instance contains the calcium silicates, the calcium aluminates, and the calcium alumino ferrites that in turn react with the soil (clay) chemical compounds to form the matrix of soil used as either subgrade or subbase materials. From the work, it is observed that quicklime reacts in a deeper extent by dehydrating the soil. Through this process of dehydration, it becomes more useful by changing to hydrated lime. This is the stage where the main chemical reactions that led to soil stabilization starts. This research work will better place designers, constructors and researcher on the choice of soil chemical stabilizer and techniques and the extent of chemical reactions that take place during soil chemical stabilization.
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This study aims at evidencing the effects of lime treatment on the microstructure and hydraulic conductivity of a compacted expansive clay, with emphasis put on the effect of lime hydration and modification. For this purpose, evolutions of hydraulic conductivity were investigated for both lime-treated and untreated soil specimens over 7 d after full saturation of the specimens and their microstructures were observed at the end. Note that for the treated specimen, dry clay powder was mixed with quicklime prior to compaction in order to study the effect of lime hydration. It is observed that lime hydration and modification did not affect the intra-aggregate pores but increased the inter-aggregates pores size. This increase gave rise to an increase of hydraulic conductivity. More precisely, the hydraulic conductivity of lime-treated specimen increased progressively during the first 3 d of modification phase and stabilised during the next 4 d which correspond to a short period prior to the stabilization phase. The microstructure observation showed that stabilisation reactions took place after 7 d. Under the effect of stabilisation, a decreasing hydraulic conductivity can be expected in longer time due to the formation of cementitious compounds.
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Although the effects of nontraditional stabilizers on the geotechnical properties of tropical soils has been the issue of investigation in recent years, the microstructural characteristics of nontraditional soil additives and in particular selected additive (TX-85) have not been fully studied. Nontraditional soil stabilization additives are widely used for stabilizing marginal materials. These additives are low-cost alternatives to traditional construction materials and have different compositions. They also differ from one another while interacting with soil. In line with that, it was the objective of this research to investigate the strength properties and physicochemical mechanisms related to tropical laterite soil mixed with the liquid stabilizer TX-85. Macro-structure study, i.e., compaction, and unconfined compression strength test were used to assess the engineering and shear properties of the stabilized laterite soil. In addition, the possible mechanisms that contributed to the stabilization process were discussed using various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques such as X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. From engineering point of view, the results indicated that the strength of TX- 85 stabilized laterite soil improved significantly. The degree of improvement was approximately four times stronger than natural soil after a 7-day curing period. The XRD showed no crystalline products (gel form). Moreover, weathering effects were obvious in TX-85 treated samples in most of clay minerals’ peak intensities. These effects were reduced especially for kaolinite mineral inside the soil with curing time.
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In many developing countries, crushed rock is employed as a base course material for road pavement. Since crushed rock is required in large quantities, its shortages coupled with fuel price hike are having the effect of pushing up highway construction cost. In addition, the production of crushed rock involves drilling, blasting, crushing and road haulage, all of which create dust which is detrimental to the environment. Although lateritic soil is obtainable in many areas, it is too brittle and thus not suitable as road base course material. This paper presents the idea of adding cement to stabilize the lateritic aggregate. It compares the strength characteristics of cement-enhanced lateritic soil against those of crushed rock, and at the same time discusses their microstructure which was investigated using an X-ray diffraction machine (XRD) and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Mineralogical influences and the mechanism of soil-cement reaction of stabilized soils were also studied. Strength of the materials was measured using the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) methods. The UCS and CBR tests indicated that when cement is added to lateritic soil at only 3% by weight, the resulting laterite-cement mixture exhibited a compressive strength as high as that of crushed rock. This shows that cement-enhanced lateritic soils are a viable substitute for crushed rock for road pavement construction.