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The effect of dietary energy content on quality characteristics of Boer goat meat
Abstract
The palatability and chemical composition of Longissimus lumborum muscles from 24 Boer goat castrates (eight goats per treatment), finished on diets varying in energy content (9.7, 10.2 and 10.6MJ ME/kg feed), were evaluated by a trained sensory panel on a line scale ranging from low to high intensity for aroma, flavour and texture attributes. Physical measurements as well as proximate analysis were performed for each sample. No differences (P>0.05) were found between the dietary treatments for any of the attributes analysed. Lamb flavour and aroma were the most prominent attributes, while only low levels of goat-like flavours were detected. Juiciness and tenderness had a strong correlation (r=0.864) and were rated to be moderate. The findings suggest that energy density of feedlot diets can be varied to still produce chevon with uniform meat quality characteristics.
... The negative quality attributes associated with goat meat could be strongly influenced by past experiences, when goat meat from older animals (above 2 years age) was sold in markets and age had a noticeable deleterious impact on tenderness and caused a gamey flavour (Mandolesi et al. 2020). However, there is an increasing trend for goat kid meat globally (Brand et al. 2018). ...
... The authors proposed that supplying high-energy diets could be implemented as a preslaughter strategy 'on-farm' to reduce the incidence of dark cutting in beef; this raises the possibility that the same principles could be applied to goats. In fact, Brand et al. (2018) compared different levels of dietary energy content in Boer goats and concluded that goats can be slaughtered at liveweights between 30 and 50 kg and still present a lean carcass with a favourable yield. Moreover, it is known that in both cattle and sheep, a low plane of nutrition on the farm can contribute to low muscle glycogen at slaughter and a higher ultimate pH (Knee et al. 2004(Knee et al. , 2007. ...
... One of the critical issues being faced by the goat meat industry is the lack of consistency in meat quality, and the lack of standardised slaughter weight and age. For example, it is unknown whether the meat of heavier goats (>40 kg) is acceptable to consumers (Brand et al. 2018). The temperature at which the loin muscle enters rigor (pH 6.0) can be used to predict the meat quality (Thompson et al. 2005). ...
The global goat meat sector is advancing and contributes to long-term food security, especially in meeting the protein demands of the growing human population in developing countries. Spanning all countries, Australia, is the largest exporter of goat meat, although it has negligible consumption. However, Australia does potentially have a secure future as an innovative, profitable, and resilient world leader in goat production, provided some challenges are addressed. These challenges facing the goat meat sector require suitable strategies and interventions for better profitability and acceptance of goat meat consumed in Australia and as an export product. Limited research on goat meat quality and the lack of an adequate grading system for goat meat quality are two of the major issues that need attention from the industry and researchers. Some of the most critical areas that need further research to enable growth of the goat meat industry are the influence of genetics and age of animals on meat quality, standardisation of the ageing period of various goat meat cuts, cooking innovations, consumer acceptance and sensory analysis of goat meat (both farmed and rangeland goats). This paper reviews the status of the goat meat sector and identifies the opportunities for the goat meat sector, particularly in Australia. In addition, we highlight several key issues requiring further research and interventions to enhance the growth of the goat meat industry.
... Meats with a bright red appearance are preferable compared to meats with pale or dark colors. The color of meat is influenced by several factors, such as diet (Abuelfatah et al., 2016), species (Brand et al., 2018), type of cut, and rearing system (Ivanovic et al., 2016). The use of whole flaxseed as a fat source in the current study did not change the values of lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) of the raw meat. ...
... The same pattern was observed during the smoking process ( Figure 2). These values are close to those reported for Boer goats (Brand et al., 2018;Pophiwa et al., 2016), and the cured and smoked (Tolentino et al., 2017) legs of goats of mountain breeds. According to Simela et al. (2004), dark, firm, and dry goat meat (DFD) has a pH above 6.0. ...
... The lipid level of the diet (WFFLG and FFLG) did not influence the shear force of the meat before processing. The WBSF values were below those described by Pophiwa et al. (2016) for two goat breeds in South Africa and close to those reported by Brand et al. (2018) in the Longissimus lumborum cooked from goats fed diets of different energy levels. The shear strength of goat meat tends to be greater in the heavier carcasses of older animals than in lighter carcasses (Pratiwi et al., 2007). ...
Abstract The effect of high dietary lipid on the meat quality parameters of shoulder meat adult goats in raw meat and during curing and smoking was evaluated by classical and multivariate approaches. The animals were divided into two groups of different finishing strategies: without whole full-fat linseed (WFFLG, n = 9) and whole full-fat linseed (FFLG, n = 9), with diets containing an ether extract content of 2.7% and 6.9%, respectively. The physicochemical attributes did not vary according to the experimental diets in raw meat. The colorimetric parameters and pH varied during curing and smoking. Through multivariate analysis the first two principal components (PC), it was possible to identified variables were highly importance the total variation (L*, a*, b*, C*, h*, and fat content) in raw meat and smoking. The fat content and color b* presented the highest scores for importance of the variable in the projection. Lipid supplementation of adult goats did not influence the quality parameters physicochemical of the raw shoulder meat. However, after curing and smoking there was a significant effect of diet on Hue angle (h*).
... The pH level of Boerka meat was similar to the findings of pH level in Anglo-Nubian cross-bred (Silva et al. 2015) and Boer goats (Pophiwa et al. 2017;Brand et al. 2018). The WBSF found in this study was lower than that reported by Ortega et al. (2016) in Serrana goat but higher than Abuelfatah et al. (2016) and Pophiwa et al. (2017) in Boer goat. ...
... The CL value reported in this study was higher than previous studies reported by Silva et al. (2015), Brand et al. (2018), Basinger et al. (2019), and Sacca et al. (2019) in cross-bred Kiko × Boer, cross-bred Anglo-Nubian, Boer, and Alpine goats, respectively. The WHC and CL are closely linked to the juiciness of the meat (Schönfeldt et al. 1993). ...
... Ranken (2000) and Widiati et al. (2002) indicated that cooking process leads to muscle depression and myofibril tension. The fat and protein contains in Boerka meat considered to be lower than the data of Madruga et al. (2009), Tomovic et al. (2016 and Brand et al. (2018). In contrast, the water content of Boerka meat was higher than previously reported. ...
Calpastatin gene has been known as a candidate gene for meat quality in cattle, sheep, and chicken. The purpose of this study was to identify CAST gene polymorphisms and its association with meat traits in Boerka goat. The data of pH, cooking loss (CL), warner-bratzler shear force (WBSF), water holding capacity (WHC), cholesterol, water, ash, fat, and protein contains were recorded. Sequencing of 21 samples revealed five polymorphisms of CAST gene in intron 12 within Boerka goat, namely g.146C > A, g.224A>G, g.281G > A, g.737C > T, and g.431G > A. Only single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) g.281G > A was used for genotyping. The genotype and allele frequency based on g.281G > A showed 14.29% (GG genotype) and 85.71% (GA genotype) followed with 57% G allele and 43% A allele. The chi-square test showed deviation from HWE (P<0.05) in Boerka goat. The SNP g.281G > A revealed having significantly effect to CL. The GA animals had lower CL percentage compared to the GG animals. In conclusion, the SNP selected may be used for identify meat having low CL in Boerka goat.
... Concerns about eating habits have led to the demand for healthier foods and higher food production standards. In general, consumers prefer healthy meats with adequate sensory qualities and functional properties (Brand et al., 2018). Goat meat has a low percentage of fat and is a good source of essential fatty acids (Aghwan et al., 2014), e.g., polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), making it an attractive red meat alternative. ...
... Water holding capacity is the ability of meat to retain its inherent moisture. It is mainly reflected in the juiciness and tenderness of meat, which affect consumer preference (Toplu et al., 2013;Brand et al., 2018). Table 3 shows that there were no significant differences in drip loss or cooking loss among the three muscles of Yaoshan white goat. ...
... Tenderness is the degree to which cooked meat is susceptible to chewing, or the resistance of meat to tearing and fragmentation. Tenderness may be related to pH, sarcomere length, cooking loss, and IMF (Sabow et al., 2015;Brand et al., 2018). In this study, muscle tenderness was expressed as the maximum shear force required to cut meat perpendicular to the fiber. ...
We investigated the effect of slaughter age on carcass and meat quality, and compared the physicochemical traits and mRNA levels of lipid metabolism-related genes in triceps brachii (TB), longissimus thoracis (LT) and gluteus (GL) muscles of fifteen castrated Yaoshan white goats. We found that goats slaughtered at 2.5 y had higher final body, carcass, meat, and bone weights than at 1.5 y or 2 y. GL had higher crude protein concentration. Amino acids and fatty acids differed among the three muscles. The expression of PPARγ, LPL, SREBP-1c, and ACACA were the highest in LT, followed by GL and TB, which was consistent with the IMF content. Overall, carcass quality was higher in goats slaughtered at 2.5 y. From a consumer health perspective, IMF of TB and GL muscles displayed better quality attributes (lower MUFA/PUFA, higher PUFA, and higher PUFA/SFA ratio) than LT. IMF deposition was related to the expression of PPARγ, LPL, SREBP-1c, and ACACA.
... older animal's meat with a pronounced sheep or goat taste and fiberiness. Nowadays, consumers are given the opportunity to buy the meat from young animals (chevon) (Brand et al., 2018), which haven't pronounced specific taste and aroma. Goat kid meat is preferred with less fat than beef or lamb. ...
... p<0.05) between meat texture and flavour (Table 5)the softer is meat texture, the more pronounced the flavour. According to Brand et al. (2018) the goat kid meat flavour showed a moderate correlation with meat aroma (r=0.59; p<0.01), but in our research meat flavour shown moderate negative correlation with meat aroma (r=-0.59; ...
... p<0.05) ( Table 5). Also Brand et al. (2018) found that lamb had a more pronounced flavour and aroma, but the goat meat had no such pronounced taste. One of the most important factors determining the quality of cooked meat is the tenderness of the meat. ...
... However, Pathway 4, which is unrelated to ruminal microbes, significantly, shapes lipid metabolism within the LL muscle, impacting LL intramuscular lipids, alcohols, and aldehydes (Zhang, Yuan, et al., 2022). In contrast, for Boer goats slaughtered at a slaughter weight below 50 kg with an equal amount of energy intake, the type of energy feed was not observed to exert a significant impact on IMF deposition and flavor of goat meat (Brand et al., 2018). This phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that goats primarily accumulate fat in the abdominal region and exhibit lower lipid deposition in the muscle (Tsitsos et al., 2022). ...
... • No aroma difference was observed among energy groups. (Brand et al., 2018) Fermentation silage ...
Sheep and goat meat products are becoming increasingly popular among consumers due to their unique flavor derived from intramuscular fat (IMF), which contributes to formation of the distinctive odor. However, there is currently a dearth of reviews on the impact of IMF on the flavor of sheep and goat meat. The present review aims to discuss the relationships between IMF and flavor through lipid composition and fatty acid (FA) distribution, provide an overview of characteristic flavor compounds affecting the flavor of sheep and goat meat, and shed light on the impacts of pre-mortem and post-mortem factors on meat flavor attributed to changes in FAs and flavor compounds. Controlling pre-mortem practices and adjusting post-mortem harvesting methods are key factors in shaping and/or driving the flavor of sheep and goat meat products. This review enhances the comprehensive understanding of the impact of IMF on the flavor of sheep and goat meat.
... Over the past 2 decades, farmed Boer goats have gained worldwide recognition as a high-quality meat-purpose breed due to their availability in Australia, New Zealand, North America, and other parts of the world (Pophiwa et al., 2017). Boer goats have excellent body conformation, fast growth rates, and good carcass and meat quality, making them the premium goat breed for meat production (Brand et al., 2018). Boer goats and their crosses can have a dressing percentage 2-5% higher than less muscled or nondefined goat breeds (Meat & Livestock Australia, 2020). ...
This research aimed to understand the effect of different muscle fiber characteristics and cooking temperature on important quality attributes of goat meat, particularly tenderness and water-holding capacity. To achieve this aim, 3 important muscles, namely longissimus thoracis et. lumborum (LTL), psoas major (PM), and semimembranosus (SM), were obtained from 10 castrated 1 y old Boer goats (live weight of 43 ± 2.95 kg). The muscles were measured for quality (cooking loss and Warner-Bratzler shear force [WBSF]), structural (shrinkage measured using caliper), and protein conformation changes (differential scanning calorimetry [DSC]) during heating up to 80°C, using a consistent heating rate across cooking and DSC (10°C/min). Two staining procedures were conducted: determination of the oxidative or glycolytic metabolism of the muscle by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide tetrazolium reductase staining and acidic staining for acidic myosin adenosine triphosphatase at pH 4.35. The PM muscle had the highest number percentage of type I fibers (P < .001), while the LTL muscle had the lowest percentage of type I fibers. The LTL muscle had a higher (P < .05) number precentage of type IIB fibers than the other 2 muscles, with PM having the lowest. The PM had the lowest (P < .01) number percentage of type IIA fibers, followed by LTL and SM. Ageing and cooking temperature increased (P < .001) cooking loss in both LTL and SM, while muscle type had no significant effect on cooking loss. The WBSF and hue (h) values were negatively correlated (P < .05) with the percentage of type I fibers. Cooking temperature plays a critical role, with higher temperatures leading to increased toughness and shrinkage. DSC results suggested that cooking goat meat to below 60°C may help retain tenderness.
... La comercialización del ganado es en pie y el precio por animal adulto varía entre los 600 a 800 MXN por animal (Benítez Jiménez et al., 2018). A diferencia de otros tipos de carne, ésta contiene bajo contenido de grasa y colesterol (Brand et al., 2018). La clasificación comercial de la carne de caprino se diferencia entre tres categorías: carne de cabrito (animales con un peso en canal de 6 a 8 kg), carne de cabra (animales con un peso de canal de 16 a 22 kg y carne de macho castrado (animal con un peso de canal de 10 a 14 kg) (Pophiwa et al., 2020). ...
