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Comparing Automated and Manual Visitor Monitoring Methods: Integrating Parallel Datasets on Mount Fuji’s North Face
Abstract
Due to their ease of installation and use, durability, and low cost, the use of passive infrared counters has increased rapidly in protected areas. This study investigated the calibration of a beam sensor using a parallel count system as control. Analysis of secondary data revealed the degree or error between 6th and 8th stations to fluctuate temporally, especially during congestion flashpoints such as Saturday and Friday nights. This suggests that current monitoring methods are underreporting the volumes of climber traffic at peak periods, but a calibration correction coefficient could be calculated by integrating the local and central government datasets. This study thus contributes to the pursuit of reliable, cost-effective visitor monitoring methods by demonstrating an opportunistic and holistic combination of two pre-existing, longitudinal data sources. However, additional observational studies are still needed to supplement the findings of the continuous manual clicker data at the 6th with stratified random sampling at the 8th station for optimum integration of parallel monitoring methods.
Improving the reliability of climber numbers via the generation of more accurate data is only the first step. Targeted intervention is required that actively utilizes such data to mitigate the current crop of management challenges including impacts on visitor experience (e.g., congestion) and on the natural environment (e.g., toilets, trash, trail conditions). Results provide useful pointers for park planners, site managers and decision-makers such as the Fujisan World Cultural Heritage Council. This study is one of a limited number of empirical case studies that tackle the inaccuracies of mechanical counting devices in a transparent and replicable
fashion, using parallel counting systems along a single trail on Mt. Fuji’s north face to contextualize the correction coefficient based on specific site characteristics.
... There were around 100,000 summer climbers on the Yoshida trail in 1981. 3 The figure subsequently doubled, exceeding 200,000 in 2008, 4 and since then the four trails have maintained a combined total 5 of approximately 300,000 climbers per season, although this figure is under-reported by up to 30%(Jones, Yang & Yamamoto, 2018). ...
This chapter deals with mountain peaks - a major sub-segment of nature-based tourism (NBT). Through the case study of Mount Fuji climbers past and present, the core research aim is to investigate whether re-designing sustainable experiences can support site managers’ efforts to infuse historical aspects of pilgrimage into the current trend toward peak-bagging. The literature review provides the framework to compare and contrast between ‘pilgrims’ and ‘peak-baggers’ in the context of contemporary NBT motivations both secular and sacred. A case study approach combines elements of environmental history with ethnography and visitor surveys to triangulate findings from primary and secondary data. First, Fuji’s legacy of worship ascent is analysed not only as a record of pilgrims’ past heritage but also as a means to reimagine current climber experience along a more sustainable trajectory. The next section briefly introduces the pre- and post-war infrastructure overhaul that made Fuji one of the world’s most accessible and arguably one of the most ‘overused’ peaks. Survey results show that few of the contemporary climbers recognize the sacred rites of their pilgrim forefathers, seeking to summit as fast as possible without following Shugendō customs such as pre-hike ablutions or a shrine visit. One potential counter-strategy is proposed via observation and interviews with participants that re-enacted one of the original pilgrimage routes, walking 120 km from central Tokyo to the Sengen Shrine at Fuji’s northern foot. This heritage walk was conducted over 4 nights and 5 days timed to coincide with the opening of Fuji’s summer season. Lessons learned from the re-enacted pilgrimage are applied to proposals for a more sustainable re-design of current climbing experience at Mt Fuji, with implications drawn for other popular mountainous NBT destinations.
... In addition to the digitization of heritage resources, the flow of visitors and its associated impact to the environment of heritage sites is also intimately related to heritage protection and tourism development, and this factor may also be assisted by advanced technology. The Internet of Things (IoT) can be used to monitor and manage the tourist flow, for example, beam sensors can be employed to count the number of tourists and use these numbers to improve tourist management [17]. The adoption of video monitoring technology in combination with GIS can be used to analyze and visualize the spatial distribution of pedestrian numbers and flow in different areas, providing a strong foundation for tourist flow management [5]. ...
The joint development of cultural heritage protection and tourism is an essential part of sustainable heritage tourism. Mount Lushan in China is such a site which in the past has had shortcomings in heritage protection and heritage tourism marketing. The present research addresses this issue by using digital technologies such as oblique aerial photography, 3D laser scanning technology, and 360 degrees panorama technology to digitize the Mount Lushan cultural landscape heritage site, integrating all elements to create a virtual tourism subsystem. It provides users with a virtual experience of cultural landscape heritage tourism and promotes cultural landscape tourism marketing. In addition, tourist flow and environmental subsystems were built through the integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technology and analytical models. The tourist flow subsystem can help managers to regulate tourist flow according to the tourist carrying capacity threshold. Managers can also conduct environmental health assessment and management through the "pressure-state-response" model provided by the environmental subsystem. Finally, a comprehensive platform was developed based on the system concept, which integrated the three subsystems and their functions, and developed different versions to provide a visual platform for tourists and managers. This study provides a new model for the joint development of cultural heritage protection and tourism activities.
