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1,5-Dimethylhexylamine (Octodrine) in Sports and Weight Loss Supplements: Natural Constituent or Synthetic Chemical?
Abstract
In the past years, there has been a mounting trend toward the addition of sympathomimetic stimulants in sports and weight loss supplements sold in the US and claimed to be from natural constituents. The latest among those pharmaceutical stimulants is 1,5-dimethylhexylamine (1,5-DMHA or octodrine), an ingredient in newly introduced sports and weight loss supplements with its 'natural' origin being cited from Aconitum or Kigelia plants. In order to validate the natural existence of 1,5-DMHA, two GC/MS methods were developed. One method involved using thick film megabore capillary columns to analyze the underivatized 1,5-DMHA. The second method was to determine enantiomeric distribution of 1,5-DMHA. Fifteen Aconitum or Kigelia plant samples originating from various locations were analyzed, and none of them contained 1,5-DMHA within the limit of detection (25 ng/mL) of the method. In contrast, although 1,5-DMHA was listed on the labels or website for all the 13 dietary supplements, only four products were found to contain this compound, with the highest quantity being reported as 112 mg per serving size. This is equivalent to more than three times the highest pharmaceutical dose established in Europe. The enantiomeric ratios of 1,5-DMHA in these products were determined to be between 0.9-1.0 (expressed as peak area ratio of one enantiomer over another), suggesting racemic nature. Interestingly, two byproducts from 1,5-DMHA synthesis were identified in commercial supplements containing 1,5-DMHA, indicating that 1,5-DMHA indeed originated from a poor quality source. Overall, the significant amount of 1,5-DMHA observed in the supplements, the enantiomeric distribution and the presence of the synthetic byproducts all suggested the synthetic origin of 1,5-DMHA in the commercial products.
... DMHA has been placed in the Prohibited List of doping agents from group S6 -Stimulants since 2020. [214,222] In the RASFF panel, DMHA has been notified as an unauthorized substance. [17] Based on the analyzed scientific literature, it can be concluded that since 2006, a greater number of new plant-based components have been used in dietary supplements, especially in those targeted to people who show increased physical activity, and their components have not been medically confirmed. ...
... Dietary supplement producers often mention only the botanical name of the plant in their product descriptions, without giving information to consumers about the stimulants present within. [214,217,222] The alkyl group in R 1 and/or R 2 position increases the lipophilicity of the molecule, enhances the psychostimulatory effect, extends the duration of effect, and is responsible for the nonselective stimulation of αand β-adrenergic receptors. A larger group in R 1 substituent increases the toxicity of the compound, e. g., aegeline ( Table 1). ...
... DMHA has been placed in the Prohibited List of doping agents from group S6 -Stimulants since 2020. [214,222] In the RASFF panel, DMHA has been notified as an unauthorized substance. [17] Based on the analyzed scientific literature, it can be concluded that since 2006, a greater number of new plant-based components have been used in dietary supplements, especially in those targeted to people who show increased physical activity, and their components have not been medically confirmed. ...
... Dietary supplement producers often mention only the botanical name of the plant in their product descriptions, without giving information to consumers about the stimulants present within. [214,217,222] The alkyl group in R 1 and/or R 2 position increases the lipophilicity of the molecule, enhances the psychostimulatory effect, extends the duration of effect, and is responsible for the nonselective stimulation of αand β-adrenergic receptors. A larger group in R 1 substituent increases the toxicity of the compound, e. g., aegeline ( Table 1). ...
This review focuses on four new product categories of food supplements: pre‐workout, fat burner/thermogenic, brain/cognitive booster, and hormone/testosterone booster. Many food supplements have been shown to be contaminated with unauthorized substances. In some cases, the ingredients in the new categories of dietary supplements were medicinal products or new synthetic compounds added without performing clinical trials. Some of the new ingredients in dietary supplements are plant materials that are registered in the pharmacopoeia as herbal medicines. In other cases, dietary supplements may contain plant materials that have no history of human use and are often used as materials to “camouflage” stimulants. In the European Union, new ingredients of dietary supplements, according to European Food Safety Authority or unauthorized novel food. Furthermore, selected ingredients in dietary supplements may be prohibited in sports and are recognized as doping agents by World Anti‐Doping Agency.