Actualmente es importante darles valor agregado a los caprinos adultos. El objetivo de esta investigación se buscó en primer lugar, desarrollar nuevos productos elaborados con carne de machos cabríos castrados con la finalidad de analizar sus propiedades fisicoquímicas. En segundo lugar, obtener los costos de producción de dichos productos. Se elaboraron tres productos: a) carne deshidratada con tres tratamientos de sodio y fosfato, b) chorizo con dos formulaciones de elaboración, y c) jamón cocido con tres formulaciones de fosfatos. Se determinó el contenido de humedad, proteína, grasa, cenizas y cloruro de sodio para cada producto. El contenido de grasa en la carne de cabra fue menor (p ≤ 0.05) al de la carne deshidratada comercial. Los chorizos de cabra presentaron en promedio menos grasa (2.5 %) que el chorizo comercial de carne de cerdo (15.4%) (p ≤ 0.05). El jamón cocido con carne de cabra presentó mayor contenido de proteína que el jamón comercial. En la elaboración de los productos con carne de macho caprino castrado se logró reducir el contenido de sodio, al compararlo con los productos comerciales de carne de res y cerdo, respectivamente. Los productos cárnicos de machos cabríos castrados son una alternativa rentable para los caprinocultores.
... Meat's nutritional qualities, including its moisture content, protein content, and crude fat content, significantly impact customer acceptance and market consumption potential [3,28,29]. Our analysis revealed that the longissimus muscle of grazed Duhu lambs showed higher protein and lower crude fat content than indoor-fed Duhu lambs (Table 3). This discrepancy might result from higher energy metabolism and muscle activity, which promote larger myoprotein production and higher protein content while decreasing fat deposition [30,31]. ...
In the western Henan agricultural area, Duhu (Dupo♂ × Hu sheep♀) hybrid lambs are the primary breed of local meat sheep, predominantly raised in large-scale indoor feeding systems, although many farmers still rely on grazing. However, limited research exists on the meat quality of Duhu lambs under both grazing and indoor feeding systems. This study examined how grazing and indoor feeding affect the nutritional quality, flavor, amino acid profile, and fatty acid composition of 7-month-old Duhu lamb meat. Grazed lamb meat exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) higher moisture, protein content, hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, rubberiness, chewiness, and resilience than indoor-fed lamb. Regarding aroma, ammonia, oxidized compounds, and inorganic sulfides were more pronounced and stable in grazed lamb meat. Flavor analysis showed stronger bitter, salty, and sweet profiles in grazed lamb meat, whereas the sour flavor was more pronounced in indoor-fed meat. Among the volatile flavor compounds, 26 organic compounds were identified in grazed lamb meat compared with 12 in indoor-fed meat, with 1 compound common. Additionally, 16 amino acids were found in both feeding systems, with amino acid levels significantly higher (p < 0.01) in indoor-fed lamb. In total, 25 fatty acids were detected in grazed lamb meat, whereas 15 were found in indoor-fed meat, with 11 showing significantly different levels (p < 0.05). Indoor-fed lamb meat exhibited a considerably higher saturated fatty acid content (p < 0.05) compared to grazed lamb meat, while the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid content was significantly lower (p < 0.05).
... Mutton is one of the most popular foods worldwide, with China leading global production. Particularly, the northwestern region of China is a major source of highquality mutton, known for its excellent water quality, abundant feed, and diverse animal breeds, resulting in juicy, tender, and flavourful meat that is renowned globally (Brand et al. 2018;Liu et al. 2019). Compared to other meat proteins such as pork and beef, mutton proteins exhibit significant differences: they are rich in branched-chain and other essential amino acids crucial for muscle synthesis and repair, and have a high biological utilisation rate. ...
... Meat nutritional quality attributes, including moisture, protein, IMF, and ash, greatly affect consumer acceptability and market consumption potential [7,71,72]. Our analysis revealed that the longissimus muscle of pasture-grazed lambs had higher protein and lower IMF and ash contents compared with stall-fed animals. These results may be because greater muscle activity and energy metabolism reduces fat deposition, and increased myoprotein formation and protein content [47,70]. ...
Simple Summary
Demand for high-quality sheep meat with good nutritional properties and health value is increasing. We performed a meta-analysis to review how different feeding regimes affect sheep growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality. Compared with stall-finished feeding, animals fed solely on pasture had lower carcass yield, intramuscular fat, and meat edible quality, but higher meat protein content. Pasture-fed sheep for which the diet was supplemented had comparable carcass attributes to stall-fed sheep, but improved color and meat quality.
Abstract
Meat quality is important in the meat-production chain. Conflicting reports of the effects of feeding systems on sheep growth performance and meat quality exist. By way of meta-analysis, we reviewed the literature on the growth and slaughter performance, and meat quality of lambs that grazed solely on pasture, those that grazed on pasture but received a dietary supplement, and those were exclusively fed indoors. The relevant literature comprised 28 papers, from which response variables of interest were obtained. Compared with stall-fed sheep, pasture-grazing led to significantly (p < 0.05) lower average daily gain, slaughter live weight, hot carcass weight, cold carcass weight, and similar dressing percentage, but pasture-grazed sheep fed a supplement had similar (p > 0.05) values for each of these attributes to stall-fed sheep. The quality of the longissimus muscle from lambs that grazed either exclusively on pasture or pasture with a supplement had significantly (p < 0.05) lower lightness and intramuscular fat content, and significantly (p < 0.05) higher yellowness, Warner–Bratzler shear force, and protein content than meat from stall-fed sheep. We conclude that sheep that have fed exclusively on pasture have lower carcass yield and meat edibility, but improved meat quality, and that pasture-fed sheep that received a supplement had comparable carcass attributes, but greater meat color and health quality than stall-fed sheep.
... This situation may be attributed to RPC not causing an increase in phosphatidylcholine synthesis, thereby maintaining cell integrity unchanged. Shear force is negatively correlated with tenderness [82] and increases with age [83] but is minimally affected by dietary treatment [65]. In this study, the shear force was not affected by energy levels and RPC. ...
Simple Summary
Simple Summary: Supplementation with rumen-protected choline (RPC) can reduce dietary metabolizable energy (ME) while maintaining optimum performance, thus contributing to reducing production costs by saving grain which is the primary source of energy in the diet. Previous papers have reported on the interaction effects of ME level and RPC supplementation on production outcomes in dairy cattle and growing goats. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of ME level and RPC supplementation on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality, serum energy, lipid, and protein profiles of Karayaka lambs. In conclusion, the supplementation of RPC at 0 and 5 g/kg did not affect lamb growth performance and carcass characteristics. Given the lack of significant improvements in performance metrics, RPC supplementation would not result in net cost savings. However, it may play a role in modulating nitrogen metabolism under different dietary energy conditions, as indicated by the significant reduction in serum urea-N levels. The results of the current study indicate that there is no benefit to be gained from the supplementation of RPC in the low-energy diet of fattening lambs.
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the effects of metabolizable energy (ME) level and rumen-protected choline (RPC) supplementation on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality, serum energy, lipid, and protein profiles of Karayaka lambs. Twenty-eight Karayaka lambs, with an initial body weight (BW) of 26.85 ± 0.26 kg, were randomly assigned (2 × 2 factorial design) to one of four dietary treatments with two levels of ME (optimum: 2750 or low: 2500 kcal ME/kg dry matter) and two levels of RPC (0 or 4 g/d/lamb). Lambs of each group were housed in individual pens. The experiment lasted 66 d, with the first 10 d consisting of acclimation and the next 56 d of the formal experimental period. The data on BW, dietary matter intake (DMI), and serum glucose concentrations confirm that our model successfully induced low energy using 250 kcal/kg less energy than the optimum level. RPC supplementation did not significantly affect average daily DMI, total average daily gain (ADG), or feed conversion ratio (FCR) at any energy level. Additionally, there was no substantial effect on carcass characteristics, meat quality, serum lipids, energy metabolism indicators, and liver function parameters. There was also no interaction effect of RPC × ME on the parameters tested. However, at 56 d into the experiment, the interaction effect of RPC × ME on serum urea-N was highly significant, and RPC supplementation led to lower serum urea-N levels (p = 0.001). These results suggest that while RPC supplementation did not enhance overall performance and carcass characteristics in Karayaka lambs, it may play a role in modulating nitrogen metabolism, as indicated by the significant reduction in serum urea-N levels.
... Interestingly, it was reported that the energy content of Boer goats' finisher diet did not affect the sensory attributes or physical or chemical characteristics of the meat [68]. Some post-mortem factors have been reported to influence goat meat quality such as the aging method, slaughtering and stunning technique, chilling methods, temperature, and deboning time [69]. ...
This review describes the production systems and products pertaining to goats and sheep (GS) in Indonesia. These small ruminant species are found across 38 provinces in Indonesia. Almost 99% of the GS are farmed by smallholders, with the animals either being housed in an enclosure (small shed near the farmer’s house) or in a mix of both grazing and confinement. The livestock are typically fed natural and/or artificial feed. Two sheep types, thin-tailed and fat-tailed are the most popular with smallholder producers, while Bali, Etawah, Boerawa, Jawa Randu Kosta, and Gembrong are the dominant goat breeds. As one of the biggest Muslim countries in the world, Indonesian production and consumption of GS is influenced by culture and religious systems. The Halal slaughter method applied is described, as are the religious/cultural festivals in Indonesia, which have a significant relationship on the GS demand and consumption, such as Eid al-Adha and Aqiqah. The preparation, processing, and consumption of GS meat in Indonesia are strongly influenced by the use of spices, being part of the Moluccas archipelago, also known as the “Spice islands” with over 30,000 species of spices grown. Some traditional meats and meat processing technologies in Indonesia are presented to provide insight into how GS meat is processed. The main challenges in the processing of GS meat in Indonesia and some current research on the development of GS production are presented in this paper. Implications: Goat and sheep belong to the most widely consumed meats in the world after pork, poultry, and beef. There are some reasons why GS meat has become one of the more popular protein choices for many families, of which its low-fat levels are one. GS meat is also considered one of the only meats with minimal religious taboos in the world. For these reasons, GS meat is also favored by Indonesian people in the most populous Muslim-majority country. However, information regarding goat and sheep in Indonesia is still lacking. This review aims to provide information on the distribution of GS in Indonesia over 38 provinces, the breed types that grow there, their production, and Indonesian consumption behavior, highlighting the religious festivals that cause the highest demand for these meats. This review provides information to the stakeholders of goat and sheep production chains.
... This situation may be attributed to RPC not causing an increase in phosphatidylcholine synthesis, thereby maintaining cell integrity unchanged. Shear force is negatively correlated with tenderness [72] and increases with age [73] but is minimally affected by dietary treatment [54]. In this study, the shear force was not affected by energy levels and RPC. ...
This study aimed to examine the effects of metabolizable energy (ME) level and rumen-protected choline (RPC) supplementation on the growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality, serum energy, lipid, and protein profiles of Karayaka. Individually housed Karayaka lambs (n = 28), with initial body weight (BW) of 26.85 ± 0.26 kg, were randomly assigned (2 × 2 factorial design) to one of four dietary treatments with two levels of ME (optimum: 2750 or low: 2500 kcal ME/kg dry matter) and two levels of RPC (0 or 4 g/d/lamb). The experiment lasted 66 d, with the first 10 d of acclimation and the next 56 d of the formal experimental period. The data on BW, dietary matter intake (DMI), and serum glucose concentrations confirm that our model successfully induced low energy using 250 kcal/kg less energy than the optimum level. RPC supplementation did not significantly affect average daily DMI, total average daily gain (ADG), or feed conversion ratio (FCR) at any energy level. Additionally, there was no substantial effect on carcass characteristics, meat quality, serum lipids, energy metabolism indicators, and liver function parameters. There was also no interaction effect of RPC × ME on the parameters tested. However, at 56 d into the experiment, the interaction effect of RPC × ME on serum urea-N was highly significant, and RPC supplementation led to lower serum urea-N levels (p = 0.001). The results of this study do not support the use of RPC supplementation to improve animal performance or carcass characteristics in lambs that received a reduced diet of 250 kcal ME/kg.
... According to Knight [17], some people do not consume goat meat because they consider it fatty. This contradicts literature describing goat meat as lean [18,19,20]. Other factors limiting consumers in the study area from consuming goat meat were personal preferences, religion, aversion to taste, price of goat meat and aversion to smell in chronological order from the most influential factor to the least. ...
There is low commercial availability of goat meat in retail outlets such as supermarkets and butcheries due to the limited supply and cultural beliefs in many nations of the world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. This study aimed to find potential customers for goat meat if it were made readily available in retail outlets. Two hundred respondents from cities and towns (Port Elizabeth, East London, Mthatha, King’s Williams town, Grahamstown, Alice, Butherwotth, Fort Beaufort, Queenstown, Craddock, Adelaide, Port Alfred, Stutterheim, and Peddie) in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, were randomly selected and interviewed using structured Google form questionnaires. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests. Participants answered questions about goat meat consumption in relation to other meats. Factors limiting the consumption of goat meat were also investigated. About 66% of respondents had positive views of goat meat, while 23.5% were neutral. Only 10.5 % had unfavourable views concerning goat meat. The availability of goat meat in the market was the most limiting factor for 60% of the respondents, while 15% said price was their limiting factor. Other factors limiting goat meat consumption were personal preferences, religion, aversion to testing, price of goat meat, aversion to smell, and fattiness, with 15%, 9%, 6.5%, 5%, 4%, and 0.5% of respondents, respectively. About 46% of the total respondents preferred goat meat from a supermarket or butchery, and only 6.5% preferred vendors. Only 26% preferred live goats, while 61.5% preferred a portion of meat from slaughtered goats. The chi-square test also revealed a significant association (P<0.05) between attitude/view of goat meat consumption with gender (0.00), age (0.001), nationality (0.027) and ethnicity (0.041). However, the association between attitudes/views towards goat meat consumption and small households (0.262) or religion (0.142) was not significant (P>0.05). Although demand for goat meat is expected to rise as people receive more information on nutritional benefits and cooking methods, it could be concluded that consumers are willing to consume it and that there is market potential for it as a major store product. Key words: availability, goat meat, consumer perceptions, purchasing drivers, limiting factors, future consumption, major stores, market, South Africa
... Thus, feed energy levels have little influence on nutrient loss and subsequent mutton processing [47]. Shear force is negatively correlated with tenderness [49] and increases with age [50], but is minimally affected by dietary treatment [51]. In this study, the shear force increased when the energy level increased, but not significantly, and the shear force was higher in the medium group than in the high group, likely owing to the greater body weights of the high group [52]. ...