... Hence, the primary data gathered by the author is further validated as the payment rate of 66% closely matches the one derived using the data from Japanese Ministry of Environment. It remains that this payment rate could be much lower considering the findings ofJones, Yang and Yamamoto (2018), that shows that the number of climbers recorded by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan is an underestimate. Nevertheless, this implies that the payment rate considered in the study is an upper bound resulting in conservative estimates of the potential gains from an increase in donations volume.Figure 3. Payment rate of the conservation donation in Yamanashi prefecture from 2014 to 2018 (in %) (Yamanashi prefecture, 2019, online)FIGURE 3. PAYMENT RATE OF THE CONSERVATION DONATION IN YAMANASHI PREFECTURE FROM 2014 TO 2018 (IN %). ...
235,646 climbers were recorded on Mount Fuji's trail in July and August 2019. While this represents an opportunity for tourism and economic growth, it is also a challenge for the government whose role is to protect Mount Fuji from the by-products of tourism such as litter and environmental degradation, and to ensure the safety of climbers along the trail. With that goal in mind, a voluntary conservation donation system was set up in 2013. This paper investigates how international climber's compliance impacts the collection of the donation. A questionnaire with international climbers was designed using the contingent valuation method and conducted in August 2019. Data was analyzed using descriptive analysis and frequencies as well as a linear regression and non-parametric tests using Stata software. The results suggest that the relatively low payment rate of 60% can be explained by low awareness. Indeed, prior awareness increased compliance with the conservation donation by as much as 19 percent points, pointing to the need of reaching out to international climbers. Furthermore, when the purpose of the donation was explained, the climbers' willingness to pay for a mandatory entrance fee combining the donation and toilet tip was ¥1,544, with 78% of respondents agreeing that entrance should be charged.
... The reality of compliance to this recommendation remains unknown. Despite the availability of relatively low-cost sensors and calls to increase monitoring to augment field observations (English and Bowker, 2018;Jones et al., 2018;Snider et al., 2018;Ziesler and Pettebone, 2018), automated facility monitoring is not standard practice. Further, most existing monitoring devices do not measure distances between users. ...
Background
Leisure time physical activity (LTPA) provides both health benefits and risks, particularly during a pandemic. During the COVID-19 pandemic, significant increases in close-to-home LTPA raised concerns for public health and land managers alike. This project illustrates a novel, integrated monitoring approach to estimating COVID-19 risk exposure during trail-related LTPA, with implications for other public spaces.
Methods
COVID-19 risk exposure was conservatively calculated from the integration of in-person observations of LTPA trail groups and automated monitoring of trail traffic volumes in spring 2020. Trained observers tracked 1,477 groups. Traffic volume estimates and observed distance data were integrated, considering occlusion and total trail traffic volume.
Results
70% of groups had one or more encounters. Among individual users, 38.5% were 100% compliant across all events observed but 32.7% were not compliant. Considering trail traffic volumes and annual daily traffic volume, exposure to risk of COVID-19 was conservatively estimated at 61.5% among individual trail users.
Conclusions
Monitoring opportunities and challenges of health risk exposure exist. Adjusted exposure measures based on volume counts can approximate numbers of unique individuals exposed, inform management actions, efficacy and policy decisions.
... Numerous studies have refined techniques for measuring evaluative indicators (Manning, 2011;Needham et al., 2016), but far less research has focused on improving measures of descriptive indicators such as use levels. Until recently, studies on use levels have employed techniques such as trailhead registrations or self-counting methods (Jones et al., 2018) or simple automated technologies such as trail or vehicle counters (Hollenhorst et al., 1992). These techniques possess well-known limitations (e.g., effort, expense, inaccuracy) and managers are often forced to adopt ad hoc field approaches or convenience samples to collect descriptive data . ...
This article examines overtourism indicators at Kailua Beach Park in Hawaiʻi, and demonstrates a systematic approach to assessing carrying capacity by pairing descriptive indicators with more commonly used evaluative indicators. Data were obtained from an onsite survey of 452 visitors. Questionnaires with embedded photographs measured visitors’ perceived encounters, norms, and crowding (evaluative indicators), while an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was used to collect actual use levels at the site (descriptive indicator). In total, 63% of respondents felt crowded at this site, suggesting that it is nearing over-capacity. Respondent norms showed that no more than approximately 950 people should be allowed. Use levels exceeding 700 people caused respondents to feel moderately or extremely crowded, yet use levels commonly exceeded this threshold. Standards representing these numeric thresholds should be set at this site, and management action is critical (e.g., quotas, reservations, fees, encourage alternative sites). This research contributes to the literature by demonstrating the importance of all four indicators (use levels, encounters, norms, crowding) when investigating overtourism issues, and the potential of UAVs to support the measurement of descriptive indicators.
... 229). However, beliefs that question the accuracy of these technologies have been found to exist among park managers (Lynch et al., 2002), though more recent studies have shown the accuracy of automated visitor counters in estimating visitor use when calibrated appropriately (Greene-Roesel et al., 2008;Jones et al., 2018;Pettebone et al., 2010). Typically, indirect observation technologies like automated visitor counters can be considered less intrusive methods for estimating visitor use. ...