... With the improvement of people's living standards, obesity has become a public health issue of common concern to adults and even adolescents [1,2], thus resulted in an immense sales of the weight-loss healthcare products on e-commerce platforms [3,4]. However, the events that some unlawful manufacturers added western medicine to healthcare foods to achieve the claimed efficacy of the products have been frequently exposed [5][6][7][8]. Currently, traditional weight-loss western medicines such as sibutramine [9,10], phenolphthalein [10] and metformin [11] are usually detected from food-related products. ...
Objective
This study is aimed to screen, identify and detect illegal additives from healthcare products which claim or imply to have weight-loss effects.
Method
Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadruple-time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) was employed to perform non-targeted screening of illegal additives from a total of 26 batches of healthcare products with weight-loss effects. A novel oxyphenisatin dipropionate analog was discovered in a fruit-flavored jelly that was not clearly labeled as containing added drugs. After being separated and purified by silica gel column chromatography, the analog was unambiguously characterized by one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopies. The molecular structure of the analog was finally identified by comparing the spectra of the analog with those of suspected candidates prepared by de novo synthesis strategy. Thereafter, a sensitive and precise reversed phase ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array (UPLC-PDA) detection method was developed and verified for the determination of the analog in 15 batches of real samples.
Results
In the MS/MS spectra, the signal intensity of mass/charge ratios (m/z, 242 and 214) of the novel analog fragments was highly similar to that of mass/charge ratios (m/z, 224 and 196) of oxyphenisatin dipropionate fragments. Additionally, the 1D NMR spectrum of the analog was completely consistent with that of one of the suspected candidates prepared by the de novo synthesis strategy. Based on the above analysis, the structure of the analog was determined as 3,3-bis[4'-(propionyloxy)phenyl]-6-fluoro-2-oxoindoline, which was briefly named 6-F oxyphenisatin dipropionate. A developed quantitative method showed good linearity (R² > 0.999) in a concentration range of 1.0–100 μg/mL. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for the analog was 3 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, respectively. The average recoveries of the analog from spiked three different matrix samples in low (1 time of LOQ), medium (2 times of LOQ), and high (10 times of LOQ) concentrations were varied from 93.9 % to 107.8 % with a precision of 0.03–1.56 %. Results of quantitative analysis in 15 batches of healthcare products revealed that the content of 6-F oxyphenisatin dipropionate in a fruit-flavored jelly and a solid beverage was 118 mg/kg and 330 mg/kg, respectively.
Conclusion
In terms of its structure, 6-F oxyphenisatin dipropionate replaces hydrogen atom by the fluorine atom at position 6 on the indolinone fragment in oxyphenisatin dipropionate. To our best knowledge, 6-F oxyphenisatin dipropionate has never been detected as an illegal additive in foods. Such illegal addition of the analog to foods is more concealing, thus the supervision and testing departments should attach great importance to its application in food markets.
... Publikacje z roku 2017/2018, informują o nowym składniku psychostymulującym z grupy prostych amin, obecnym w suplementach diety czyli dimetyloheksyloaminie-DMHA (Octodrine, Oktodryna, 2-aminoizoheptan, 2-amino-6-metyloheptan). DMHA został zidentyfikowany w suplementach diety zawierających surowce roślinne: Aconitum kusnezoffii, Kigelia africana. Oktodryna była w latach pięćdziesiątych XX wieku w USA stosowana w preparatach wziewnych w leczeniu stanów zapalanych dróg oddechowych i astmy [10,17]. ...