Simple Summary
Alpine Merino sheep are a new breed of sheep adapted to the cold and arid ecological zone 2400–4070 m above sea level; the breed has important economic significance for high-altitude areas. This study evaluated the effects of different dietary energy levels (9.7 MJ/kg, 10.1 MJ/kg, 10.5 MJ/kg) on the growth and meat quality of weaned Alpine Merino lambs. The results showed that compared with the low-energy diet (9.7 MJ/kg), the high-energy (10.5 MJ/kg) diet promoted the growth and development of lambs, increased the live weight and carcass weight of lambs before slaughter, significantly reduced the yellowness and redness scores of lamb muscles, and increased the meat’s content of monounsaturated fatty acids.
Abstract
This experiment was conducted to study the effects of dietary energy level on the growth performance and meat quality of weaned Alpine Merino lambs. The study ran for a total of 104 days (20-day pretrial, 84-day trial). From three groups of test lambs, we randomly selected ten lambs per group to determine slaughter performance, meat quality characteristics, and organ indexes. The slaughter performances of the lambs improved as the dietary energy level increased. The live weight before the slaughter of the lambs was significantly higher in the high group than in the low and medium groups. The carcass weight was significantly higher in the high group than in the low group. Dietary energy level had little effect on the organ weight of lambs. Meat quality differed among the three dietary energy levels. The muscle yellowness and redness scores decreased significantly as the energy levels increased. The C18:0, C21:0, C20:1, C18:2n6c, and C20:2 contents in the muscle were significantly higher in the high group than in the medium and low groups. The C18:3n6 content in the muscle was significantly higher in the low group than in the medium group. The C20:5n3 content in the longissimus dorsi was significantly higher in the high group than in the medium and low groups. The monounsaturated and unsaturated fatty acid contents in the muscle were significantly higher in the high group than in the low group. A dietary energy level of 10.5 MJ/kg is suitable for fattening weaned male Alpine Merino lambs.
... The pH 24 was kept within the normal range from 5.5 to 5.8 as suggested by Malva et al. (2016), which indicates that the lambs in this experiment did not have pre-slaughter animal stress and had a sufficient content of muscle glycogen. Intramuscular fat (IMF) is an important constituent of meat and affects its edibility (Brand et al., 2018). It has been demonstrated that the forage proportion in the diet affects the IMF content (Kotupan and Sommart, 2021). ...
Objective
The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of different forage proportions in the fermented total mixed ration (FTMR) on growth performance, muscle fatty acid profile, and rumen microbiota of lambs.
Methods
Thirty 6-month-old small tail Han sheep × Ujumqin lambs with initial body weight (BW) of 27.8 ± 0.90 kg were selected for the test and divided into two groups of 15 sheep in each treatment (three pens per treatment and five lambs per pen) according to the principle of homogeneity. Two isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets were formulated according to the NRC. The diet treatments were designed as (1) OH treatment containing 25% alfalfa hay and 35% oat hay, and (2) AH treatment containing 35% alfalfa hay with 25% oat hay. The forage-to-concentrate ratio for both diets was 65: 35 (DM basis). Three replicates were randomly selected from each treatment to determine growth performance, fatty acid profile and rumen bacterial communities in lambs.
Results
Results revealed no statistically significant (p > 0.05) differences in dry matter intake and average daily gain between the two diet groups. Cholesterol and intramuscular fat were significantly (p > 0.05) higher in the AH group, while no statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) was found in pH24 value. The muscle fatty acid compositions of lambs were obviously (p < 0.05) influenced by the diet treatments. Compared with the OH group, the C16:1, C17:0, and C20:3n6 contents were higher (p < 0.05) in the AH group, whereas the content of C18:1n9c, C20:1, C18:3n3, and C22:6n3 was obviously (p < 0.05) increased in the OH group. The monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) contents were significantly higher in the OH group, whereas no significant differences (p > 0.05) were detected in saturated fatty acid (SFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) contents among the two diet treatments. Bacterial composition was generally separated into two clusters based on principal coordinate analysis, and the OH group had a higher Shannon index. The relative abundance at the genes level of the Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group was obviously (p < 0.05) increased in the AH group and the relative abundances of Prevotella_1, Fibrobacter, and Bacteroidales_UCG_001_unclassified were obviously (p < 0.05) enriched in the OH group. Integrated correlation analysis also underscored a possible link between the muscle fatty acid compositions and significantly altered rumen microbiota.
Conclusion
Overall, oat-based roughage in FTMR could promote a beneficial lipid pattern in the Longissimus lumborum muscles of lambs. These findings provide a potential insight into diet effects on fatty acid profile and the rumen microbiome of lambs, which may help make decisions regarding feeding.
... In a study identifying and predicting hydrolytic rancidity in milk, González-Córdova and Vallejo-Cordoba (2003) reported that rancid flavor was strongly correlated with short-chain fatty acids. Furthermore, muscle and adipose tissues often contain low levels of unsaturated short-chain branched fatty acids, which is closely related to their contribution to lamb and goat flavors (Brand et al., 2018). ...
Although goat meat has several health benefits than other red meats but comsumers reluctant it due to its unpleasant flavor. This study aimed to investigate the odorant of goat meat as well as compare the quality traits of meat regarding sex status. The loin meats [non-castrated male (NCM), castrated male (CM), and female (FM)] were collected and stored at 4oC in a laboratory refrigerator and analyzed on the 1st, 5th, and 8th consecutive days. The moisture content was the lowest and the protein content was highest in FM (p<0.05). Fat and ash content in NCM and FM were similar while lowest in CM. The L* value was significantly higher in NCM, but there was no significant differences of a* and b* values within groups at initial day. The color intensity increased on the 5th storage day and decreased again after the 8th storage day, except in NCM. NCM displayed the highest TBARS value (p<0.05), whereas CM displayed a higher pH value than other groups throughout the storage period. Indole levels were the highest in NCM (0.031 mg/kg); however, skatole levels were not significant differences across all treatments (p>0.05). No significant difference was observed in the fatty acid composition between NCM and CM (p>0.05), whereas a significant difference was observed in FM (p<0.05). Most of the water-soluble metabolites showed significant differences between sexes. Overall, sex status effects on quality properties of meat and castration can improve the overall sensory acceptance by reducing goaty flavor of Korean native black goat meat.
Keywords: black goat meat; sexes; goaty flavor; water-soluble metabolites; indole
... Diets with high energy contents, when fed to confined animals, are also responsible for higher levels of fat deposition [53,54]. The lack of effect of diets on LL muscle fat content is associated with the dietary basis of the rations that was GC, and the influence of mucilage on the quality of starch GC was not enough to interfere with the deposition of muscle fat [55]. ...
Simple Summary
Corn is one of the most produced grains in the world, being the primary energy concentrate used in animal feeding due to its nutrition quality and high cultivation potential, which make it the main source of starch in the diets of ruminant animals. We compared three different moisture additives to conserve rehydrated corn-grain silage, namely water, cactus mucilage, and whey, and replaced ground corn (GC) with rehydrated corn-grain silage in the finishing of kids’ diet. Cactus pear cladode mucilage was a more efficient moisture additive than water and whey for ground-corn silage. Thus, it is recommended to replace ground corn with rehydrated corn-grain silage with mucilage (RCSmucilage) in 415 g/kg because it provides better animal performance than ground corn (GC)—along with having a similar intake and digestion to it—due to better conservation of the silage at a lower cost when compared to commercial additives.
Abstract
The effects of the replacement of dry ground corn (GC) with corn-grain silage rehydrated with water (RCSwater), cactus pear mucilage (RCSmucilage), and whey (RCSwhey) on the growth, physicochemical composition, and fatty acid profile of goat kids’ meat were investigated. Thirty-two crossbred goat kids (16.4 ± 2.50 kg initial weight) were assigned in a randomized block design with four treatments and eight repetitions. The NDF intake of goat kids fed with RCSmucilage was higher in comparison to RCSwater and RCSwhey (p = 0.0009). The dietary replacement of GC by RCSmucilage increased the final weight (p = 0.033) and meat-cooking losses (p = 0.0001) of kids. The concentrations of oleic (p = 0.046), 11,14-eicosadienoic (p = 0.033), and EPA (p = 0.010) were higher in the meat of kids fed with RCSmucilage and RCSwhey, and the α-linolenic concentration was higher (p = 0.019) for animals feeding with RCSmucilage. Meat from kids fed with RCSwhey presented the lowest ∑SFA and the highest ∑MUFA. In contrast, the ∑PUFA (p < 0.012) was higher for goats fed with RCSwater. The ∑ω3 (p < 0.0001) was higher in animals fed with RCSmucilage and RCSwhey. Desirable fatty acids were higher (p = 0.044) in animals fed with RCSmucilage and RCSwhey, and the atherogenicity (p = 0.044) and thrombogenicity (p < 0.0001) indexes were lower for goats fed the RCSwhey diet. The enzymatic activities of Δ⁹desaturase (C16) were higher (p = 0.027) in goat kids fed with GC and RCSmucilage, and Δ⁹desaturase (C18) was higher (p = 0.0497) when goats were fed with RCSmucilage and RCSwhey. Elongase activities were higher (p = 0.045) in goat kids fed with GC and RCSwater. The total replacement of GC by RCSmucilage is recommended in the diet of goat kids due to improvements in the weight gain and proportion of desirable fatty acids in the meat. In addition, RCSmucilage promoted better conservation of the silage at a lower cost when compared to commercial additives.
... Jiao et al. found that high-energy diets improved the carcass parameters (dressing percentage and eye muscle area) and meat quality (protein deposition and fatty acid composition) (1). Nevertheless, other studies suggest that the dietary energy level has no effect on the sensory attributes and physical or chemical properties of meat (4,5). Meanwhile, the optimal dietary energy level for the best quality Black Tibetan sheep mutton is not known. ...
This study aims to determine the impact of dietary energy levels on rumen microbial composition and its relationship to the quality of Black Tibetan sheep meat by applying metabolomics and Pearson's correlation analyses. For this purpose, UHPLC-QTOF-MS was used to identify the metabolome, whereas 16S rDNA sequencing was used to detect the rumen microbiota. Eventually, we observed that the high energy diet group (HS) improved the carcass quality of Black Tibetan sheep and fat deposition in the longissimus lumborum (LL) compared to the medium energy diet group (MS). However, HS considerably increased the texture, water holding capacity (WHC), and volatile flavor of the LL when compared to that of MS and the low energy diet group (LS). Metabolomics and correlation analyses revealed that dietary energy levels mainly affected the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids of the LL, which consequently influenced the content of volatile flavor compounds (VOCs) and fats. Furthermore, HS increased the abundance of Quinella, Ruminococcus 2, (Eubacterium) coprostanoligenes , and Succinivibrionaceae UCG-001 , all of which participate in the carbohydrate metabolism in rumen and thus influence the metabolite levels (stachyose, isomaltose, etc.) in the LL. Overall, a high-energy diet is desirable for the production of Black Tibetan sheep mutton because it improves the mouthfeel and flavor of meat by altering the composition of rumen microbiota, which influences the metabolism in the LL.
... Boer goat was initially selected and bred from AF goats and has a superior economic phenotype and fecundity [14,21]. Interestingly, 10 genes were identified to undergo selection in both breeding stages of the Boer goat, which was widely confirmed to be involved in various biological functions (e.g., reproduction, growth, and metabolism). ...
Simple Summary
Boer goat is a world-famous meat-type goat breed that underwent long-term artificial selection from African indigenous animals. The current study displayed the genome-wide selection signature analyses of South African indigenous goat (AF), African Boer (BH), and Australian Boer (AS), to investigate the hereditary basis of artificial selection in different stages. Moreover, the θπ, FST, and XP-CLR methods were used to search for the candidate signatures of positive selection in Boer goats. Ten genes (e.g., BMPR1B, DNER, ITGAL, and KIT) under selection in both groups were identified and are potentially responsible for reproduction, metabolism, growth, and development. This study provided a comprehensive overview of genomic variations in Boer goat, which may provide a basis for further resource protection and improvement of this breed.
Abstract
Boer goats, as kemp in meat-type goats, are selected and bred from African indigenous goats under a long period of artificial selection. Their advantages in multiple economic traits, particularly their plump growth, have attracted worldwide attention. The current study displayed the genome-wide selection signature analyses of South African indigenous goat (AF), African Boer (BH), and Australian Boer (AS) to investigate the hereditary basis of artificial selection in different stages. Four methods (principal component analysis, nucleotide diversity, linkage disequilibrium decay, and neighbor-joining tree) implied the genomic diversity changes with different artificial selection intensities in Boer goats. In addition, the θπ, FST, and XP-CLR methods were used to search for the candidate signatures of positive selection in Boer goats. Consequently, 339 (BH vs. AF) and 295 (AS vs. BH) candidate genes were obtained from SNP data. Especially, 10 genes (e.g., BMPR1B, DNER, ITGAL, and KIT) under selection in both groups were identified. Functional annotation analysis revealed that these genes are potentially responsible for reproduction, metabolism, growth, and development. This study used genome-wide sequencing data to identify inheritance by artificial selection. The results of the current study are valuable for future molecular-assisted breeding and genetic improvement of goats.
... The pH values were within the range considered normal for proper establishment of rigor mortis and transformation of muscle into meat, ranging from 5.77 to 5.93. [33] The lack of difference between treatments for the values of L*, a*, and b* allows to infer that the inclusion of BC in the diet for goats did not cause deleterious effects on the color of the meat, which is associated with the quality of the final product and is extremely important at the time of purchase by the consumer. [34] The color values (L*, a*, and b*) shown in the present study are within the range (35.5 to 47.2; 9.2 to 17.3; 9.1 to 13.2, respectively) presented in previous studies using goat meat. ...