Historically, documenting visitor counts in park, recreation, and tourism spaces has been fraught with challenges that often result in data with questionable reliability and validity. However, these counts are necessary for managers in that they inform budgets, staffing, and policy. The purpose of this methodological study is to detail the processes involved in implementing technology-based counting systems within parks with the goal of assisting managers who wish to modernize visitor counting procedures. The first step involves a detailed site analysis, with considerations specific to park boundaries, access to power sources, the availability of WiFi, and whether lighting is needed for the technology to function. Once the site analysis is completed, the technology options can be considered, with the understanding that the accuracy of the counts will be impacted by visitor flow, focal area of interest, the number of counters utilized, whether visitors must be carrying WiFi-enabled devices to be counted, data transmission options, and access to dynamic features such as those that eliminate double counts. A case study approach was used to demonstrate implementation procedures, focusing on site and technology selection, then moving on to installation considerations, data collection, validation, data analysis, and management implications. The Korean War Veterans Memorial (KOWA), a National Park Service holding located within the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, DC, was selected as an optimal site based on semi-porous boundaries, consistent visitor flows, and ready access to power sources. After consideration of price, privacy, ease of installation, and ready access to data, 3D people counters were the chosen technology. The counters were installed in weatherproofed housings and mounted on lampposts that were situated at the two main entrance sites to the memorial. Analysis of twelve weeks of data indicated that the counting accuracy of the 3D counters was high, minimal modifications were needed, and visitor privacy was retained. A similar methodological approach can be applied by park managers within a wide variety of settings.
... Today, the three-month summer season draws over 300,000 climbers (Jones, Yang, & Yamamoto, 2018). Together with the three million annual visitors to the 5th station trailhead, this has resulted in a cluster of management issues including congested trails, and toilets and trash (Sayama & Nishida, 2001). ...
Iconic Mount Fuji has symbolized the fragmented state of Japan’s ‘multi-purpose’ national park administration. Although the Ministry of Environment (MOE) is the legal administrator, the national parkland is predominantly owned by the Forestry Agency, with many services provided by local governments. This complex combination can result in stakeholders pitted against each other, but listing as a World Heritage Site (WHS) offers an external incentive toward holistic management. This paper reviews Fuji’s 2013 WHS inscription process, analyzing official documents and a series of stakeholder interviews to substantiate claims that it helped catalyze stakeholder collaboration, as demonstrated by a new system of trail signs. A cross-cutting council formed in 2009 issued a set of guidelines aimed at standardization of place names, and the removal of unnecessary or low-quality signs. Subsequently, a simplified system of color-coded signs was introduced along the four climbing trails, epitomizing the new spirit of cooperation. However, more research is needed to verify if the new partnership can extend the collaboration from trail signs to incorporate broader provision of visitor services, and now that the ‘carrot’ of inscription has been achieved, the multi-stakeholder momentum may be difficult to maintain.
Please cite as
2. Pickering, C., Barros, A, Rossi, S.D, and Hernando, A. (2016). What have we learn in the past 12 years about Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected Areas? Current knowledge and future research directions. Abstracts of the 8th International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected Areas, Novi Sad, Serbia, September 26-30, 2016. pp.183-186.
Title: What have we learn in the past 12 years about Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected Areas? Current knowledge and future research directions.
Catherine Pickering, Environment Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Australia. c.pickering@griffith.edu.au
Agustina Barros, Instituto Argentino de Nivología y Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), Centro Científico Tecnológico (CCT) CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina. abarros@conicet-mendoza.gov.ar, anaagustinabarros@gmail.com
Sebastian Dario Rossi, Environment Futures Research Institute, Griffith University, Australia. sebastian.rossi@griffithuni.edu.au
Ana Hernando, Instituto Argentino de Nivología y Glaciología y Ciencias Ambientales (IANIGLA), Centro Científico Tecnológico (CCT) CONICET, Mendoza, Argentina. ana.hernando.j@gmail.com
Introduction
Visitation to recreational and protected areas continues to increase and diversify. This creates both challenges and opportunities for those who engage in these activities and for those who manage the destinations. With increased visitation there can be increasing environmental impacts and potential for social conflict unless appropriately managed. Recognizing the importance of these issues a group of scholars came together in 2002 to provide opportunities for academics and practitioners to exchange information by running multidisciplinary conferences every two years on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in recreational and protected areas (MMV conferences). The first conference was in Vienna, Austria in 2002 Vienna, with subsequent conferences in Rovaniemi, Finland in 2004, Rapperswil, Switzerland in 2006, Montecatini Terme, Italy in 2008, Wageningen, The Netherlands in 2010, Stockholm, Sweden in 2012, Tallinn, Estonia in 2014, and here in Novid Sad, Serbia in 2016 (Figure 1).
The proceedings of these conferences provide snapshots of key issues and research outcomes in this important discipline. By reviewing presentations from the conferences we can assess: (1) who is conducting research on MMV, (2) where is the research conducted, (3) what types of research are presented, (4) what methods are used, (5) are their trends over time in the research presented, and (6) research gaps and future directions for research on managing and monitoring visitors.
Methods
We conducted a Systematic Quantitative Literature Review of the proceedings of the first seven MMV conferences using the methods of Pickering and Byrne (2014). This involved entering data on the abstracts of the core oral presentations at the conference excluding the abstracts for poster sessions, open presentations and keynote speakers. For each of these abstracts information was entered into a personal database on: (1) who did the research including names of authors and their country of affiliation, (2) where the research was conducted including the country where the study was located, and if it was conducted in a protected area, (3) the type of research including if it the presentation was of original research, a report on one or more case studies, a concept paper or a review, (4) the discipline area of the presentation including if it was primarily focused on Environmental, Social, Methodology, Technology and if it included visitor data, what type of data (e.g. if it included information about numbers and/or visitor flows obtained by traffic counters etc).