The 2017 NIK report for the first time presented and made consumers aware of the problem of quality and safety in dietary supplements in Poland. Toxicological aspects of new ingredients contained in dietary supplements, which should be referred to synthetic substances including: therapeutic agents, psychoactive substances, designed analogous drugs (designed drugs), designed analogical psychoactive agents (designed drugs). The second part of the problem related to raw materials of origin (new products): borderline plant ingredients, i.e. USA, PL or EU, i.e. having the status of Plant medicines, new plant materials, not included in the list of governmental organizations in the EU, and appearing in the pharmacopoeias of native countries that may originate, e.g. from India, China, Australia and new plant materials without a history of use in the EU or the USA, and often constituting only a matrix for new designs of synthetic ingredients. In the nineties of the twentieth century, it turned out to be problematic to understand what are the active substances used in supplements, i.e. are they obtained synthetically or come from natural resources? Lack of precise legal regulations regarding the market of dietary supplements, which are an effect (they occur naturally in the herb taken over) and salicylates (current in willow bark), available in pharmacotherapy as medicines, are beginning to be used as food ingredients, and above all in the form of dietary supplements with a group the so-called fat burners.
... Neither stimulant has ever been FDA approved for oral consumption. Our research has since been confirmed by FDA-funded investigators, 9 More than FDA action will be required to ensure that all adulterated supplements are effectively and swiftly removed from the market. Congress would need to reform the Dietary Supplement ...
Article is available at https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/article-abstract/2706489
In this work, an easy, safe, simple, and efficient pH‐switchable deep eutectic solvents (DESs)‐based liquid phase microextraction followed by high‐performance liquid chromatography‐diode array detector analysis was developed for the determination of 1,3‐dimethylamylamine (DMAA). The switchability of the obtained DESs was investigated by changing the pH. Then the best‐selected DES was characterized and the application of the selected DES in the extraction of DMAA from sports nutrition and bodybuilding supplements was investigated. The DES synthesized from l ‐menthol: oleic acid in a molar ratio of 1:2 had the highest efficiency in the extraction of the target compound. Under the optimum conditions, (50 µL of DES, 100 µL of 4 mol/L KOH, 100 µL of 4 mol/L HCl, extraction time of 40 s and without salt addition) the calibration graph was linear in the range of 0.05–100 µg/kg and limit of detection was 0.02 µg/kg. The relative standard deviations including intra‐day and inter‐day for 10.0 µg/kg of DMAA in real samples were 2.7% ( n = 7) and 5.3% ( n = 7), respectively. The enrichment factor and percentage extraction recovery of the method were 283 and 85%, respectively. The relative recoveries for DMAA in different samples were in the range of 90%–109%.
Analytics employed in modern doping controls are designed to cover an extensive range of rather diverse classes of substances, all of which are banned in sport according to the list of prohibited substances and methods of doping, resulting from their potential to be performance-enhancing and/or harmful to health. Many of these bioactive substances or their metabolites are chiral, which are comprehensively characterized and, if appropriate analytical approaches are applied, can be clearly identified. In sports drug testing, the enantiomeric composition of relevant compounds is not considered in all instances, although differences of isomers concerning their biological activity have been established. To date, the separation of stereoisomers in doping controls is only applied for selected target compounds, but with the development of efficient chiral chromatographic stationary phases, the added value of information on e.g. racemic shifts during the metabolic biotransformation reactions of drugs has been recognized. The immense variability of the substance classes represents however a major challenge, especially because both ‘classic’ doping agents belonging to the category of lower molecular mass molecules (e.g. stimulants, β2-agonists, β-blockers, corticoids, etc.) as well as larger molecules from the category of peptides and proteins necessitate consideration. In the present (mini)review, the current status of analytical techniques in the field of doping control analysis of stereoisomers is highlighted and critically reviewed.
Background: The United States Food and Drug Administration banned the stimulant 1,3-dimethylamylamine (1,3-DMAA) from dietary supplements and warned consumers that the stimulant can pose cardiovascular risks ranging from high blood pressure to heart attacks.
Objectives: We designed our study to determine if a new stimulant similar in structure to 1,3-DMAA has been introduced as an ingredient in supplements sold in the United States (US).
Methods: We analyzed six brands of supplements that listed an ingredient on the label (e.g., Aconitum kusnezoffii, DMHA or 2-amino-isoheptane) that might refer to an analog of 1,3-DMAA. Supplements were analyzed by two separate laboratories using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and reference standards.
