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Ninety one fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) germplasm lines collected from various geographical locations in India were evaluated for their essential oil content and its composition. Essential oil content ranged from 1.0 to 3.3%. Maximum lines had 2–3% essential oil. In all the germplasm lines eleven major compounds including α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, myrcene, cymene, γ-terpinene, 4-allyl anisole/methyl chavicol or estragol, anethole, geranyl acetate and p-anisaldehyde were detected . Anethole was most abundant compound in all fennel germplasm lines which ranged from a minimum of 9.15% to a maximum of 96.64% with an average of 44.33%.Another predominant compound observed in essential oil of fennel germplasm lines was 4-allyl anisole/methyl chavicol or estragol, content of which ranged between 2.04 to 83.01%. A group of terpenoids consisting of α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, myrcene, cymene and γ-terpinene accounted for 0.18 to 18.66% of essential oil of which γ-terpinene was contributed from a minimum of 0.13 % to a maximum of 14.95%. A significant negative correlation (r = -0.98) was observed between related compounds anethole with 4-ally anisole and γ-terpinene (r = -0.42). Further, the germplasm lines were grouped in different classes as per major essential oil constituents viz., anethol, γ-terpinene and 4-allyl anisole. Cluster analysis was done using ward’s method based on the value of γ-terpinene, 4-ally anisole and anethole+estragol which resulted in to seven distinct groups of 91 germplasm lines.
Methanolic extract of dried Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Miller) seeds was analyzed for the presence of bioreactive compounds: ascorbate, riboflavin, tocopherol and polyphenols with potential antioxidant properties. The extract had low ascorbate (197.12+1.82µg), riboflavin (11.97+0.35µg) and tocopherol (280.33+5.67µg/g dry seeds) content. However the extract had high polyphenol content (16.506+0.32mg/g dry seeds). Antioxidant activity of the extract was determined by various mechanisms including DPPH free radical scavenging, metal induced protein and lipid oxidation inhibition and protection of DNA against H2O2 induced damage. Fennel had excellent free radical scavenging activity with IC50 2.1mg dry seed weight. IC50 observed for protection of proteins and lipids against metal ion induced oxidation is 2.1 and 2.5mg dry seed weight respectively. Extract equivalent to 0.5µg seeds is enough to protect DNA against H2O2 induced oxidation. The results suggest that polyphenols are the principal components responsible for high antioxidant potential of methanolic extract of fennel.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill commonly called fennel has been used in traditional medicine for a wide range of ailments related to digestive, endocrine, reproductive, and respiratory systems. Additionally, it is also used as a galactagogue agent for lactating mothers. The review aims to gather the fragmented information available in the literature regarding morphology, ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of Foeniculum vulgare. It also compiles available scientific evidence for the ethnobotanical claims and to identify gaps required to be filled by future research. Findings based on their traditional uses and scientific evaluation indicates that Foeniculum vulgare remains to be the most widely used herbal plant. It has been used for more than forty types of disorders. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of numerous valuable compounds, such as volatile compounds, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and amino acids. Compiled data indicate their efficacy in several in vitro and in vivo pharmacological properties such as antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, antinociceptive, antipyretic, antispasmodic, antithrombotic, apoptotic, cardiovascular, chemomodulatory, antitumor, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and memory enhancing property. Foeniculum vulgare has emerged as a good source of traditional medicine and it provides a noteworthy basis in pharmaceutical biology for the development/formulation of new drugs and future clinical uses.
Background
In traditional medicine whole plants or mixtures of plants are used rather than isolated compounds. There is evidence that crude plant extracts often have greater in vitro or/and in vivo antiplasmodial activity than isolated constituents at an equivalent dose. The aim of this paper is to review positive interactions between components of whole plant extracts, which may explain this.
Methods
Narrative review.
Results
There is evidence for several different types of positive interactions between different components of medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria. Pharmacodynamic synergy has been demonstrated between the Cinchona alkaloids and between various plant extracts traditionally combined. Pharmacokinetic interactions occur, for example between constituents of Artemisia annua tea so that its artemisinin is more rapidly absorbed than the pure drug. Some plant extracts may have an immunomodulatory effect as well as a direct antiplasmodial effect. Several extracts contain multidrug resistance inhibitors, although none of these has been tested clinically in malaria. Some plant constituents are added mainly to attenuate the side-effects of others, for example ginger to prevent nausea.
Conclusions
More clinical research is needed on all types of interaction between plant constituents. This could include clinical trials of combinations of pure compounds (such as artemisinin + curcumin + piperine) and of combinations of herbal remedies (such as Artemisia annua leaves + Curcuma longa root + Piper nigum seeds). The former may enhance the activity of existing pharmaceutical preparations, and the latter may improve the effectiveness of existing herbal remedies for use in remote areas where modern drugs are unavailable.
Anethum graveolens Linn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill. and Trachyspermum ammi L. are widely used traditional medicinal plants to treat various ailments. To provide a scientific basis to traditional uses of these plants, their aqueous and organic seed extracts, as well as isolated phytoconstituents were evaluated for their antibacterial potential.
Antibacterial activity of aqueous and organic seed extracts was assessed using agar diffusion assay, minimum inhibitory concentration and viable cell count studies; and their antibacterial effect was compared with some standard antibiotics. The presence of major phytoconstituents was detected qualitatively and quantitatively. The isolated phytoconstituents were subjected to disc diffusion assay to ascertain their antibacterial effect.
Hot water and acetone seed extracts showed considerably good antibacterial activity against all the bacteria except Klebsiella pneumoniae and one strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Minimum inhibitory concentration for aqueous and acetone seed extracts ranged from 20-80 mg/ml and 5-15 mg/ml respectively. Viable cell count studies revealed the bactericidal nature of the seed extracts. Statistical analysis proved the better/equal efficacy of some of these seed extracts as compared to standard antibiotics. Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of 2.80 - 4.23% alkaloids, 8.58 - 15.06% flavonoids, 19.71 - 27.77% tannins, 0.55-0.70% saponins and cardiac glycosides.
Antibacterial efficacy shown by these plants provides a scientific basis and thus, validates their traditional uses as homemade remedies. Isolation and purification of different phytochemicals may further yield significant antibacterial agents.
Hepatoprotective activity of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) essential oil (FEO) was studied using carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) induced liver injury model in rats. The hepatotoxicity produced by acute CCl(4) administration was found to be inhibited by FEO with evidence of decreased levels of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and bilirubin. The results of this study indicate that FEO has a potent hepatoprotective action against CCl(4)-induced hepatic damage in rats.
Ethanol, methanol and aqueous extracts of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. seeds were investigated for in vitro antibacterial screening by Agar well and Disc diffusion method against Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus vulgaris, Enterobacter aerogeus, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus. In Both agarwell and disc diffusion methods, the highest inhibition zone was found in aqueous extracts. It showed greater activity against the maximum tested bacteria followed by ethanol and methanol extract. The preliminary results of this study indicate that the aqueous seed extracts have potentials for antibacterial activity.
Anti-microbial properties of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) seed extract
- D Agarwal
- L K Sharma
- S N Saxena
Agarwal D, Sharma LK, Saxena SN (2017) Anti-microbial properties
of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) seed extract. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 64(4): 479-482.
Study on genotypic variation in chemical profiling and medicinal properties of seed spices crops
- D Agarwal
Agarwal D (2017) Study on genotypic variation in chemical profiling
and medicinal properties of seed spices crops. Ph.D. thesis submitted
to Pacific University, Udaipur, India.