Results and Discussion
Across the seven proceedings there were 758 conference abstracts for standard oral presentations of which of 80 were from Vienna, Austria in 2002, 57 from Rovaniemi in Finland 2004, 127 from Rapperswil, Switzerland in 2006, 101 from Montecatini Terme, Italy in 2008, 124 from Wageningen, The Netherlands in 2010, 153 from Stockholm, Sweden in 2012, and 116 from Tallinn, Estonia in 2014 conferences. There were a total 1227 authors, with most from USA, Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands, Finland, Australia and Canada. Authors who have multiple papers at the conferences were mostly from Austria including Andreas Muhar (21) Arne Arnberger (18), Wolfgang Haider (16), as well as Dominik Siegrist (12) from Switzerland and Peter Fredman from Sweden (12).
As would be expected for conferences held in Europe, most presentations reported the outcomes of research in Europe (513 presentations), with a strong focus on research from Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Finland (Figure 1). The conferences also included presentations from other parts of the world, including North America (117 papers), Asia (84), Australia and New Zealand (46), South America (12) and Africa (10). There were temporal spikes in the number of presentations based on the location of the conference, with region where the conference was held often well represented that year.
Most of the research has been conducted in national parks or other types of protected areas (438 presentations). National Parks that featured in many presentations included Danube Flood Plains in Austria, Daizetsuzan in Japan and Oulanka in Finland. Outside of protected areas there were studies in ski resorts (13), urban green spaces and other areas (46) among other destinations. Many of the studies looked at recreation and tourism generally (486 studies), while others assesses specific activities such as hiking (151), mountain biking (69), and skiing (27).
Most of the oral presentations were of original research (487) or case studies/reports (115), with some presentations in the form of reviews (81), concept papers (30) or focused on developments in methodology (45). There was a strong emphasis across conferences on the social sciences with 622 presentations on social studies. This included 416 presentations assessing visitors, 90 assessing local communities and 40 assessing government organizations with some assessing combinations of these three. In contrast there were only 231 presentations on the environment, many of which assessed the environmental impacts of trails. Reflecting advances in technology there were 197 presentations focused on technology including 50 reporting on computer simulation models, 37 on types of traffic counters and 30 reporting on GPS trackers and/or hand held digital devices.
Although the relative dominance of presentations for different fields of research (i.e. social, environmental, technology) has remained relatively constant over time, there are some important trends in the topics presented. Between 2002-2014, social science presentations transitioned from data on visitor socio-demographics to presentations also looking at factors affecting visitation such as perceptions, attitudes, motivations and social values. The types of visitor data collected has also expanded from data on visitor numbers to also include data on visitor behavior and movements captured through technologies including GPS trackers, smartphones and social media. Within environmental presentations, there has been a trend from studies focusing on recreation impacts on terrestrial vegetation and wildlife to include marine ecosystems.
Conclusions and future research directions
The MMV conferences are important outlets for research on a wide range of topics relating to managing and monitoring visitors, particularly social science research including visitor data. It also likely there will be increasing focus on presentations involving the analysis of ‘big data’ from hand held technology and social media including geolocated images at future conferences. We also need to more presentation from countries in South America and Africa.
Figure 1. Geographical distribution of the location of studies from 758 oral presentations given in the first seven Managing and Monitoring Visitors in recreational and protected areas conferences.
References
Pickering, C.M. and Byrne, J. (2014). The benefits of publishing systematic quantitative literature reviews for PhD candidates and other early career researchers. Higher Education Research and Development. 33: 534-548.
Arnberger, A., Brandenburg, C. and Muhar, A. (editors) (2002). The 1st International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas. Vienna, Australia, 30th January-2nd February, 2002.
Soevamem, T., Erkkonen, J., Jokimaki, J., Saarinen, J., Tuulentie, S. and Viratanen, E. (editors) (2004). The 2nd International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Policies, Method and Tools for Visitor Management. Rovaniemi, Finland, 16-20 June, 2004.
Siegrist, D., Clivaz, C., Hunziker, M. and Iten, S. (editors) (2006). The 3rd International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Exploring the Nature of Management. Rapperswil, Switzerland, 13-17th of September, 2006.
Raschi, A. and Trampetti, S. (editors) (2008). The 4th International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Management for Protection and Sustainable Development. Montecatini Terme, Italy, 14-19 October, 2008.
Goossen, M., Elands, B. and van Marwijk, R. (editors) (2010). The 5th International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Recreation, Tourism and Nature in a Changing World. Wageningen, The Netherlands 30 May-3 June, 2010.
Fredman, P., Stenseke, M., Liljendahl, H., Mossing, A. and Laven, D. (editors) (2012). The 6th International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Outdoor Recreation in Change – Current Knowledge and Future Challenges. Stockholm, Sweden, August 21-24, 2012.
Reimann, M., Sepp, K., Parna, K. and Tuula R. (editors) (2014). The 7th International Conference on Monitoring and Management of Visitors in Recreational and Protected areas: Local Community and Outdoor Recreation. Tallin Estonia, 20-23 August, 2014.