Results: Two previously unidentified 1,3-DMAA analogs (2-amino-6-methylheptane [octodrine] and 1,4-dimethylamylamine [1,4-DMAA]) and two banned stimulants (1,3-DMAA and 1,3-dimethylbutylamine [1,3-DMBA]) were identified. Octodrine was found at a dose (±95% CI) of 72 ± 7.5 mg per serving. In Europe, octodrine was previously sold as a pharmaceutical in multi-ingredient medications at dosages from 8 to 33 mg. The quantity of octodrine found in our study was more than twice the largest pharmaceutical dose. The other new stimulant, 1,4-DMAA, has not previously been approved for human consumption, and its safety in humans is unknown. 1,4-DMAA was found at dosages between 21 ± 11 mg to 94 ± 48 mg per serving. In addition, two banned stimulants – 1,3-DMAA and 1,3-DMBA – were also identified: 24 ± 7.6 mg to 35 ± 11 mg of 1,3-DMAA and 51 ± 16 mg of 1,3-DMBA. In one product, 24 ± 7.6 mg of 1,3-DMAA was combined with 21 ± 11 mg of 1,4-DMAA. 1,3-DMAA has been investigated as potentially contributing to hemorrhagic strokes and sudden death, whereas the safety of 1,3-DMBA in humans is unknown.
Conclusion: Two banned stimulants (1,3-DMAA and 1,3-DMBA) and two previously unidentified stimulants (1,4-DMAA and octodrine) were identified in supplements sold in the United States.
Background: Kigelia africana is an African tree with a wide distribution across southern, central and western Africa. It has a history of therapeutic usage by multiple African ethnic groupings which inhabit the areas in which it grows. Amongst these groups there is a myriad of medicinal uses in the treatment of a wide variety of bacterial, fungal and protozoal infections, as well as in the treatment of inflammation and cancers. This study was undertaken to further examine K. africana fruit extracts for the ability to inhibit cancer cell growth, and to use an unbiased metabolomic profiling approach to detect and putatively identify as many individual components as possible, with the aim of developing a database of identified compounds. Materials and Methods: K. africana fruit powder was extracted and tested for inhibitory activity against the Jeg-3 choriocarcinoma cell line using a colorimetric cell proliferation assay. Toxicity was evaluated using an Artemia franciscana nauplii bioassay. Non-targeted HPLC separation of crude extracts coupled to high resolution time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectroscopy with screening against 3 compound databases was used for the identification and characterisation of individual components in crude plant extracts. Results: The methanol, water and ethyl acetate K. africana fruit extracts displayed significant anti-proliferative activity against Jeg-3 choriocarcinoma cells. The methanol and water extracts displayed the strongest anti-proliferative activity, inhibiting Jeg-3 growth to 42% and 46% of the untreated cell growth respectively. The ethyl acetate extract also significantly inhibited Jeg-3 cell proliferation, with decreases to 62% of the untreated control value. Neither the chloroform or hexane extracts had any effect on Jeg-3 cell proliferation. With the exception of the water extract (which displayed moderate toxicity), all extracts were non-toxic or of low toxicity. HPLC-MS/MS TOF analysis identified 356 unique mass signals in the extracts. The putative identities of 227 of these compounds are reported here. Conclusion: This report extends previous studies into the anti-cancer affects of K. africana fruit extracts. The generation of a database of the detected compounds will allow for rapid differentiation of compound profiles between active and less active extracts in future studies. This is expected to assist in the identification of the most important compounds for further separation and bioactivity studies.
1,3-Dimethylamylamine (DMAA) is an ingredient in a number of weight loss and exercise performance enhancing products. However, information on the safety of DMAA-containing products is limited. Exposures to DMAA-containing products reported to Texas poison centers during 2010-2011 were identified and selected factors were examined. A total of 56 exposures were found, of which 75.0% were reported during 2011. OxyElite Pro™ was the reported product in 80.4% of the exposures. The patients were 51.8% male and 55.4% age ≤5 years. The patient was managed on site (such as at home) in 57.1% of the cases, and the exposure was known or expected to result in an outcome that was classified as not serious in 80.4%. The most frequently reported clinical effects were tachycardia (28.6%), nausea (16.1%), and vomiting (12.5%). The most common treatments were dilution (41.1%), food (19.6%), and activated charcoal (14.3%). It should be noted that the adverse clinical effects may be due to other ingredients in the DMAA-containing products, such as caffeine.