Babassu cake (BC) is a byproduct from oil extraction from babassu palm kernels. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of including BC levels (0, 6, 12 and 18% on a dry matter basis) in the diet of twenty‐eight kids (n = 7 per treatment) on productive performance, and quality and profile of fatty acids (FA) of meat (loin). The inclusion of BC in the diet increased dry matter intake (P = 0.0005), average daily gain (P = 0.0222), slaughter body weight (P = 0.0424) of goats, and increased fat (P = 0.0424), unsaturated fatty acids (P = 0.0041), monounsaturated fatty acids (P = 0.0163) and isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (rumenic acid; P = 0.0002) content and polyunsaturated fatty acids:saturated fatty acids ratio (P = 0.0430) of meat. However, there were reductions in the levels of stearic acid (P<0.0001) and saturated fatty acids (P = 0.0041) and in the thrombogenicity index (P = 0.0219) of meat. The inclusion of BC in the goat diet improved its growth performance and the quality and fatty acid profile of meat.
Practical applications: The inclusion of babassu cake in goat diet improved the profile of meat fatty acids and increased intramuscular fat content, without negatively affecting other meat quality characteristics, in addition to improving the growth performance of goats. Thus, the use of babassu cake to feed goats could add sales value to the meat produced. Although babassu is a typical Brazilian palm, this study may stimulate further research to evaluate the use of nuts cake from other species of palm trees that are rich in lauric acid in order to modulate rumen fermentation and, consequently, the fatty acid profile of meat.
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... The CP, EE and energy content of the meat did not differ between (Brand, Van, Merwe, Hoffman, & Geldenhuys, 2018). ...
Today, consumers are very health conscious and are more aware of the nutritional value of food, especially of meat, than they were in the past. The aim of this study was to evaluate the carcass parameters and meat quality of Tibetan sheep and Small‐tailed Han sheep when consuming a diet of low‐protein (~7%) and different energy yields (digestible energy, 8.21, 9.33, 10.45 and 11.57 MJ/kg) in the cold season. Twelve sheep of each breed were divided randomly into four treatments of different diets with three replicates per treatment per breed. Crude protein of the meat decreased linearly (p < .05), whereas energy increased linearly (p < .05) with an increase in energy level. Tibetan sheep tended to have a higher (p < .1) dressing percentage and rib eye area, while live body weight and hot carcass weight did not differ between breeds but increased linearly (p < .01) with an increase in energy level. Water holding capacity, as indicated by pressing loss and drip loss, did not differ between breeds and was not affected by dietary energy. The concentration of n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) was greater in Tibetan sheep meat but saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and n‐6 PUFA did not differ between breeds. With an increase in energy content of the diet, SFA decreased (p < .05), whereas MUFA increased (p < .05). The n‐6:n‐3 PUFA ratio was lower (p < .001) in Tibetan sheep meat, while the atherogenic index did not differ between breeds, but tended to decrease (p < .1) with an increase in dietary energy content. The essential amino acid (EAA) content and ratio of EAA:NEAA (non‐essential amino acid) were close to the world standards for healthy meat. In summary, (a) Tibetan sheep meat was preferable to Small‐tailed Han sheep meat, although differences between breeds were small; and (b) some carcass parameters and meat quality were improved with an increase in dietary energy level when a low‐protein diet was offered.
... Meat is a major source of fat in the human diet, especially saturated fats, which have been associated to cardiovascular disease and cancer. Thus, there has been growing interest in the composition of fatty acids present in this food, especially for consumers interested in maintaining a healthy diet (BRAND et al., 2018). Interest in goat meat has grown because of its nutritional properties, due to its low fat content, saturated fat and calories when compared with the ovine and bovine meat, and have similar levels of protein and iron (AMARAL et al., 2007;MONTE et al., 2012). ...
Brazil has the largest herd of goats of the American continent, with more than 9 million head. Goat farming is considered a growing and important activity for the economy, mainly in the northeastern region of Brazil .In this research, were determined the lipid content and the composition of fillet and shank fatty acids of young goats, registered in the inspection sector of the Ministry of Agriculture and marketed in the city of Salvador (Bahia). The average percentage of total lipids in the fillet was 1.68±0.04 and in the shank of 4.02±0.09, this is a significant difference between the cuts (P<0.05). Twenty-seven (27) fatty acids were identified in the cuts, most are palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0) and oleic acid (C18:1ω9) present in 21.32%, 20.39%, 34.49% in the fillet and 21.74%, 21.94%, 33.38% in the shank, respectively. The total sums of saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids ranged of 42.75 to 45.23% and 14.04 to 12.35% between fillet and shank cuts, respectively. The ratio of PUFA/SFA was 0.35 for fillet and 0.15 for shank, and the ratio ω6/ω3 was 3.07 for fillet and 2.27 for shank. Therefore, is a significant difference in total lipid content and fatty acid composition in commercial cuts of beef fillet and shank.
Objective:
This study was conducted to investigate the effect of slaughter age on carcass traits, meat quality, and the relative mRNA levels of lipid metabolism-related genes in different muscles of Taihang black goats.
Methods:
In this study, the triceps brachii (TB), longissimus dorsi (LD) and gluteus (GL) muscles of 15 grazing Taihang black goats slaughtered at the age of 2, 3, and 4(designated as 2-year-old, 3-year-old, and 4-year-old, respectively) were collected. The differences in carcass shape, meat quality, amino acid composition and lipid metabolism gene expression among Taihang black goats of different ages and from different plant parts were compared.
Results:
Compared with goats at other ages, goats slaughtered at the age of 4 had greater live and carcass weights, meat weights, bone weights and skin areas (P<0.05). LD in the 4-years-old had the lowest cooking loss and moisture content. The content of crude protein in 2-year-old was significantly greater than that in the other muscles. The highest fat content was in LD, followed by TB, for goats slaughtered at the age of 4. Eight out of 9 essential amino acids had higher content in the TB compared with other muscles, regardless of age. The total essential amino acid content was highest in the 4-year-old and lowest in the GL muscle at the age of 3. The SREBP-1c and ATGL genes were significantly more abundant in the TB muscle than in the other muscles for goats slaughtered at the age of 2. At the the age of 4, the ATGL and PPARγ genes were significantly more abundant in the GL than in the LD, while the FAS genes were significantly less abundant in the GL than in the other muscles. Similarly, compared with those in goats of other ages, the relative mRNA expression levels of the FAS and H-FABP genes in goats slaughtered at the age of 4 were the highest, and the relative mRNA expression of the PPARγ gene was the lowest (P<0.05). The relative mRNA expression of the H-FABP and FAS genes was positively correlated with the intramuscular fat (IMF) content, while the relative mRNA expression levels of the PPARγ and ATGL genes was negatively correlated with the IMF content.
Conclusion:
Overall, a better nutritional value was obtained for TB from 4-year-old goats, in which the total essential amino acid and fat contents were greater than those of other muscles. The comprehensive action of lipid metabolism genes was consistent with that of the IMF content, among which the FAS, H-FABP, PPARγ and ATGL genes had positive and negative effects on the process of IMF deposition in Taihang black goats.
Sheep and goats can efficiently convert low quality forage into high-quality meat which contains specific nutrients and quality traits. Carcass traits and quality attributes of sheep and goat meat depend upon several factors and one of most effective strategies amongst these is feeding regimens. In this review, the major aspects of feeding regimens affecting growth rate, carcass traits and quality attributes of sheep and goat meat are thoroughly discussed, with a particular focus on physical-chemical composition, flavor profile, and fatty acid (FA) profile. Grazing lambs and kids receiving concentrate or under stall-feeding systems had greater average daily gain (ADG) and carcass yield compared with animals reared on pasture only. However, growth rate was higher in lambs/kids grazing on pastures of improved quality. Moreover, the meat of grazing lambs receiving concentrate had more intense flavor, intramuscular fat (IMF) content, and unhealthy FA composition, but comparable color, tenderness, juiciness, and protein content compared to that of lambs grazed on grass only. In contrast, meat of concentrate-fed lambs had more intense color, greater tenderness and juiciness, IMF and protein contents, and lower flavor linked to meat. Additionally, the meat of kids grazed on concentrate supplementation had higher color coordinates, tenderness, IMF content and unhealthy FA composition, whereas juiciness and flavor protein content were similar. In contrast, kids with concentrate supplementation had superior color coordinates, juiciness, IMF content and unhealthy FA composition, but lower tenderness and flavor intensity compared to pasture-grazed kids. Thus, indoor-finished or supplemented grazing sheep/goats had higher growth rate and carcass quality, higher IMF content and unhealthy FA composition compared to animals grazed on grass only. Finally, supplementation with concentrate increased flavor intensity in lamb meat, and improved color and tenderness in kid meat, whereas indoor-fed sheep/goats had improved color and juiciness as well as reduced flavor compared to pasture-grazed animals.
Myofibrillar proteins (MPs) and the quality of meat strongly depend on the properties of MP gels, which in turn depend on several parameters that include the thermal history and the concentration of metal ions. Strontium element (Sr) widely exists in mineral water and is found as strontium ions (Sr2+), which is an essential trace element for humans. This study investigated the effects of trace Sr2+ on the structure-function relationship of mutton MPs, as well as their gels with water. Trace concentrations of Sr2+ were found to significantly alter the conformation of the MPs. An increase in Sr2+ concentration was associated with a reduction in the tightness and strength of the gel and a significant increase in its water-holding capacity As compared to the untreated control sample, the solubility, particle size, and the magnitude of the Zeta potential of the gels increased by 13.03 %, 12.62 %, and 19.73 %, respectively, whereas the water retention capacity and the gel strength increased by 23.13 % and 21.90 %, at a Sr2+ concentration of 5.0 mg/L. Molecular docking predicted an increase in ionic bonds and disulfide bonds because Sr2+ had a strong interaction with hydrophilic amino acids and acidic amino acids. The analysis of molecular forces further verified the significant facilitation of interactions between MP molecules with the induction of Sr2+. As compare to the untreated control group, the ionic and disulfide bonds increased by 141.17 % and 66.94 %, when treated with 5.0 mg/L Sr2+. These changes were likely due to the enhancement of protein-protein interactions caused by Sr2+, which could induce MP molecules to properly unfold and aggregate in gel formation. The results could provide a basis for improving the texture and the quality of meat and meat products.
Currently, several serious challenges such as the growing world population, the problem of climate change, the drought, and the associated decrease in rainfall have led directly to the loss of pastures. In this puzzle, the domestic goat species (Capra hircus) is one of the small ruminants that have minimal water requirements and are very resistant to harsh environments, and have little contribution to livestock species. However, keeping many native races is not cost-effective despite the importance of ecotourism and high levels of adaptability to the environment, and this issue is encouraging agricultural policy makers to open borders to exotic races, mostly without initial research and scientific evidence. Therefore, the first step in confirming the legal importation of an exotic breed is to understand all the details of its breeding and production and reproductive potential, as well as carefully paying attention to its survivability and adaptation to the new environment. In this regard, various countries around the world have started to import, plan and breed Boer goats. The Boer goat is one of the well-known commercial goat breeds that has the characteristics of fertility (large litter size) and high resistance to harsh environments and common diseases due to the desired meat and carcass. Here in this report, the authors try to introduce this candidate for an exotic goat breed with scientific support by talking about its detailed characteristics and the evaluation of its production and reproductive traits and prospects in the world and providing the source of information with the admixture of the highlighted possibilities alongside threats with emphasis on the Iranian state.
Taro tubers potentially serve as functional foods with significant health benefits, due to their abundant oligosaccharides. The substance is a potential raw material in flour production, as a result of their high starch composition of approximately 70%. The purpose of this research, therefore, was to determine the physical properties of chevon meatballs, comprising of various levels of taro substitutes as fillers. The materials involved were the thighs of the meat sample and taro flour. Additional ingredients consisted of ice, tapioca flour, pepper, salt, MSG, egg white, and garlic. Meatballs were produced from chevon with 10% flour as filler, in the form of tapioca and taro, with successive composition ratio of 10:0 (P0), 7.5:2.5 (P1), 5:5 (P2), 2.5:7.5 (P3), and 0:10 (P4). Data assessments were subsequently conducted, using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results showed that the use of taro flour filler up to a level 10% did not affect the cooking loss of chevon meatballs, with exception in pH, water holding capacity (WHC) and tenderness. Consequently, the addition of filler ratio of 0:10 (tapioca:taro) tended to boost the pH, while reducing the WHC and tenderness. Moreover, the WHC increased by using tapioca and taro flours with a ratio of 5:5 (P2), compared to 7.5:2.5 (P1), 2.5:7.5 (P3), and 0:10 (P4). Furthermore, a considerable improvement in meatball tenderness was observed by the inclusion of P2 filler ratio, compared to utilizing tapioca and taro flours at 2.5:7.5 (P3) and 0:10 (P4). In summary, taro flour was feasibly applied in chevon meatball preparation up to a level of 5%, while retaining the physical properties.
– This study was conducted to examine the effects of including palm kernel cake (0, 120, 240, and 360 g kg⁻¹) in high-concentrate diets for feedlot goats on carcass traits and meat quality. Thirty-two non-pregnant, mixed-breed goats (average age: 1 year; initial body weight: 24.70 ± 3.72 kg) were evaluated in a completely randomized experimental design. Hot (P = 0.007) and cold (P = 0.008) carcass weights responded quadratically, with maximum values of 16.4 and 16.3 kg estimated at the palm kernel cake inclusion levels of 125.0 and 116.7 g kg⁻¹, respectively. Loin eye area (P = 0.042), subcutaneous fat thickness (P = 0.013), fatness score (P = 0.014) and the morphometric measurements of external length (P = 0.009) and chest width (P = 0.013) decreased, whereas chest circumference (P = 0.037) responded quadratically to the increasing inclusion levels. The diets did not influence (P > 0.05) the physicochemical characteristics or proximate composition of goat meat. Principal component analysis of sensory attributes resulted in the separation of the meat samples. The inclusion of up to 115.0 g kg⁻¹ of palm kernel cake in high-concentrate diets for feedlot goats provides heavier carcasses and increases consumers’ acceptance of goat meat.
The effects of live weight on carcass characteristics and meat quality of Australian Rangeland goats were determined. Fifty-two intact-male kid goats were fed Mitchell grass hay and finisher pellets ad libitum for 42 days. Prior to slaughter, kids were categorised into live weight groups: ‘Heavy’ (≈33.1 kg) or ‘Light’ ≈ 24.3 kg). Fifteen kids per group were randomly selected, slaughtered and carcass characteristics measured. The longissimus lumborum (LL) and the biceps femoris (BF) muscles were removed for quality measurements. The Heavy group had higher dressing, hindquarters, non-carcass component and offal percentages (P < 0.05). Live weight had no effect on proportion of carcass cuts, muscle meat colour, cooking loss, Warner-Bratzler shear force, total fat or ash (P > 0.05), but influenced the moisture and protein content in the LL and the moisture content in the BF (P < 0.05). The findings suggest that live weight of entire male Rangeland goats had no effect on meat quality characteristics.