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Nature-based tourism (NBT), including visits to protected areas such as national parks, is said to rank among the tourism sector’s fastest growing segments. However, protected area visitation statistics can be inaccurate or unreliable, leading to mixed messages when trends are extrapolated to national level. This paper examines one such case using empirical evidence to investigate the reported decline in visits to Japan’s national parks. First, trends in domestic and international visitors are examined at the national level. Next, the case study of Kamikochi in the Japan Alps is introduced to assess challenges in monitoring emerging NBT segments, epitomized here by inbound visitors. Findings suggest that current monitoring methods are not yet sufficient to track visitor diversification, resulting in underreported segments such as inbound visitors whose profiles and behaviour differs from conventional domestic NBT. However, the Ministry of Environment, which administers Japan’s national parks, is aware of the increasingly heterogeneous visitor spectrum, and taking steps to track the evolving range of variables that shape visitation by examining domestic and international visitors at national and local levels. This study’s twin-segment approach uses multiple-scale case studies to revisit the debate over improved visitation data. Lessons learned from visit trends in Japan’s national parks underline the importance of targeted monitoring of segments due to changes in NBT demand.
Park and protected area visitors are important. They have political, economic, social and ecological impacts. Much of a reserve’s staff time and operational funds are dedicated to assisting, supporting and managing human use. Much of a reserve’s planning and development activities are centered on human factors. The same information needed by managers is also often important to residents and business people from local communities. All of the people living on the routes traveled by park visitors will be influenced by the flow of people to and from the park.
All management is dependent upon information. The better the quality of information; the better the opportunity for good management. Information about the visitors and their activities enables managers to deal with the challenge of increasing volumes of tourism.
This manual describes terms, approaches and techniques for gathering information about public use of parks and protected areas. The goal of the manual is to supply the information necessary to meet the needs of park and protected area management in this rapidly changing field.
The relationship between encounters and the overall quality of recreation experience is one of the most common research topics in outdoor recreation. Yet after more than three decades of study, there remain divergent opinions about both the nature of this relationship and its implications for use limits. Evidence for a strong influence of encounters on experience quality is weak but it is unclear whether this means the relationship itself is weak or that the methods used to isolate the relationship have been inadequate. This paper explores relationships between number of encounters, crowding, solitude/privacy achieved, and overall experience quality for 185 backcountry visitors to Grand Canyon National Park. In contrast to most past research, we employed a diary-like method to control for variation in person-based effects (e.g., differences in expectations and motivations between individuals) and we used a multi-item scale to capture more variation in total experience quality. Our results indicate that there is a consistently negative but weak relationship between number of encounters and experience quality. In other words, most backpackers were negatively affected by encountering more groups, but the resultant effect was small. This implies that managers should be reluctant to justify use restrictions on the basis of higher quality experiences and that user-based empirical research is of limited utility in grappling with such restrictions. Echoing the 35-year-old suggestions of Wagar, the original student of recreational carrying capacity, a careful understanding of the regional supply and demand for different types of recreation experiences, including low density experiences, are more likely to provide the basis for wise decisions about use limits.
Park tourism is a large and important activity on which a substantial body of research work has been published. This paper reviews that work in the light of the issues now faced by parks and park tourism, and argues that there are significant research gaps that urgently need additional work. The paper outlines 10 such areas, including: visitor use monitoring; park tourism economic impact monitoring; park finance; professional competencies for tourism management; building public support; visitor satisfaction; licenses, permits, leases, and concessions for tourism; pricing policies; management capacity; and park tourism governance. The paper suggests that work in these areas is so important that the long term political and social relevance, effective management and sustainable future of many parks and protected areas depend on the results. It points to the park creation phase being over after about 150 years of growth, and the need to move more effectively into the long-term management phase. A number of key questions arise. The numerous parks must fulfill their conservation mandate and they must be financially secure. They almost certainly must forge links to tourism, yet not be dominated by tourism's demands, creating, therefore, a new and sustainable research-based relationship.
The quality of existing data about the use of urban trails is poor, and planners need better data to plan new trails and manage existing ones. This note presents descriptive analyses of pedestrian and bicycle traffic counts taken with infrared counters on urban multiuse greenway trails in Indiana during the fall 2000 and spring 2001. Monthly traffic, average daily, weekday, and weekend traffic, and average hourly and peak hour traffic are presented for trails in six municipalities and for five locations on one trail in Indianapolis. Trail traffic was higher in municipalities with larger populations and higher on weekend days than on weekdays. Peak hour traffic accounted for higher proportions of traffic on weekdays than on weekend days. Traffic at different locations on one trail in Indianapolis varied considerably. Planners can use these results to estimate the demand for proposed trails, describe congestion, as inputs to benefit-cost analyses and level of service studies, and help manage use.
The objective of this paper is to present a systematic overview on methods used for visitor monitoring in recreational areas. Emphasis is given on quantitative methods such as direct observation, video observation, counting devices and registration books. The various approaches are discussed with regard to practical, legal and organisational aspects, such as costs, maintenance requirements, dependence on infrastructure (e.g. electricity), risk of vandalism or suitability for remote and ecologically sensitive locations. For the design of a visitor monitoring scheme in a specific recreational area it is necessary to determine the best combination of devices and methods, depending on the objectives of the monitoring program. This relates also to the temporal resolution of monitoring activities (permanent, periodic, selective). In areas where the recreational use is largely depending on external factors such as weather, daytime and season, the representativity of a sampling scheme becomes crucial for the statistic validity of the obtained data. As visitor monitoring can also be regarded as an interference with the privacy of the persons being monitored, ethic aspects of the application of the various methods must also be addressed.