Approaches to control selectivity and activity in the catalytic reductive amination of butyraldehyde with ammonia over carbon
supported noble metal catalysts (Ru, Rh, Pd, and Pt) were explored. Detailed analysis of the reaction network shows that the
Schiff base N-[butylidene]butan-1-amine is the most prominent initial product and, only after nearly all butyraldehyde had been converted
to N-[butylidene]butan-1-amine, amines are detected in the product mixture. From this intermediate, good hydrogenolysis catalysts
(Ru, Rh) produce mostly butylamine, while catalysts less active in hydrogenolysis (Pd, Pt) lead to the hydrogenation of N-[butylidene]butan-1-amine to mostly dibutylamine.
The multi-billion dollar dietary supplement industry is global in reach. The industry has been criticized for problems related to poor quality control, safety, misbranding, and adulteration. In this review, we describe how the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates dietary supplements within the framework of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act). The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA), which amended the FD&C Act, gave the FDA the authority to promulgate Good Manufacturing Practices for dietary supplements and required that manufacturers provide the FDA information supporting a conclusion that the ingredients are reasonably expected to be safe if the dietary ingredients were not marketed in the USA before 15 October 1994. Recent amendments to the FD&C Act require that serious dietary-supplement-related adverse events be reported to the FDA and provide the agency with mandatory recall authority. We discuss the presence of naturally occurring (e.g. Ephedra, Citrus aurantium, Acacia) and synthetic (e.g. β-methylphenethylamines, methylsynephrine, α-ethyl-phenethylamine) biologically active phenethylamines (PEAs) in dietary supplements and of PEA drugs (e.g. clenbuterol, fenfluramine, sibutramine, lorcaserin) in weight-loss products. Regulatory actions against manufacturers of products labelled as dietary supplements that contain the aliphatic amines 1,3-dimethylamine and 1,3-dimethylbutylamine, and PEAs such as β-methylphenethylamine, aegeline, and Dendrobium illustrate the FDA's use of its authority under the FD&C Act to promote dietary supplement safety. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
Since the banning of ephedrine in over-the-counter nutritional supplements a decade ago, a plethora of untested and/or unsafe sympathomimetic stimulants have taken its place. This paper argues that these 'novel' stimulants in supplements recapitulate the work of synthetic chemists at commercial pharmaceutical firms during the 1930s and 1940s, all seeking substitutes for recently successful products based on ephedrine and amphetamine.
In the last few years, the consumption of dietary supplements, especially those having plants as ingredients, has been increasing due to the common idea that they are natural products posing no risks to human health. In the European Union and the United States, dietary supplements are legally considered as foods/special category of foods, thus are not being submitted to any safety assessment prior to their commercialization. Among the issues that can affect safety, adulteration by the illegal addition of pharmaceutical substances or their analogs is of major concern since unscrupulous producers can falsify these products to provide for quick effects and to increase sales. This review discusses the various classes of synthetic drugs most frequently described as being illegally added to dietary supplements marketed for weight loss, muscle building/sport performance and sexual performance enhancement. Information regarding regulation and consumption is also presented. Finally, several conventional and advanced analytical techniques used to detect and identify different adulterants in dietary supplements and therefore also in foods, with particular emphasis on plant food supplements, are critically described. This review demonstrates that dietary supplement adulteration is an emerging food safety problem and that an effective control by food regulatory authorities is needed to safeguard consumers.