Simple Summary
The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare the carcass characteristics of same-aged young wethers and bucks of Boer Goat (BG) and Indigenous Veld Goats (IVG: Cape Speckled and the Cape Lob Ear)—a collective name for the eco-types conserved by the Indigenous Veld Goat Society of South Africa. Results of this study showed that, under the same production conditions, IVG could have a similar potential for meat production. Carcass characteristics differed more between wethers and bucks than between breed types. Large frame Indigenous Veld Goat (IVG) bucks seemed particularly suited for meat production, due to higher meat yield that is leaner with lower subcutaneous and intramuscular fat, compared to the BG bucks and, in particular, to the wethers of both breed types. The wethers meat with increased subcutaneous and intramuscular fat could satisfy another consumer market segment that prefer a somewhat juicier and flavorsome meat—these aspects warrant further research. Development of the formal commercial market for goat meat would offer more diversity of species for red meat producers and especially benefit smallholder farmers who typically produce most of the goats in the world.
Abstract
Weaner male Boer Goats (BG; n = 36; 21 bucks and 15 wethers) and large frame Indigenous Veld Goats (IVG; n = 41; 21 bucks and 20 wethers) were raised on hay and natural grass ad libitum and the recommended amount of commercial pelleted diet to a live weight between 30 and 35 kg. Carcass quality characteristics (live weight, carcass weights, dressing %, chilling loss and eye muscle area) were measured. The right sides of the carcasses were divided into wholesale cuts and dissected into subcutaneous fat, meat and bone. Large frame Indigenous Veld Goat (IVG) wethers were slightly lighter than the IVG bucks with no significant difference observed between BG. Wethers compared to bucks had higher dressing %, subcutaneous fat % in all primal cuts, intramuscular fat %, kidney fat % and, overall, slightly less bone %. Some breed–wether interactions were noticed: IVG wethers were slightly lighter than the IVG bucks, but the IVG bucks tended to produce higher % meat compared to other test groups. Judged on the intramuscular fat % characteristics, it seems as if wethers should produce juicier and more flavorsome meat compared to bucks.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of the meat of lambs submitted to diets with grape pomace silage (GPS) in substitution of the whole plant corn silage. Twenty four male lambs were distributed in four diet treatments with increasing levels of GPS, using a forage:concentrate ratio of 50:50. The diet treatments were characterized for chemical composition, and the lamb meat was evaluated for proximate composition, fatty acids profile, oxidative stability, color and sensory attributes. Changes in the lipid fraction, fatty acid profile, cholesterol levels and oxidative parameters of meat (p < 0.05) were observed as a function of the inclusion of GPS, with no changes (p > 0.05) in the sensory parameters. The GPS used in this study may be an alternative as a forage feed in the diet of lambs with benefits in the quality and oxidative stability of lamb meat, without affecting the sensory attributes.
Gangba sheep are known for having typical sensory characteristics attributed to free range conditions and grazing on wild plants. The genuine Gangba mutton was selected as the experimental group, and the commercial Tibetan mutton was selected as the control group, the nutritive composition of basic chemical components, amino acids and fatty acids in mutton were investigated to correlate its unique meat quality and eating satisfaction. The results showed that fatty acids were significantly higher (P<0.05) in Gangba mutton than in commercial mutton, and the higher content of flavoring amino acids (glutamic acid and aspartame) were primarily responsible for the taste attributes umami of meat juices. Moreover, the trace elements analysis in mutton and grazing factors (forage, water source and soil) were conducted, to explain the source of essential trace elements in mutton. The concentrations of essential trace elements show that the Gangba mutton was a valuable source for highly available Cu and Zn in human nutrition, and well managed with few detected of toxicity metal. The concentrations of essential trace elements in mutton are closely related to the trace elements in environmental grazing factors. In conclusion, the congenital grazing conditions (a highly mineralized water resource, natural forages and clean soils) were shown to contribute to the unique meat characteristics of Gangba sheep.
Background
The fat-tailed sheep is raised largely in China and other countries due to its high adaptability to nutritionally challenging environments and disease resistance as well as fat deposition in tails. So the purpose of the study is to explore the expression pattern and regulation mechanism of sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) in liver and adipose tissues of fat-tailed sheep bases on its role in fat metabolism and deposition with sheep grown and development.
Methods
Two representative Chinese fat-tailed sheep breeds i.e. Guangling Large Tailed (GLT) and Small Tailed Han (STH) were employed to evaluate the ontogenetic expressions of SREBF1 and SREBF2 from seven different adipose tissues and liver at 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 month by real-time PCR. Five serum indicators were detected, and the function speculation of SREBP1 and SREBP2 were evaluated by bioinformatics approaches.
Results
Serum indicators, especially total cholesterol TC and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) showed obvious differences and dynamical changes with the different development ages, gender factors only had a significant effect on serum NEFA concentrations. Both SREBF1 and SREBF2 mRNA expression in sheep were significantly affected by breed, tissue, age factors, and show a significant positive correlation (r = 0.286). Merely the expression of SREBF1 gene in STH is significantly higher than that in GLT, but SREBF2 gene expression is opposite. The expressions of SREBF1/2 in liver are extremely higher than that in seven adipose tissues, the interaction of two factors between breed and month age, breed and tissue, and tissue and gender also significantly affects its expression. Subcellular locations and function prediction imply that SREBP1/2 expressions are closely related with metabolism processes in cells.
Conclusions
The mRNA expression profiling of SREBF1 and SREBF2 showing a breed-specific, gender-specific, and temporal and spatial expressions differences, which imply that SREBF1/2 play a crucial role in lipid metabolism regulation during growth and development of two fat-tailed sheep. This study provides a phenotypic basis for further revealing the genetic mechanism in lipid metabolism and fat deposition that causes differences in ovine tail types, which also provides a novel insight for improving quality of meat.
Driven by economic development and urbanisation, animal-based protein (ABP) consumption has surged worldwide over the last 50years, rising from 61g per person per day in 1961 to 80g per person per day in 2011. This contribution analyses the apparent convergence of dietary models worldwide with respect to the proportion of ABP and especially meat in intake. By using FAO data for 183 countries over the period 1961-2011, the authors show the connection between annual per capita GDP and the level of ABP (R2=0.62) and meat consumption (R2=0.62). They emphasise the surge in ABP intake in emerging countries (China, Brazil) which has partly replaced plant protein. However, for similar degrees of economic development, the composition of ABPs and the position of meat within this category vary significantly among countries, suggesting that historical, geographical, cultural and religious factors may be involved.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
• Goats are prolific and resilient small ruminant livestock with a wide ecological adaptation. Production and consumption of goat meat are low despite the importance of the species, but this sector has huge potential to supply food for a growing human population.
• Goat meat serves as a major source of meat in developing countries while it is less popular in western countries. Nevertheless, the perceptions about goat meat are changing due to the health benefits of the consumption of lean meat with reduced fat and cholesterol content.
• Scientific research has been conducted on the quality and composition of goat meat as well as management, feeding, and genetic aspects of goat meat production.
• It is clear that, in future, goat production will have to focus on the use of technologies to improve productivity and efficiency.
• Improved transportation, pre-slaughter management, and optimum slaughter weights and conditions are essential to ensure consistently high quality meat from goats. The purpose of this article is to review goat meat production, composition, and quality.
This study was undertaken to characterize the fatty acid profile and sensory properties of longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of Boer kids as affected by sex (17 male, 15 female) and slaughter weight (pre-weaned 20 kg, post-weaned 30 kg). Regarding sex differences, higher percentage amounts of lauric, myristic, pentadecanoic, linolenic and docosapentaenoic acids were found in LD muscle of male compared to female kids, whereas greater amounts of oleic acid were detected in LD muscle of female kids. Also, LD of male kids contained higher percentage amounts of saturated (SFA), polyunsaturated (PUFA) and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) while higher amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) were detected in LD of female kids. Regarding slaughter weight, percentage amounts of lauric, myristic, margaric, pentadecanoic, linolenic, linoleic, arachidonic and docosapentaenoic acids significantly decreased with age (P≤0.001), while percentage amounts of heptadecenoic and oleic acids significantly increased (P≤0.001). LD muscle from lighter kids contained higher percentage amounts of SFA and PUFA, while heavier kids had higher percentage amounts of MUFA and n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio. Except meat colour, sensory traits (marbling, off-odour, flavour, juiciness and tenderness) were neither significantly affected by sex nor slaughter age.
Consumption of goat meat has increased during the last 20 years, due to the nutritional (low fat and cholesterol) and sensorial features (flavour, juiciness, tenderness), which distinguish meat from this species. Some studies have shown that meat from animals slaughtered at a young age is more appreciated and valued in the market than adult meat. The flavour and taste of goat meat undergo changes as the animal grows, and meat from older animals tends to be associated with a stronger flavour and lower juiciness and tenderness. The rational use of goat meats and an appropriate presentation to the market can improve the demand for goat meat products, increase their value and promote the sustainability of the production chain. To achieve this goal, there are some measures that can be implemented, such as: fresh meat supply (chilled or frozen) from certified young animals; processing of meat from older animals and sub-products; valuation of conventional meat products produced according to a “healthier” concept; valuation of typical products produced according to recognized technological processes, allowing for safer food production and the endorsement of certificates of origin. However, market research studies, as well as other studies regarding consumer preferences, can provide guidelines for the decisions that should be made concerning production systems, animal slaughter age, raw material usage and technological procedures to be applied.
The influence of breed, diet, sex, location fed and slaughter weight on carcass composition and quality and flavor of heavy lamb car-casses was examined. One-hundred and fifty-three Suffolk-and Rambouillet-sired ram and wether lambs, fed a high or a low energy diet at the University of Wyoming (UWY) or the Roman L. Hruska US Meat Animal Research Center (MARC), were slaughtered at 62 or 76 kilograms. Suffolk-sired lambs grew faster (P<.01) than Rambouillet-sired lambs and increased their advantage (P<.05) in growth rate during the later periods of the trial. Suffolk-sired lambs had leaner carcasses (P<.01) but yellower fat (P<.05) and more pronounced secondary sex characteristics (P<.01) than Rambouillet-sired lambs. Breed did not influence the flavor of cooked ground meat. Ram lambs had higher (P<.01) rates of gain and trimmer carcasses than wether lambs. Ram lambs' superior potential for growth (P<.01) was more pronounced on the high energy diet than on the low energy diet. Ram lamb carcasses had softer, yellower fat and ram meat had more intense flavor scores (P<.01). Differences in fat softness between ram and wether carcasses t Wyoming Paper No. JA1095. 2Cooperation of the Nebraska Agr. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln, is acknowledged. 3Mention of a trade name, proprietary product or specific equipment does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the USDA and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that may also be suitable. 4AR, SEA, USDA. Spresent address: Michigan State Univ., East Lan-sing 48824. 6 Division of Anim. Sci., Univ. of Wyoming. became more apparent with increasing age and weight (P<.01). At similar slaughter weights, carcasses obtained from lambs fed the high energy diet had more (P<.01) kidney and pelvic fat than carcasses obtained from lambs fed the low energy diet. Carcasses from lambs fed the high energy diet had softer, yellower (P<.01) fat than carcasses from lambs fed the low energy diet. However, flavor scores were more intense (P<.01) for meat from lambs fed the low energy diet. Lambs fed at UWY were superior in growth rate to lambs fed at MARC. No differences in fat color, fat firmness or cooked meat flavor were observed between carcasses obtained from the two locations.
The quality characteristics of 27 Angora goats, Boer goats and sheep carcases were compared. Significant differences exist between the quality characteristics of sheep meat and Angora or Boer goat meat. Sheep meat has a more intense aroma, it is more tender, contains less fibrous tissue residue and the species flavour is more pronounced (typical) than that of Angora and Boer goat meat. In general, goat meat was found to be significantly different to sheep meat, the Angora to a lesser extent, however, than the Boer goat. This study confirms the fact that the meat of younger animals is more tender, contains less fibrous tissue residue and the species flavour is less typical than that of older animals. This was irrespective of whether it was obtained from sheep, Angora or Boer goat. With increasing fatness of carcases, the tenderness and species flavour of the cooked cuts increased significantly.
Consumer sensory evaluations of oven-roasted goat and sheep m. longissimus dorsi samples were conducted in two series to determine the acceptability of chevon from indigenous South African goats to Consumers. Chevon samples were from goat carcasses of known description. In series I, castrate and female goats and female sheep, all with 2-6 permanent incisors, were compared. Castrate males were significantly heavier and yielded heavier carcasses than the female goats. Nonetheless, the two groups did not differ significantly in carcass and meat characteristics. Cooking losses from mutton samples were significantly higher than losses from chevon from female goats only. In series II, male kids (milk teethed), old does (8 permanent teeth) and sheep (2-6 permanent teeth) were compared. Does were heavier at slaughter, but the mean carcass weight did not differ significantly from that of the kids. There were no significant differences between the does and kids in carcass tissue composition and sarcomere lengths. The pH,, of does was significantly higher than that of kids. Cooking losses from mutton and chevon samples in series II did not differ significantly. Amongst the consumer characteristics, level of education was the most important determinant of consumer acceptance of the sensory attributes and intended frequency of consumption in both series. Population group was a significant factor in the judgement of the more diverse meats of series II only. Sensory evaluations Indicate that all meat types were highly acceptable to the consumers who oil average were willing to eat any of the meats at least once a week. The study indicated that chevon from indigenous South African goats is acceptable to consumers and may be as acceptable as mutton, provided that the meat is from goats of about two years of age or younger.