This paper examined perceived crowding using 615 evaluation contexts obtained from 181 studies that used a 9-point scale. Four methods for summarizing the crowding scale were highly correlated (r ≥ .90) across all evaluation contexts. Four independent variables (year study was conducted, region of United States, country, specific activity) affected perceived crowding for both the collapsed scale and the mean of the scale. One factor, specific location of the encounter, only affected perceived crowding for the percentages, not the mean. Consumptive versus nonconsumptive activities had no effect on perceived crowding. Using capacity judgment standards, 40% of the 615 evaluation contexts were in the suppressed crowding category, 16% were over capacity and 9% were greatly over capacity.
Information on visitor flow is fundamental to the management of recreation areas. Without such data, recreation managers cannot
develop appropriate action plans to maintain a healthy ecosystem and the quality of visitor experiences. Little attention
has been paid in Japan on estimating the exact number of visitors to a facility, especially in multi-trailhead systems. A
new study in Daisetsuzan National Park, northern Japan, develops a systematic method of estimating visitor flow in complicated
trail systems using infrared trail traffic counters and self-registration books. The focus is on using self-registration data
that has been underutilized in USA and European countries. Results show that the estimated number of trekkers, 124,000, is
almost twice that estimated using only self-registration data, which is commonly adopted by recreation managers as an official
number of trekkers. In addition, this method enables us to detect considerable time-series variations of trekker number on
any specific trailhead and assists planning measures to combat overuse of segments of the trail system. However, characteristic
of this method is that the estimators are biased, and always underestimates. And the smaller the number of visitors at a low-used
trailhead, the larger the error is likely to be. Furthermore, an extremely high rate of one-way-trip trekkers on self-registration
data invites a critical error. We must also draw attention to the flaws, when we implement this method.
Identifying the physical behaviours of visitors is an essential component of visitor impact management in protected areas. The fundamental baseline information required is visitor numbers, and particularly how these are distributed in time and space across the protected areas. However, obtaining such counts in a reliable and cost-effective manner has proven to be more difficult than commonly expected. Reasons for this difficulty are reviewed, the range of visitor monitoring options available to park managers are described, and the features that park managers want in their visitor counting tools are summarised. The management requirements for implementing and operating an effective monitoring system are also presented.
Data on visitor use are essential to the planning and management of National Park units in order to assess visitor impacts to the resource, estimate the quality of the visitor experience, and to inform facilities planning. Recently, automated infrared monitors have become a popular tool to estimate visitor-use levels at attraction sites and along trails in national parks and related protected natural areas. However, there are counting errors associated with all automated counters, thus procedures are required to convert raw counter data to accurate estimates of recreational use. The purpose of this study was to assess the performance (i.e., degree of error) of automated trail traffic counters and document procedures to correct counting errors associated with their use to measure visitor use. This study was conducted in Yosemite National Park in the summer of 2007 and used automated visitor counters to estimate visitor use at attraction sites and trailheads in Yosemite Valley. A total of 135 h of direct observation counts were conducted in tandem with the use of automated counters at six study sites to estimate counting errors in the automated counter data. A series of statistical procedures was used to calibrate raw monitor data to accurate estimates of visitor use at each of the study sites. Results of the study suggest there is a strong statistical relationship between observation-based visitor counts and monitor counts (R2 > 0.95), which supports confidence in the use of monitors to estimate recreational use in national parks and protected natural areas.
Protected areas are key to conservation of biodiversity, and Australia is one of the world's megadiverse regions. Monitoring programs provide the information to assess the state of conservation resources, the severity of threats and the success of management responses. Here we compare the management priorities, monitoring priorities and actual monitoring practices of protected area management agencies in Australia, using four sets of data at continental scale and five at a more restricted regional scale. We track changes over a period of several years and focus at successively finer levels of detail. At both continental and regional scales, most management plans emphasise fire, invasive species and visitor management; and most monitoring programmes refer to visitor numbers and impacts as well as species and ecosystems. There is only a weak match, however, between reported management priorities and actual monitoring programmes; and the effectiveness of management responses is rarely monitored. The level of detail in visitor monitor programmes varies considerably: most parks count visitors, but few know what those visitors do. Threats from fire and invasive species receive more attention that those from recreation. At regional scale, the proportion of parks with defined monitoring programmes and priorities increased significantly from 2003/2004 to 2006/2007. Whilst only a proportion of protected areas monitor endangered species populations, for those that do this is the parameter reported in most detail, with many parks reporting single records of single individuals. Some parks also maintain anecdotal records of rare species outside routine monitoring programs. Yes Yes
Background
Promotion of physical activity is a public health priority, and environmental factors influence physical activity behavior. Valid and reliable automated measurement tools of physical activity for assessment and evaluation within public settings are needed.
Methods
Searches of the research literature and governmental reports from physical activity, transportation, and recreation fields were conducted to identify methods of automated counting and validation studies. The article provides a summary of (a) current methods and uses of automated counters, (b) information about validity and reliability where available, (c) strengths and limitations of each method, and (d) measurement issues.