1,3-dimethylbutylamine (DMBA), is a CNS stimulant, which has recently been identified in multiple dietary supplements and sometimes labeled as a natural constituent of Pouchung tea. DMBA is an homologue of 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA) which the US Food and Drug Administration has attempted to remove from all dietary supplements after DMAA consumption was linked to strokes, heart disease, and sudden death. To address questions concerning the natural origin of DMBA, three independent analytical methods were developed for analyzing authentic tea samples and dietary supplements. A high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) method was developed for the fast screening and chemical fingerprint analysis. Chiral Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to determine the enantiopurity and a validated Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-QToF-MS) method was developed for the quantification of DMBA. Using these techniques the presence of DMBA was confirmed using a reference standard and was not detected in any of 25 authentic or commercial samples of Camellia sinensis tea leaves (green tea, black tea, Oolong tea, and Pouchung tea). Of 13 dietary supplements tested, 11 contained DMBA in racemic form and ranged from 0.1 to 214mg per daily dose.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Background:
A procedure based on headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)was developed for the study of the volatile profile characteristics of turbot during refrigerated storage at 4°C for 20 days in order to find possible markers of freshness or spoilage.
Results:
A total of 61 volatile compounds including aldehydes, ketones, esters, alcohols, alkenes, alkanes, aromatics, amines and others were identified in turbot muscle extracted by the optimised HS-SPME method. The volatile profile characteristics of turbot at different storage periods were specified by principal component analysis (PCA). The concentrations of hexanal, heptanal, (2E,4E)-heptadienal, acetophenone, 2-undecanone and 1-octen-3-ol decreased during storage, whereas benzene acetaldehyde, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2-nonanone, acetic acid butyl ester, 3-methyl-1-butanol and trimethylamine increased.
Conclusion:
SPME-GC-MS combined with PCA may be a useful method for monitoring the volatile profile characteristics of turbot during storage, which could be potentially used for freshness evaluation.
Pharmaceuticals and banned substances have been detected in hundreds of purportedly natural supplements. Recently, several athletes have been disqualified from competition after testing positive for the methamphetamine analog N,α-diethyl-phenylethylamine (N,α-DEPEA). Athletes have claimed they unknowingly consumed the banned stimulant in workout supplements. Three samples from different lot numbers of Craze, a workout supplement, were analyzed to detect the presence and concentration of N,α-DEPEA. Two labs independently identified N,α-DEPEA in the supplement using ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to an LTQ Orbitrap XL mass spectrometer and UHPLC-quadruple-time-of-flight mass (Q-TOF) spectrometer, respectively. The identity of N,α-DEPEA was confirmed using nuclear magnetic resonance and reference standards. Manufacturer recommended servings were estimated to provide 21 to 35 mg of N,α-DEPEA. N,α-DEPEA has never been studied in humans. N,α-DEPEA is a methamphetamine analog; however, its stimulant, addictive and other adverse effects in humans are entirely unknown. Regulatory agencies should act expeditiously to warn consumers and remove N,α-DEPEA from all dietary supplements. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This review deals with two of the most commonly used methods for the preparation of amines: the reductive amination of aldehydes and ketones and the hydrogenation of nitriles. There is a great similarity between these two methods, since both have the imine as intermediate. However, due to the high reactivity of this intermediate, primary, secondary and/or tertiary amines are obtained (often simultaneously). The relation of the selectivity to different substrate structures and reaction conditions is briefly summarised, the main focus being on the catalyst as it is the most significant factor that governs the selectivity. Different mechanisms are discussed with the view to correlate the structure of the catalyst and, more particularly, the nature of the metal and the support with selectivity. The crucial point is the presumed location of the condensation and hydrogenation steps.
1,3-Dimethylamylamine (DMAA) is a stimulant existing in various pre-workout supplements and often labelled as part of geranium plants. The safety and origin of DMAA in these supplements is the subject of intense debate. In this study, the enantiomeric and diastereomeric ratios of two different known synthetic DMAA compounds, as well as the total concentrations of DMAA and its stereoisomeric ratios in 13 different supplements, were determined by gas chromatography. The stereoisomeric ratios of DMAA in the synthetic standards and in all the commercial supplements were indistinguishable. Eight different commercial geranium extracts of different geographical origins (China and the Middle East) were examined for the presence of DMAA by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). No DMAA was detected in any of the eight geranium products with a limit of detection of 10 parts per billion (w/w). Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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