Growing goats, 45 Alpine and 45 Nubian, were used in a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement to quantify the influence of dietary energy and protein levels on daily DM intake and nutrient utilization for growth. Goats had ad libitum access to complete mixed diets containing either 2.46, 2.77 or 3.05 Mcal/kg ME plus 11.2, 12.7 or 15.1% CP for 16 wk. Dry matter intake decreased curvilinearly as dietary ME density increased (P less than .001). Dry matter intake increased linearly (P less than .05) as dietary CP level increased during all growth intervals except wk 25 to 28 of age. Average daily gain was 115, 113 and 99 g/d for goats fed diets containing 2.46, 2.77 and 3.05 Mcal/kg ME, respectively. Average daily gain was 104, 106 and 117 g/d for goats fed diets with 11.2, 12.7 and 15.1% CP, respectively. Dry matter intake was higher (P less than .01) for Alpine than for Nubian goats, whereas ADG was similar between breeds. Intake of ME was 248, 260 and 198 kcal/(kg.75.d) for goats fed the low- medium- and high-energy diets, respectively. Intake of CP was 9.1, 10.7 and 13.2 g/(kg.75.d) for goats fed low-, medium- and high-protein diets, respectively. Average requirements for growth derived from regression analysis of all data points were 4.6 kcal ME and .26 g CP/g ADG. The prediction equation for intake of growing goats of 4 to 8 mo of age was: DMI, g/d = 1,749 - 496 DE, kcal/g + 18 live weight, kg + 3 ADG, g/d; r2 = .73 (Sy.x = 127, P less than .0001, n = 90). The requirement of ME for growth was 33% lower than the value recommended in 1981 by the National Research Council.
Solvent systems that have been developed for lipid extraction include chloroform-methanol, n-hexane-isopropyl alcohol, and methylene chloride-methanol. The extraction methods are labor intensive, lack precision, or require a large volume of solvent. Correct computation of lipid content calls for full recovery of solvent after extraction, but recovery always is incomplete because of unaccounted solvent residue that remains in jar, filter paper, and homogenized tissue. A rapid and simple extraction method coupled with correct computation was developed for determining total lipids in fish tissue. The method uses chloroform-methanol and an Eberbach blending jar. Variables examined were chloroform-methanol ratio, solvent-to-sample ratio, and phase separation time. Precision was within 0.5%. Conventional computation of lipid content depends on the volume of chloroform measured after filtration. This volume does not include unaccounted solvent residue. Thus, a time-consuming second extraction is required for complete recovery. The mass balance of each extraction and filtration step confirmed that the correct volume of chloroform (measured plus unaccounted) was close to the theoretical volume. The procedure eliminates problems associated with laborious filtration and variation in chloroform volume readings and does not require an exact reading of chloroform volume. Instead it allows use of a theoretical volume, which depends on solvent volume and ratio used.
The effects of three dietary energy treatments on the feedlot production characteristics of Boer goats were investigated, along with the time spent under feedlot conditions. A total of 66 goat kids with an average weight of 22.2 ± 3.51 kg were housed in individual pens at Elsenburg research farm. At the start of the trial, the goats were randomly allocated to one of three finisher diets that vary in energy content; low, medium and high energy (11.3, 12.0, and 12.7 MJ ME/kg feed, respectively). The goats were divided further into groups of about 15 goats that were slaughtered at a registered abattoir after 40, 76, 112 and 146 days in the feedlot. During the trial period, goats were supplied their respective trial diets ad libitum. Orts were weighed back once a week in order to determine feed intake. Growth was monitored by weighing the goats weekly. The live weights of the goats increased linearly (20.939 + 0.191x, where x represents days in feedlot) throughout the trial period. Overall, goats on the high energy diet had the lowest growth rate (202.0 g/day versus 221.9 and 234.9 g/day for goats on the low and medium diets, respectively; P < 0.05). This may be as a result of the high starch content affecting the rumen environment and thus the utilization of nutrients for growth. Goats fed the low and medium energy diets presented the higher feed intakes (1236.4 and 1168.6 versus 1002.4 g/day for low, medium and high energy diets, respectively; P < 0.01). A tendency was observed for the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of goats on the high energy diet to be lower than that of the low and medium energy diets (P = 0.06), while the FCR of the goats did not vary with time spent in the feedlot (P = 0.40). Goats on the low energy diet had a lower dressing out percentage (45.8%, compared to 46.1 and 47.1%, for the low medium and high energy diets, respectively). This may be attributed to the higher proportion of fibre in the feed, which increases the gut fill and affects the digestibility of the feed. It was also observed that goats were able to adjust their level of feed intake in response to the amount of energy supplied in the diet. It is suggested that the diet with a medium energy content (12.0 MJ ME/kg feed) closely resembles the requirements of Boer goats for growth and exhibits the best production characteristics.
Most studies have focused on myoglobin regarding meat colour development, with little focus on the contribution of muscle structure and light scattering. Our aim was to investigate the pH-dependent changes in muscle structure, on the light scattering properties of the meat. Beef longissimus thoracis muscles were segregated into light, medium or dark colour groups (n=18). 'Dark' muscles had a high ultimate pH (pHu), lower lightness *, redness (a*), higher myoglobin concentration and deoxymyoglobin content compared to other muscles. Reflectance confocal laser scanning microscopy (rCLSM) revealed 'dark' muscles had decreased global brightness (indicator of light scattering) and increased fibre width. In a secondary experiment, decreasing the homogenisation buffer pH from 6.10 to 5.40 induced a 17% shrinkage in high pHu muscle fibres, which increased light scattering by ~25%. In conclusion, rCLSM demonstrated that muscle structure contributes to the magnitude of light scattering by a pH dependent mechanism.
Two post slaughter procedures namely, electrical stimulation (220 V for 30 seconds, then chilling at 4 °C) and delayed chilling without electrical stimulation (10-15 °C for 6 hours, 4 °C until 24 hours) were tested on carcasses of Boer and South African indigenous goats (n = 10 goats per breed). The aim of the study was to assess the ideal slaughter conditions for optimum goat meat quality. Temperature and pH profiles, instrumental colour measurements (CIE L*, a*, b*, Chroma and hue angle), surface myoglobin pigments (deoxymyoglobin, oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin), water holding capacity (WHC), thawing losses, cooking losses, sarcomere lengths and Warner Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values were evaluated on M. longissimus dorsi (LD) and semimembranosus (SM) samples. Both electrical stimulation and delayed chilling treatments resulted in sarcomeres longer than 1.9 μm, therefore there were no cold shortening effects. The SM samples of electrical stimulation treatment had lower (P < 0.01) WBSF values than corresponding samples of delayed chilling treatment. The LD samples of delayed chilling treatment recorded higher instrumental colour values than corresponding samples of electrical stimulation treatment. Electrical stimulation led to an increase (P < 0.05) in cooking losses, but had no effect (P > 0.05) on WHC, or thawing losses of LD samples. Breed had no effect (P > 0.05) on meat quality characteristics. This study confirms that electrical stimulation has a higher potential than delayed chilling of carcasses in improving goat meat tenderness. Delayed chilling could be more beneficial in improving goat meat colour.
High-grain feeding used in the animal production is known to affect the host rumen bacterial community, but our understanding of consequent changes in goats is limited. This study was therefore aimed to evaluate bacterial population dynamics during 20 days adaptation of 4 ruminally cannulated goats to the high-grain diet (grain: hay - ratio of 40:60). The dietary transition of goats from the forage to the high-grain-diet resulted in the significant decrease of rumen fluid pH, which was however still higher than value established for acute or subacute ruminal acidosis was not diagnosed in studied animals. DGGE analysis demonstrated distinct ruminal microbial populations in hay-fed and grain-fed animals, but the substantial animal-to-animal variation were detected. Quantitative PCR showed for grain-fed animals significantly higher number of bacteria belonging to C. leptum group at 10 days after the incorporation of corn into the diet and significantly lower concentration of bacteria belonging to Actinobacteria phylum at the day 20 after dietary change. Taxonomic distribution analysed by NGS at day 20 revealed the similar prevalence of the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes in all goats, significantly higher presence of the unclassified genus of groups of Bacteroidales and Ruminococcaceae in grain-fed animals and significantly higher presence the genus Prevotella and Butyrivibrio in the forage-fed animals. The three different culture-independent methods used in this study show that high proportion of concentrate in goat diet does not induce any serious disturbance of their rumen ecosystem and indicate the good adaptive response of caprine ruminal bacteria to incorporation of corn into the diet.
The meat palatability, water-holding capacity, colour and shear force values of 32 Boer goat (BG) kids and 32 South African Mutton Merino (MM) lambs were investigated. Two pelleted diets (offered to 16 animals per species) with either a low (LE, 9·9 MJ/kg dry matter (DM)) or a high (HE, 12·1 MJ/kg DM) metabolizable energy level were given to the animals for either 28 or 56 days. Thereafter the animals were slaughtered, the meat cooked and presented to a trained sensory panel. Organoleptically, a difference between goat and lamb was noted. Each one had a specific species flavour, which was not influenced by energy level of the diet. BG meat was perceived to be stringier than that of the MM, but there was no significant difference in Warner-Bratzler shear force values. Tenderness declined with age in both species and there was also a tendency for goat meat to be less juicy than lamb. Chevon had a more pronounced after-taste than lamb. No objective difference could be distinguished between the colour of the cooked goat and lamb, but there was a tendency for fresh lamb to have a higher a*-value (redness) than goat. Although diet did not influence drip loss, drip loss increased with an increase in slaughter age. Only after 56 days did the m. semimembranosus of MM have a significantly higher drip loss than that of BG (LE : 4·84 v. 3·43%; HE : 4·72 v. 3·23%). In the m. semimembranosus of both species cooking loss increased with an increase in slaughter age. It can be concluded that goat meat compares favourably with lamb in terms of water-holding capacity, colour and shear force values. If goats are finished in the feedlot, it can be done on a LE diet, since diet does not influences any of the mentioned characteristics. This may render a direct economic advantage for BG feedlot finishing.
Carcass measurements, commercial cuts and chemical composition of the meat of 32 Boer goat (BG) kids and 32 South African Mutton Merino (MM) lambs were investigated. Two pelleted diets (offered to 16 animals per species) with either a low (LE, 9.9 MJ/kg dry matter (DM)) or a high (HE, 12.1 MJ/kg DM) metabolizable energy level were offered, ad libitum, for either 28 or 56 days. Thereafter the animals were slaughtered and the carcasses dissected into South African commercial cuts. The 8-9-10-rib cut of each carcass was dissected and used for chemical analysis. MM had heavier carcasses (LE:19.87 v. 15.28 kg; HE:24.01 v. 17.05 kg), and proportionally heavier ribs and buttocks than BG and therefore one can expect higher prices for sheep carcasses than for those of goats. BG had significantly more moisture and protein and lower fat and energy values than MM. DM, fat and energy values increased with an increase in slaughter age in both species. BG had significantly higher concentrations of 11 of the 18 measured essential amino acids in their 8-9-10-rib cuts than the MM. Goat carcasses had higher Ca, K, Mg, Na and P levels than sheep carcasses, regardless of the diet offered. BG had a lower carcass cholesterol content than lamb (66.77 v. 99.28 mg/100g, respectively). Palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0) and oleic (C18:1n9) acids comprised the greatest proportions of the fatty acids in the 8-9-10-rib cut. On both diets there was a significantly higher saturated to unsaturated (SFA:UFA) fatty acid ratio in lamb than in goat meat (LE:0.30 v. 0.845; HE 1.407 v. 0.892). It can be concluded that chemically the meat from young feedlot goats is not inferior to that of lamb, and since it has a higher protein percentage and lower fat, cholesterol and SFA it can be considered as a healthy food commodity. Since diet had little or no significant influence on the carcass weight distribution or chemical composition of the goats, BGs can be finished on a LE-diet in the feedlot. This may decrease the food cost significantly.
The research aimed at assessing liking and preference for capretto and chevon as a function of consumer familiarity with goat meat. Five meats were produced: traditional milk capretto (MC), heavy summer capretto (HSC), summering (SCh), fall (FCh) and late fall chevon (LFCh). HSC was the most tender meat, having less cooking losses than both MC and redder chevon types. The instrumental profile corresponded with the appearance and texture attributes perceived by panellists. With aging of kids, meat lost its milk aroma (MC) and sweet taste (HSC) and acquired an increasing intensity of goat flavour and livery notes, partially related to feeding regime and fatty acid profile. A niche market preferred chevon over capretto, while the cluster of consumers who were unfamiliar with chevon showed a decrease in pleasantness when tasting chevon, the familiar group reduced their ratings only for meat from the oldest kids.
Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
4-Methyloctanoic acid, 4-ethyloctanoic acid and 4-methylnonanoic acid are key-flavor compounds of sheep and goat. Yet, the low amounts of these volatile branched-chain fatty acids (vBCFAs) in the fat of the ruminants hampered their determination on a routine basis. In this work we developed a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry selected ion monitoring (GC/MS-SIM) method for the direct determination of the vBCFAs as methyl esters, which were obtained after transesterification of subcutaneous adipose tissue of sheep. The excellent sensitivity of the GC/MS-SIM method (limit of quantification, LOQ, 3.6-4.8μg/g; limit of detection, LOD, 1.1-1.4μg/g for 4-Me-8:0, 4-Et-8:0 and 4-Me-9:0) enabled us to determine the three vBCFAs without an enrichment step. Subcutaneous adipose sheep tissue of three different breeds contained 23-88μg/g 4-methyloctanoic acid, 13-26μg/g 4-ethyloctanoic acid and ∼2.9-18μg/g 4-methylnonanoic acid. Since all fatty acids were present in the FAME fraction, the samples could be screened for further branched-chain FAMEs. After elimination of unsaturated fatty acids by hydrogenation (the presence of some unsaturated fatty acids could be verified by this measure), additional measurements in SIM and full scan modes of methyl esters and picolinyl esters enabled the determination of further 97 saturated fatty acids in the samples with eight to 20 carbons. The method is suited for routine analysis and may be useful to investigate the reasons for the abundance/absence of 4-methyloctanoic acid, 4-ethyloctanoic acid and 4-methylnonanoic acid and further branched-chain fatty acids in sheep and goat.