Results
Existing automated counting technology has strengths and limitations. Infrared sensors have been the most commonly used type of monitor and can mark date and time of passage, but are vulnerable to errors due to environmental conditions; cannot detect more than one person passing at a time; cannot identify mode of activity or distinguish among individuals; and lack consistent and adequate reliability for use in open spaces. Seismic devices and inductive loops may be useful for specific applications. More information is needed concerning the validity and reliability of infrared sensors, seismic devices, and inductive loops for confined areas. Computer imaging systems hold potential to address some of the limitations of other automated counters and for applications in both confined and open areas, but validation research is in the initial stages.
Conclusions
Although automated monitoring is a promising method for measurement of physical activity, more research is necessary to determine the acceptable parameters of performance for each type of automated monitor and for which applications each is best suited.
Visitor monitoring is the essential management effort to make planning and management reasonable in national parks. Exact visitor statistics make managers possible to evaluate effectiveness of current management practices and facilities, and to predict future trends and demands to the park. In this study, we asked park managers to answer the current status and problems regarding with visitor monitoring which includes counting number of visitors and visitor survey. As the results, visitor counting and visitor survey have been conducted in most parks. Park managers recognized the importance and necessity of visitor monitoring. Nevertheless, they are concerned about the lack of budget and staff, and the reliability of monitoring methods. It is considered that standardized monitoring method and devices should be distributed, and sufficient budget and personnel training are necessary.
We have used two different statistical methods to model the dependence of visitor attendance levels for various user types in nature conservation areas on the day of the week and weather conditions. Both approaches – linear regression and regression trees – have been applied to data from a case study in an Austrian national park. The resulting models have been compared in regard to their descriptive quality, their interpretability, and their relevance for management practice.Reliable models based on linear regression were obtained for the daily totals of visitors as well as for specific user groups with high visitor loads, i.e. hikers and bikers. Both the day of the week and various meteorological variables were found to have significant influence on the visitor numbers. Linear regressions for the usage patterns of joggers and dog walkers were much less successful, suggesting only weak dependence on day of the week and weather related factors for these user groups.The regression trees based on meteorological data and the day of the week also work well for daily totals and bikers, slightly less so for hikers. The model quality was again much worse for smaller visitor groups as dog walkers and joggers. The most elaborate relationship between meteorological data and visitor numbers was found for hikers, whereas joggers appear to be completely oblivious to weather.A direct comparison between linear regression and regression trees shows comparable predictive power, with slight advantages for the linear regression, whereas the regression trees allow a simple visual assessment of the results and their relevance for managerial decisions, especially with regard to the identification of typical weather scenarios and the associated visitor attendance levels.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the reasons that keep individuals from participating in three nature-based tourism activities registering limited growth in contrast with the increasing popularity of tourism in general. The three-dimensional leisure constraints model was used as the theoretical framework for the study. The sample consisted of nature enthusiasts from several US states who showed an interest in nature tourism but did not participate in the selected activities during the last two years. Confirmatory factor analysis partially supported the three-dimensional model across the activities. Repeated measures comparisons showed that the importance of leisure constraints varied across them within the same group of individuals.RésuméLes contraintes au tourisme de la nature : une comparaison d’activités multiples. Le but de cet article est d’examiner les raisons qui empêchent des individus de participer à trois activités du tourisme basé sur la nature, qui montre une croissance limitée par rapport à la popularité croissante du tourisme en général. Le modèle de Crawford et Godbey des contraintes à trois dimensions pour les loisirs a été utilisé comme cadre théorique de l’étude. L’échantillon représentatif consistait d’enthousiastes de la nature venus de plusieurs états des Etats-Unis et qui manifestaient un intérêt pour le tourisme de la nature mais qui n’ont pas participé aux activités choisies dans les deux dernières années. Une analyse factorielle confirmatoire a appuyé le modèle à trois dimensions pour toutes les activités. Des comparaisons de mesurage répété ont montré que l’importance des contraintes des loisirs a varié pour les activités avec le même groupe d’individus.
Indicators and standards of quality have emerged as key variables in defining and managing carrying capacity. Moreover, normative theory has been found useful when applied to the difficult task of setting standards of quality. However, the traditional numerical approach to measuring crowding and related norms has several potential shortcomings when applied to relatively high‐use areas such as frontcountry attraction sites. This study applies a visual approach to measuring crowding norms in addition to the traditional numerical approach. The study is focused on Delicate Arch, a primary visitor attraction in Arches National Park, Utah. Image capture technology was used to develop a series of 16 photographs illustrating a range of people at one time at Delicate Arch. A random sample of 473 visitors was asked to rate the acceptability of each photograph as part of a survey conducted in the summer and fall of 1993. A strong relationship was found between the number of people in the photographs and acceptability ratings. Moreover, there was considerable consensus among the sample regarding acceptability ratings of each photograph, and respondent evaluations of actual use conditions experienced were generally congruent with the social norm developed. These findings suggest an empirically rational basis for setting a standard of quality for crowding at Delicate Arch. However, the normative standards developed from the visual and traditional numerical approaches were found to differ substantially. The theoretical and empirical literature on norms suggests that the visual approach may provide a more valid measure of crowding norms in relatively high‐use areas.