Goat meat (chevon) consumption has increased in the US primarily due to the growing immigrant population. Chevon preference among mainstream consumers, however, has suffered from the misperception that it is inferior in quality to beef, lamb, or pork. Researchers have studied several pre- and post- slaughter techniques to enhance chevon quality. This paper will briefly review techniques that show promise to further improve quality characteristics of chevon. Among preslaughter factors, minimizing animal stress is an important step to quality chevon production, as stress can result in inferior meat quality characteristics. Diet can have a marked effect on nutritional properties of chevon, particularly fatty acid profile. Feeding goats a concentrate diet results in a higher level of oleic acid, but lower linolenic acid in the longissimus muscle, compared to feeding a hay diet. Dietary brown seaweed extract supplementation in goats results in increased color stability of chevon cuts because of higher antioxidant levels. Administration of a low dose of bovine somatotropin in goats does not influence meat quality characteristics or pre-rigor μ-calpain, m-calpain, and calpastatin activities. Several post-slaughter techniques have been studied and proven to be beneficial. It is well-established that aging chevon retail cuts significantly improves tenderness, and the caselife of chevon cuts is comparable to that of beef, lamb, and pork cuts. Postmortem electrical stimulation has been reported to significantly accelerate muscle glycolysis and improve tenderness of chevon. Subjecting deboned chevon cuts to hydrodynamic pressure processing or calcium chloride injections has been shown to significantly improve quality characteristics, particularly tenderness. With emerging markets for chevon in the US, there is a critical need for further research on pre-and post-slaughter techniques in goats to further improve product quality.
Deposition of relatively less subcutaneous fat by goats than sheep adversely affects storage properties of meat, most importantly dehydration and cold-shortening. High concentrate diets increase internal and carcass fat in goats, including intramuscular fat though levels are less than in cattle or sheep. Levels of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids are greater in goats consuming concentrate in confinement compared with rangeland grazing. Because the botanical composition of the diet selected by goats is more reflective of plant species available compared with cattle and sheep, changes in the botanical and chemical composition with high vs. low stocking rate or as forage mass declines with increasing stocking rate should be smaller compared with cattle and sheep, with greatest differences when browse plant species are available. The magnitude of effect of castration on carcass fatness varies considerably with plane of nutrition, although some gender comparisons have not considered stage of maturity. Limited nutrient intake maximizes lean tissue accretion and minimizes fat deposition regardless of gender. Pre-weaning growth rate is greater for single-kid litters compared with kids of multiple births depending on factors influencing milk production. Concentrate supplementation should increase pre-weaning growth when milk yield is low regardless of litter size but not with moderate-high milk yield when concentrate substitutes for milk. Genetic variability in performance traits is considerable and has been the target of various breed improvement and crossbreeding programs. Breed and genotype differences in carcass traits also exist; however, few improvement programs have included these traits in selection objectives.
Three procedures for the isolation of volatiles from grilled goat meat were compared: dynamic headspace entrainment on Tenax TA, simultaneous steam distillation-extraction, and solid-phase microextraction. Headspace entrainment on Tenax TA extracted the highest number of Maillard-derived volatile compounds. Two hundred and three volatile components were identified; 159 are reported for the first time in goat meat. Most of the volatiles detected (155) were lipid oxidation products, such as hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters. Forty-eight Maillard-derived compounds were identified, comprising pyrazines, pyrroles, thiophenes, furanthiol derivatives, alkyl and alicyclic sulphides, pyridines, and thiazoles. Some reported character impact compounds of cooked meat, e.g., 12-methyltridecanal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, methional, and dimethyl trisulphide were identified in the volatile profile of goat meat, together with a series of C2 to C5 alkylformylcyclopentenes, which have been reported in cooked chicken, pork, beef and lamb, as being important for the characteristic flavour impression of different animal species.
This experiment was conducted to compare the chemical composition and quality characteristics of chevon and lamb from animals raised under similar conditions. Crossbred goats (n=16) and lambs (n=16) raised under the same management conditions were slaughtered using standard procedures. After 24h of cooler storage (2°C), each carcass was fabricated into primal cuts. The loin chops (2.5-cm thick) from the left side were allotted for determination of cooking loss and Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values, and the chops from the right side were used to measure fresh meat color (CIE L* a* b* values). Subsequently, the Longissimus muscle (LM) and subcutaneous fat were excised from the right side chops to determine metmyoglobin percentages, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), proximate compositions, and fatty acid profiles. No differences (P>0.05) were found in moisture, protein, and fat percentages between the LM of goats and lambs. However, the ash content in the LM of goats (1.73%) was higher (P
Managing goat production for meat quality is a deliberate, active process that reaches from conception to consumption. The concept of quality in meat is universal, being wholesome, nutritious and palatable. Goat meat is a product of many different production systems from widely varying environments, nutritional regimes and genotypes. The physical, chemical, sensory and nutritional properties of goat meat at the point of consumption are the results of sequential influencing factors that each, to a greater or lesser extent, can be directed by producers, marketers and processors. This paper considers genetic and physiological factors that influence the production of goat meat.
Goat meat has been established as lean meat with favourable nutritional quality. Its attributes are concordant with present day consumer demands for leaner and nutritious meat, and hence should be the basis for promoting the meat. Sensory evaluations have shown that goat meat is acceptably palatable and desirable to consumers. The meat may be as acceptable as mutton if animals of similar ages are compared. However, goat meat tends to be less tender and less juicy than sheep meat because of some possible mitigating factors that are discussed. Goat meat has a species-specific flavour and aroma, which differ from that of sheep meat. In terms of appearance, goat meat tends to have a slightly lower a* value than had been reported for sheep meat, but indications are that the colour is acceptable to consumers. The meat tends to have a high ultimate pH, a fact that is at least partly attributed to stressful peri-mortem handling and the related effects on glycogen metabolism. Goat carcasses are less compact and leaner than those of sheep. This has implications on the proportions of primal cuts, separable tissues within the carcass as well as carcass chilling, which affects the quality of the meat. Recommendations have thus been made about the post-mortem handling of goat carcasses, carcass grading/classification systems and that carcass jointing be cognisant of these factors.
Individual feed consumption, utilisation, digestion efficiency and growth of 32 Boer goat (BG) kids and 32 South African Mutton Merino (MM) lambs were investigated after weaning. Two pelleted diets (fed to 16 animals per species) with either a low (LE, 9.89MJkg−1 DM) or a high (HE, 12.11MJkg−1 DM) metabolisable energy level were fed individually, ad lib, for either 28 or 56 days. MM had significantly higher average daily gains (ADG) than BG. Within a diet there was no significant difference in feed conversion efficiency (FCE) between BG and MM and only the MM FCE differed between the LE- and HE-diets. BG fed LE digested DM, CP and energy more efficiently and had a higher energy retention than MM fed LE. Neither species, nor diet affected N retention. The average daily gain of the MM on the LE-diet for 28 days was significantly lower than for those on the HE-diet. However, there was no significant difference between the ADG of BG on the high or low energy diets. These trends were similar in the group of animals that were fed for 56 days. These results indicate that Boer goats may be finished on a diet with a lower ME-value than is usually formulated for sheep, without a reduction in performance. This may render the BG economically viable for feedlot finishing.
The properties of boneless meat from 12-month-old Boer (n=3), Cashmere (n=4), and Boer×Cashmere (n=4) female goats, and of meat products made from that meat, were determined. For whole-tissue meat (longissimus muscle, semimembranosus, meat cubes) cook yield, dimensional changes on cooking, instrumental tenderness and sensory attributes were determined. For patties made from the meat, cook yield, dimensional changes on cooking, and sensory attributes were determined. Sensory attributes of curries made from the meat were also assessed. Boneless meat from 12-month-old lamb was used in the comparisons. Boer longissimus muscle had a higher pH (6.04) than the longissimus muscle from Cashmere and Boer×Cashmere (5.70, 5.78). Meat cook yield and cook shrinkage were 75–80% and 36–48% respectively. The cook yield of plain or seasoned patties was about 92% compared to 77% (plain) and 86% (seasoned) for lamb patties. Instrumental tenderness and sensory scores for juiciness and overall flavour intensity of longissimus muscle from all three breeds were similar (P>0.05); semimembranosus of Cashmere was more tender (P
This paper analyses the progress in recent research in goat nutrition since the last International Conference on Goats (Tours, 2000). This review reveals clear progress in the quality of papers, now similar to those on cattle or sheep, particularly on nutritional aspects in tropical areas. Topics dealt with in goat nutrition are feeding behaviour, particularly on pastures or rangelands, feed digestibility, tree leaf or by-product utilization, effects of nutritional factors on growth, milk and hair production, while nutritional adaptation to harsh environments, underfeeding, factors influencing energy consumption, quality of goat products (milk, cheese, meat) and reproduction performance along with the connection between nutrition and pathology require more attention. Goat nutrition in a tropical environment follows the same physiological mechanisms as under temperate conditions, but genotypes can present specificities enabling a better adaptation to feeding conditions. Complete and precise information on the nutritive value of tropical forage, rangeland vegetation in accordance with the season, and new feed or by-products is still missing. Researchers in goat nutrition frequently use different methods, making it difficult to compare results from several research teams. Agreement on the methodology in goat nutrition is easier when the research teams are organized in networks at the national or international level. To be successful with technological transfer in goat nutrition, the message for the end users must be clear and well adapted. At the present time, we are short of review papers that provide an analysis of all results already published to establish quantitative relationships between variables, which can clarify the messages for the field. Methods of meta-analysis can be used to analyse the quantitative results from experimental data banks and to establish response laws and define limits of application. Finally, if we implement a research project on goat nutrition dedicated to application in the field, not only the research works but also the actions of technological transfer must be financed.
Boer goats evolved in Southern Africa from indigenous African and introduced European stock. Breed standards of the Boer Goat Breeder's Association stipulate color to be white with red head and blaze, pigmented skin and good, functional conformation. Boer goats are hardy, graze a wide spectrum of plants, grasses and shrubs, effectively combating bush encroachment, have low water turnover rates and low internal parasite infestation. Does are early breeders, polyoestrous and may be synchronized with intravaginal progestogen or PMSG. A 70% kidding rate is reported with AI. Anaplasma ovis infection of does, transmitted transplacentally to the fetus causes abortions and neo-natal mortalities. Milk yield averages 1.5 to 2.5 kg/day with 43 g/kg protein and 77 g/kg fat contents. Libido and semen quality of bucks varies seasonally. Performance testing aims to measure dam's characteristics pre- and post-weaning, feed efficiency of kids under standardized conditions, and qualitative and quantitative carcass evaluation of sire's progeny. The future of Boer goats lies in performance testing for economically important traits.
Chemical–physical analyses of cholesterol content and fatty acid profile of tissues in various anatomical locations of Apennine lambs fed three different diets and slaughtered at 105 days of age are reported. The three diets were (1) a concentrate with barley flakes (BC) and lucerne hay, (2) a concentrate with maize oil (MC) and lucerne hay, and (3) only concentrate with maize oil. Diets had little effect on the physical traits of meat but Diet 3 (MC without hay) had a higher percentage of ether extract both in M. longissimus lumborum (3.61%) and in M. semitendinosus (3.01%). Cholesterol content (48.33mg/100g) was not affected by diet. The fatty acid profile was affected by the different diets: the intramuscular fat from lambs on Diet 3 was more saturated (43.88%) and with less essential fatty acids (ω-3: 0.92% and ω-6: 10.15%) than the fat of the other two diets (Diet 1: respectively, 42.98%, 1.28% and 10.50%; Diet 2: respectively 43.20%, 1.20% and 10.67%). M. longissimus lumborum had a dietetically better acid profile than the semitendinosus muscle. Depot and intermuscular fat in Diet 3 showed a positive increase (P≤0.05) in the level of unsaturation (52.31% vs. 50.38% in Diet 1 and 50.96% in Diet 2). A comparison between tissues highlighted a similar composition between the subcutaneous and intermuscular fats of the proximal pelvic limb that were different (P≤0.01) from the subcutaneous fat of the loin. Despite these small differences, the quality of the meat and of the fat of these lambs was dietetically good. The addition of 5% maize oil to the concentrate did not show any unfavourable physiological side effects in the lambs and modified favourably the subcutaneous and intermuscular fat; the total quantity of unsaturates and the good content of stearic acid highlight the good dietetic characteristics.
Mutton fat, cooked with or without meat added, produced a host of steam volatile fatty acids in trace amounts. These have been identified by GC-MS as medium chain normal, branched, unsaturated, oxygenated, and aromatic acids belonging to 11 homologous series. Odor properties of these acids have been evaluated and results in-dicate that the branched chain and unsaturated acids having 8 to 10 carbon atoms contribute to the undesirable flavor of cooked mutton. The 4-methyl branched C9 and C10 acids in particular are considered primarily responsible for the sweaty odor note described in Chinese as "SOO".
Boer crossbred goats (n = 46) were used to assess the effects of dietary concentrate on carcass composition, primal cut yield, sensory properties, and fatty acid (FA) composition. Goats were fed diets ad libitum, with no concentrate (range) or with one of three levels of concentrate (low, 50%; medium, 70%; high, 90%) for 126 days before slaughter. Carcass measurements were taken at 24 h postmortem, before carcasses were fabricated according to Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications (Hotel Style). Sensory properties, cooking loss, shear force, and fatty acid (FA) composition were determined on longissimus samples. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed for carcass, subprimal, and longissimus sensory traits among the three levels of concentrate feeding, except that carcasses from goats fed a low-concentrate diet had a higher (P < 0.05) percentage of trimmed shoulder than did carcasses from goats fed a medium level of concentrate. In contrasts comparing range and concentrate feeding, goats fed concentrate diets had increased (P < 0.05) live weight, hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, ribeye area, actual and adjusted 13th rib fat, body wall width, leg circumference, carcass length, marbling score, and kidney and pelvic fat values, compared to range-fed goats. Longissimus muscles from goats fed concentrate had greater (P < 0.05) a*, b*, hue angle, and chroma values than did those fed range diets. Chops from goats fed concentrate diets had less (P < 0.05) off-flavor and cooking loss than chops from range-fed goats. Concentrate-fed goats had heavier (P < 0.05) weights for leg; trimmed leg; loin; trimmed loin; rack; trimmed rack; shoulder; trimmed shoulder; trimmed leg, loin, rack, and shoulder; foreshank; ribs and breast; flank, but lower percentages of trimmed leg; trimmed rack; trimmed shoulder; trimmed leg, loin, rack, and shoulder, than range-fed goats had. Longissimus samples from goats fed concentrate diets had higher (P < 0.05) percentages of total, saturated, monounsaturated and n − 6 FA; but lower percentages of n − 3 FA, compared to longissimus samples from range-fed goats. Overall, goats fed concentrate-based diets had heavier carcasses and primal weights, but lower percentages of trimmed primal cuts and less off-flavor intensity compared to range-fed goats.