The United Nations Environment Programme’s Principles on Implementation of Sustainable Tourism suggest that implementing sustainable tourism must include monitoring visitor use of protected natural areas and directing it to areas where the environmental and social impacts of tourism are minimised. Thus, sustainable tourism management requires information about the spatial and temporal flow of visitor use in protected natural areas to help identify potential tourism-related threats to the natural and cultural resources of an area and the quality of visitors’ experiences. Recent research has identified at least four ways in which simulation modelling of visitor use can facilitate more informed planning and management of sustainable tourism in protected natural areas, including (1) describing existing visitor use flows; (2) monitoring the condition of ‘hard to measure’ indicator variables; (3) testing the effectiveness of alternative visitor use management practices; and (4) guiding the design of research on public attitudes. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate, using findings from studies conducted in the Inyo National Forest and Isle Royale National Park, USA, each of these four potential contributions of computer simulation to sustainable tourism management and planning. The paper concludes with an assessment of the limitations of existing applications of computer simulation to nature-based tourism and recommendations for future research.
National parks in close proximity to large urban areas, such as the Danube Floodplains National Park near Vienna, need an intensive monitoring of recreational use due to the high number of visitors and the highly fragmented natural settings. Visitors in the National Park were monitored using an approach that integrated long-term video monitoring, counts by human observers, specific visitor interviews and route analysis by the application of GIS tools. The combination of monitoring and survey data allows a thorough analysis of public use patterns, as illustrated by a case study of dog walkers in the park. Results demonstrate the value of integrated monitoring approaches, and serve as a basis for improved sustainable management of the Danube Floodplains National Park.
Reviews the conceptual and empirical literature that supports the notion that crowding in outdoor recreation is a normative concept. It is indicated that crowding norms are influenced by visitor characteristics, characteristics of those encountered, and situational variables. Several management and research implications are developed based on review and synthesis of the crowding literature in outdoor recreation. It is concluded that it may be possible to manage crowding without limiting density. (77 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Summary Visitation levels are on the rise in protected areas throughout the world. In response, many icon sites are showing signs of overuse and more protected-area managers report tourism and recreation as threats to sustainable management. Clearly, there is a growing need to assess (monitor) and manage visitors to mitigate their impacts. In this paper, we articulate why targeted visitor-impact monitoring matters and highlight how existing monitoring programmes fail to deliver the necessary information to protected-area managers. We suggest that the availability and quality of visitor data are currently insufficient to facilitate the development of proactive management strategies in most protected areas. We call for more scale-sensitive (time and space) collection of visitor load and environmental (response) data. Specifically, since icon sites (like waterfalls and mountain peaks) are the focus of visitor motivations and activities, we highlight the case for proactive assessment, management and reporting of condition at these sites. Ultimately, visitor trends will be influenced by visitor management. If visitor activities degrade the icon, the financial benefits of tourism and recreation to a protected area may not be sustainable. In addition, the conservation and protection objectives of the protected area will also not be met.
The Japanese are traditionally regarded as nature-loving people, living in harmony with nature. However, this assumption is difficult to accept when observing the environmental problems in Japan. How can one explain the incongruities? Has the Japanese people's attitude toward nature changed as Japan has modernized? Is the concept of the nature-loving Japanese merely a myth? Is there another reason to explain this contradiction? This study shows political and economic origins of the paradox. The origin of the Japanese traditional idea of nature is fear and reverence of nature based on a primitive religion that developed in a rural subsistence living situation. Aesthetic and spiritual values of nature for cultural, educational, and intellectual entertainment were developed by the ruling class in the seventh century. Japan's first nature conservation movement, imported from the West, developed among the intellectual community and was advocated and promoted by the elite in the Meiji period (1868–1911). However, because deep commitment was lacking, the movement was abused by the military government before World War II. In the early 1970s the nature conservation movement seemed to be on the ascendancy, mainly because it was combined with the antipollution movement claiming the basic rights of survival. The Japanese nature conservation movement is still in the embryonic stage; in the future, the blending of some traditional resource management with the scientific philosophy of nature conservation may help promote the new wave of nature conservation in Japan.
Visitor monitoring is an increasingly common and important aspect of the management of informal recreation resources in the UK. A semi-structured interview process was undertaken involving a selection of organisations concerned with management of recreation and conservation resources. The management functions for which data is used are considered and the approaches used to monitor visitors assessed. Perceptions of the value of the information are discussed, and some examples of innovative mechanisms for applying the data are described. Finally, the relationship between the processes of data collection and application are analysed. This paper describes research which follows on from that reported in Cope and Hill (1997. Countryside recreation Network News 5(2), 10,11).
Parks and Carrying Capacity is an important new work for faculty, graduate and undergraduate students, and researchers in outdoor recreation, park planning and management, and natural resource conservation and management, as well as for professional planners and managers involved with park and outdoor recreation related agencies and nongovernmental organizations.
Two visitor-monitoring methods, video monitoring and counts by human observers, were compared in order to identify and evaluate their respective advantages and disadvantages. The analysis considered user numbers, user type (walkers, dog walkers, bicyclists, and joggers) and group size of visitors. Remarkable differences were found between the two methods for user type and use levels. At low use levels, evaluations based on video monitoring resulted in fewer single bicyclists compared to counts by human observers, whereas at high use levels, human observers counted fewer walkers and bikers than video-interpreters. Based on this comparative analysis, we derive recommendations for more effective visitor-monitoring approaches. All data were collected during a visitor-monitoring project in the Danube Floodplains National Park in Austria between 1998 and 1999.
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