Selected water-soluble precursors, including sugars, free amino acids and nucleotides, were quantified in raw and cooked goat meat, as a part of a study which the main aim was to better understand the aroma formation in goat meat. When compared with the same precursors in beef, lamb and chicken, levels in goat meat were generally similar, except for fructose and glycine, which were present at higher concentrations in goat meat. Fructose, glucose, IMP, and cysteine suffered the greatest losses during the cooking process and seem to be most involved in aroma formation in goat meat. The effects of these precursor changes on the volatile compound composition and formation process of them on cooked goat meat are discussed.
Intact male Boer and Kiko goats (n=48) were harvested after 0, 4, 8, or 12 weeks on a 16% crude protein concentrate diet. Boneless goat carcass left sides were ground and formed into patties to evaluate cook loss, texture profile analysis, and descriptive sensory characteristics. Increasing feeding duration increased percent fat and decreased moisture in raw ground meat (P<0.05). Boer ground meat had more fat and less moisture than Kiko meat (P<0.05). Breed and feeding duration did not affect cook loss (P>0.05). Increased feeding duration increased aroma intensity and goaty, bloody, musty, and liver/organy aromas; salty, bitter, umami, grassy, goaty, fat, liver/organy, metallic, earthy, and chemical flavors; and juiciness and oiliness, while decreasing chewiness and crumbliness (P<0.05). Boer and Kiko patties had similar sensory properties after 0 and 4weeks on feed, but breeds were more distinguishable after 8 or 12 weeks on feed.
Venison from twenty four hybrid fallow deer does, 36months old with an initial body condition score (BCS) of 2, was tested to determine the influence of feed type on meat quality. Feeding with concentrates increased BCS (P<0.01) but did not affect ultimate pH (P>0.05). BCS 4 animals had higher intra muscular fat (IMF) (P<0.01), and more tender meat (P<0.05). Venison from does fed over 24weeks exhibited less redness (P<0.01) than those fed for 19weeks regardless of feed type. Panellists evaluated samples for colour, flavour, tenderness, juiciness and overall liking. They detected significantly (P<0.05) stronger flavour in meat from animals fed concentrates. Male panellists detected flavour differences within meat from animals fed concentrates (P<0.05), with longer feeding periods resulting in stronger flavour. There was no difference in overall liking, therefore finishing fallow deer on grain-based concentrate feeds prior to slaughter provided little commercial advantage.
The objective was to determine, relative to animals expressing their full potential for carcass growth, the impact on meat quality of increasing carcass growth of grazing steers by supplementing with concentrates or by increasing grass supply. Sixty-six continental (Limousin and Charolais) crossbred steers (567 kg) were assigned to one of six diets: (1) 18 kg grass dry matter (DM); (2) 18 kg grass DM grass and 2.5 kg concentrate; (3) 18 kg grass DM and 5 kg concentrate; (4) 6 kg grass DM and 5 kg concentrate; (5) 12 kg grass DM and 2.5 kg concentrate; or (6) concentrates daily. Animals were slaughtered after an average of 95 days. Samples of the M. longissmus dorsi (LD) were collected at the 8-9th rib interface and subjected to sensory analysis and to other assessments of quality following 2, 7, or 14 days aging. Carcass weight gain averaged 360, 631, 727, 617, 551 and 809 g/day for treatments 1 to 6, respectively. There was no difference between diets for colour, Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) or any sensory attribute of the LD. WBSF was negatively correlated with (P<0.05) carcass growth rate (-0.31) but only a small proportion of the variation in meat quality between animals could be attributed to diet pre-slaughter or carcass fatness. It is concluded that high carcass growth can be achieved on a grass-based diet without a deleterious effect on meat quality.
As a spin-off of an OECD Workshop on pork quality, held in Helsinki in 1992, a group of scientists with many years of experience in the field of meat quality assessment convened in February 1993 for the first time, and subsequently in 1994 and 1995, in Kulmbach at the German Federal Centre for Meat Research under the auspices of the OECD research project Management of Biological Resources. Three specific areas were discussed in order to develop internationally accepted reference methods: In the autumn of 1997 the methods were brought into their final form at the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand (MIRINZ). They are presented in this paper.
Carcass composition, proximate meat composition, fatty acid composition and sensory characteristics of two breeds of goats, Indigenous (n=12) and Boer goats (n=12), and two breeds of sheep, Damara (n=12) and Dorper (n=12), on extensive pasture-grazing, were analysed. The right side of each carcass was processed into wholesale cuts and dissected into subcutaneous fat, meat and bone. Meat and fat were minced together and sampled for proximate analysis as well as fatty acid profiles. The remaining minced meat was formed into meat patties, which were cooked for descriptive sensory evaluation of aroma, tenderness, juiciness and flavour characteristics by a trained panel. Goat and sheep breeds had different meat qualities. The composition and properties of subcutaneous and intramuscular fat contributed to the differences in meat quality observed within and between the species studied. Goats had proportionally smaller carcasses. Sheep yielded more dissectable fat and lean and less bone as a percentage of carcass weight than goat breeds, although the proportional lean content per cut of Boer goats was comparable to that of sheep. The percentage of bone was highest for Indigenous goats. Concentrations of saturated fatty acids were higher in goats compared to sheep. Sheep patties were more tender, juicy, greasy and less chewy compared to goat patties. The species related goaty and muttony flavour were clearly distinguishable. It is recommended that goats should be valued as a different species compared to sheep.
The purpose of this paper is to address some of the paradoxical issues and perceptions regarding animal fats and the related effects on meat quality and consumer perceptions. Meat scientists have been studying carcass characteristics for many years and although the factors that influence the accumulation, distribution and composition of carcass fat in livestock have been extensively researched, the role, value and perceptions of animal fats in meat quality differ significantly in importance between producers, abattoirs, butchers, retailers and consumers. Fat and long-chain fatty acids, whether in adipose tissue or muscle, contribute to important aspects of meat quality and are central to the nutritional and sensory values of meat. In this review the nutritional value of fat, as well as the importance of fat in terms of carcass and meat quality will be highlighted. The 'quality' of meat depends greatly on the socio-demographic backgrounds of the consumer. The aim is to focus on the global importance of fat in the carcass to the producer, processor and consumer. There is currently no clear cut definition for fat quality because the acceptability and perceived quality of fat varies significantly in terms of quantity, colour, consistency and chemical composition in different species of livestock around the world. The association between animal fats and human health is critical and recommendations by health professionals range from excluding fats altogether to a moderate consumption of fats due to their essential role in the body. Recently the emphasis has shifted away from fat quantity to fat quality. Despite these recommendations and years of bad publicity in terms of the adverse affects of animal fats in human health, the livestock industry seems reluctant to shift its focus to fat quality rather than quantity. This approach may adversely affect future meat consumption by consumers who are becoming increasingly critical about the food they eat.
This paper reviews the factors affecting the fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and muscle in pigs, sheep and cattle and shows that a major factor is the total amount of fat. The effects of fatty acid composition on meat quality are also reviewed. Pigs have high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including the long chain (C20-22) PUFA in adipose tissue and muscle. The full range of PUFA are also found in sheep adipose tissue and muscle whereas cattle 'conserve' long chain PUFA in muscle phospholipid. Linoleic acid (18:2n-6) is a major ingredient of feeds for all species. Its incorporation into adipose tissue and muscle in relation to the amount in the diet is greater than for other fatty acids. It is deposited in muscle phospholipid at a high level where it and its long chain products eg aracidonic acid (20:4n-6) compete well for insertion into phospholipid molecules. Its proportion in pig adipose tissue declines as fat deposition proceeds and is an index of fatness. The same inverse relationships are not seen in ruminant adipose tissue but in all species the proportion of 18:2n-6 declines in muscle as fat deposition increases. The main reason is that phospholipid, where 18:2n-6 is located, declines as a proportion of muscle lipid and the proportion of neutral lipid, with its higher content of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, increases. Oleic acid (18:1cis-9), formed from stearic acid (18:0) by the enzyme stearoyl Co-A desaturase, is a major component of neutral lipid and in ruminants the same enzyme forms conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), an important nutrient in human nutrition. Like 18:2n-6, α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3) is an essential fatty acid and is important to ruminants since it is the major fatty acid in grass. However it does not compete well for insertion into phospholipid compared with 18:2n-6 and its incorporation into adipose tissue and muscle is less efficient. Greater biohydrogenation of 18:3n-3 and a long rumen transit time for forage diets also limits the amount available for tissue uptake compared with 18:2n-6 from concentrate diets. A positive feature of grass feeding is that levels of the nutritionally important long chain n-3 PUFA are increased ie EPA (20:5n-3) and DHA (22:6n-3). Future research should focus on increasing n-3 PUFA proportions in lean carcasses and the use of biodiverse pastures and conservation processes which retain the benefits of fresh leafy grass offer opportunities to achieve this. The varying fatty acid compositions of adipose tissue and muscle have profound effects on meat quality. Fatty acid composition determines the firmness/oiliness of adipose tissue and the oxidative stability of muscle, which in turn affects flavour and muscle colour. Vitamin E is an essential nutrient, which stabilises PUFA and has a central role in meat quality, particularly in ruminants.
Thirty-two male Ile de France lambs were divided into four equal groups at age 37 days. Two groups were allowed to graze a natural pasture in France each at a different growth rate (grass high and grass low groups). The other two groups were raised in stalls and fed concentrates to achieve the same growth rates (stall high and stall low groups, respectively) as from the grass groups. The animals were slaughtered when they attained 35 kg and their carcass and meat quality were evaluated. Animals from the two high growth rate groups were slaughtered at an average age of 129 days while those from the low growth rate groups were slaughtered at 163 days. Carcasses from stall-fed lambs were heavier than those from grass-fed lambs as the digestive tract percentage was higher in the grass lambs. Carcasses from stall lambs had better muscular conformation score (P <0.05) and were fattier than those from grass-fed animals. Subcutaneous fat was more yellow and harder in grass-fed lambs (P <0.05). Meat from grass-fed lambs was darker (P <0.05) in colour (lower L*) than meat from stall animals up to 24 h of display. Meat from stall fed animals was more tender and juicier than meat from grass-fed animals (P <0.01), as judged by a trained panel of assessors. Typical lamb flavour was higher in stall-fed lambs (P <0.01). Meat from grass-fed animals had more pronounced liver flavour (P <0.05) and less fatty flavour (P <0.01) than stall-fed lambs. Overall the difference in meat quality between the two different growth rates was minimal.
Hundreds of compounds contribute to the flavor and aroma of meat. Complex interactions between various compounds influence the perception of meat flavor. Inherent flavor of a meat product can be influenced by oxidation, lipid content, feeding/diet, myoglobin, and pH. Diet plays an important role in both ruminants and nonruminants. New research reveals important relationships in flavor among multiple muscles within a single animal carcass. This animal effect includes the presence of off-flavors. Diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids may be contributing to the appearance of off-flavors in beef. Compounds associated with liver-like off-flavor notes in beef have been identified in raw tissue.
Chemically, goat meat had significantly (P < 0·05) less intramuscular fat and significantly (P < 0·001) more moisture than lamb. The sarcoplasmic protein concentration of the goat meat was significantly (P < 0·001) greater than that of lamb while the myofibrillar protein concentration was similar in the two species. Goat meat was darker red in colour than lamb. It had significantly (P < 0·001) superior water-holding capacity and less cooking losses than lamb. Meat flavour was significantly (P < 0·05) less strong in goat meat than in lamb.
The effect of four castrated goat genotypes and sunflower cake supplementation on goat meat quality was determined. Supplemented Boer (BOR) and Xhosa-Boer cross (XBC) goats had significantly higher (P<0.05) SLW and CDM than non-supplemented groups. The Xhosa lop-eared (XLE) and Nguni (NGN) goats had higher pH24 (P<0.05) than BOR and XBC goats. For each genotype, the sunflower cake supplemented and non-supplemented goats had similar a* values, except for the XLE goats. In the XLE goats, the a* values were lower in the sunflower cake supplemented goats. Sunflower cake supplemented BOR goats had higher L*values than their non-supplemented counterparts (P<0.05). The sunflower cake supplemented BOR and NGN goats also had higher b* values as compared to their non-supplemented counterparts. In comparison with the Boer goat, the XLE and NGN goats had lower CDM, L* and WBF values but generally had higher CL and a* values. Sunflower cake supplementation improved meat quality attributes of the goats.
The history, origin and characteristics of the South African Boer breed of goats are reviewed. The development was carried out by a handful of farmers in the Eastern Cape, particularly in the district of Somerset East. The prototype for the breed was selected from several existing breeds of goats in South Africa in order to achieve the present functional characteristics and type. The Boer goat is a hardy breed with great capacity for adaptation and an exceptional ability to withstand and resist diseases. The Boer goat is highly fertile, conception rate is about 90%, kidding rate about 189% and fecundity rate 210%. Weaning weight at 120 days averages 29kg. Boer doe produces enough milk to raise twins easily. Boer goat yields flavoursome, succulent, tender and tasty lean meat of high quality, particularly during the young stage. Boer goat is able to maintain a high level of production up to 10 years of age. Details on breed standards of the Boer goat are presented. Numerous countries had imported Boer goats from South Africa including USA, New Zealand, Australia, Germany, Israel, France and more recently China.
Research guidelines for cookery, sensory evaluation and instrumental tenderness measurements of fresh meat
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Loss on drying (moisture) at 95-100°C for feed. AOAC official method 934.01
- Aoac International
AOAC International (2002a). Loss on drying (moisture) at 95-100°C for feed. AOAC official
method 934.01. In: Official method of analysis (17th ed.). Arlington, Virginia, USA:
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Ash of animal feed. AOAC Official Method 942.05. Official method of analysis
- Aoac International
AOAC International (2002b). Ash of animal feed. AOAC Official Method 942.05. Official
method of analysis(17th ed.). Arlington, Virginia, USA: Association of Official
Analytical Chemists Inc.