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© CAB International 2018. Handbook of Pest Management in Organic Farming
328 (eds V. Vacante and S. Kreiter)
Introduction
Almonds possess economic, medicinal
and nutritional benets and are consumed
in nearly every country worldwide. Major
production areas, however, are limited
to Mediterranean-like climates, which are
broadly categorized as hot, dry summers
and mild, wet winters. Even though the
almond tree is native to western Asia, the
USA has the highest production of almonds
in the world. In 2013, roughly 82% of the
almond production was within the USA with
an estimated 840.91 thousand t (Tables 12.1
and 12.2). Other major production areas in-
clude EU-27 (the 27 countries of the Euro-
pean Union) (pre dominantly Spain), Australia
and Turkey. The export value of the almond
crop for the USA is US$3387 billion in 2012
(Anonymous, 2013a).
Within agricultural systems, the almond
tree is unique. Almond trees can grow on a
variety of soil types, which include high pH
and moderately saline soils, even though
they perform best on well-drained, deep,
fertile soils. Almond trees are able to survive
on as little as 180 mm of water annually, and
respond to increased water applications
with increasing yield. Almonds bloom earlier
than other Prunus spp., however, and there-
fore are susceptible to late spring frosts.
They are also susceptible to a number of
diseases and insects. These risks can be
minimized by selecting later blooming or
more resistant varieties.
Almonds are affected by a number of
insect pests (Table 12.3). These pests attack
the tree or kernel, reducing orchard vigour
or yield. Pest pressure, however, tends to be
lower than other crops due to the protection
of the kernel/seed from the environment by
a shell and hull, and the production areas
being primarily in arid areas which tend to
have low insect pressure. This provides an
opportunity to grow almonds organically or
without the requirement of a large amount
of pesticides.
Organic production within almond is
reliant on the use of variety selection or cul-
tural practices to reduce insect infestation
rates. Cultural methods include good sani-
tation practices in the orchard, which in-
clude removing or shredding old debris,
dried nuts from the previous year’s crop,
and dead wood from the trees. Organically
approved pesticides have been shown to be
effective for some, but not all pests. Specic
control measures for the pests listed in
12 Pest Management in Organic Almond
Hüseyin Baspinar,1* David Doll2 and Jhalendra Rijal3
1Adnan Menderes University, Aydın, Turkey; 2University of California Cooperative
Extension, Merced County, California, USA; 3University of California Cooperative
Extension, Stanislaus County, California, USA
* Corresponding author: hbaspinar@adu.edu.tr
Pest Management in Organic Almond 329
Table 12.3 are outlined below. Please note
that there are other pests which are not
listed that are minor or limited to smaller
areas of production.
Major Pests
Monosteira unicostata
(Mulsant & Rey) (Hemiptera:
Tingididae) (poplar lace bug)
Description
The body of Monosteira unicostata is light
yellowish grey in colour and about 2.5 mm
long. The hemelytra are divided in appear-
ance (Lodos, 1982).
Life cycle
M. unicostata overwinters in the adult stage
in hidden places, under debris or in the
crevices on the trees in orchards. Females
lay their eggs by inserting them in the plant
tissue under the leaf. The surface of the in-
serted egg on the leaf tissue is covered with
a dark-coloured liquid excreted by the female
from its anus. It reaches high population
numbers on poplar trees in August and Sep-
tember. Additionally, the other two species
of Tingidae, Monosteira lobulifera Reuter
and Stephanitis pyri (Fabricius) have also
been found in almond orchards in Turkey
(Bolu, 2007).
Damage
Adults and nymphs feed on the underside
of leaves by sucking the sap which results
in damage to the chlorophyll and in white
patches on leaves. The leaves drop prema-
turely as a result of feeding by either adults
or nymphs of the pest (Lodos, 1982). M. uni-
costata has three generations in 1 year
(Russo et al., 1994).
Distribution and host plants
The poplar lace bug is reported from Medi-
terranean countries, Turkistan, Hungary and
the Caucasus. The host plants include
poplar, Salix, apple, pear and almond (Lodos,
1982).
Management for organic farming
The efcacy of kaolin, azadirachtin and po-
tassium salts of fatty acids combined with
thyme essential oil against adults and fourth
instar nymphs was evaluated in laboratory
assays. It was concluded that the products
tested have shown high and different ef-
cacy on nymphs and adults of M. unicostata.
This activity might be suitable for the prac-
tical application of these compounds to
control its populations under real eld con-
ditions (Sanches-Ramos et al., 2014).
The number of coccinellid and hemip-
teran predators feeding on M. unicostata
has been determined in almond orchards
(Bolu, 2007).
Table 12.1. Production-wise ranking of different
almond-growing countries of the world. (From
Almond Board of California and International Nut
and Dried Fruit Council (INC), 2013, cited in
Anonymous, 2013a.)
Countries Production (%)
USA 82
EU-27a6
Australia 5
Turkey 2
Others 5
aEU-27, The 27 countries of the European Union.
Table 12.2. Forecasted world almond production in
2013–2014. (From Almond Board of California and
International Nut and Dried Fruit Council (INC),
2013, cited in Anonymous, 2013a.)
Country Production (thousands of kg)
USA 840.91
Australia 69.13
Spain 32.04
Turkey 15.04
Iran 15.04
Tunisia 13.04
Chile 10.00
Morocco 6.00
Greece 5.00
Italy 5.00
Others 30.04
World total 1041.24
330 H. Baspinar et al.
Capnodis carbonaria (Klug) (Coleoptera:
Buprestidae) (almond borer)
Description
Adults of Capnodis carbonaria are black or
bronzed in colour and the pronotum is
slightly shiny and ornamented in black and
white. The body of adults becomes tapered
from the anterior to the posterior. The length
of the adult is 20–35 mm, and the forewings
are very hard. The eggs are 1 mm in length
and oval in shape. Larvae are attened with
13 segments and yellow in colour. The
young larva is very pubescent, but from the
second instar on it changes and becomes
hairless and smooth. The length of the
developed larvae can reach up to 12 cm
( Lodos and Tezcan, 1995), depending on
geographic area and on which host they are
feeding. The pupa is oval in appearance and
resembles the adult in shape.
Life cycle
Almond borer beetles overwinter in the
adult stage under debris or in the ground.
They become active and copulate when the
temperature increases over 25–26°C. Mated
females deposit their eggs in the crevices of
the bark very near to ground level, or on the
ground near to the trunk of trees. Ovipos-
ition begins in May, but most of the eggs are
laid in July and August (Lodos and Tezcan,
1995). A single female can deposit almost
2000 eggs during its lifespan. The eggs are
wet when laid and are covered by debris and
soil adhering to them, so that they are cam-
ouaged. Hatching larvae from the eggs are
quite active underground. They can move
by using hairs on their body to reach for the
roots. The hairs are lost when they tunnel
into roots. Young larvae feed in cambium
tissue of the root by tunnelling in 30–45 cm
length. It takes 1–2 years to develop from
larvae into pupae. They pupate near the
root in the ground. Adults hatch from pupae
after 4 weeks. Adults’ emergence from pupae
mostly occurs in July–August. This group of
adults copulate and deposit their eggs in
September–October. The second group of
adults appears in October–November, and
they become active in the next spring and
oviposition takes place in July–August
Table 12.3. Pests in almond orchards.
Species Common name Order: family
Amyelois transitella (Walker) Navel orangeworm Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) San Jose scale Hemiptera: Diaspididae
Monosteira unicostata(Mulsant & Rey) Poplar lace bug Hemiptera: Tingididae
Capnodis carbonaria (Klug) Almond borer Coleoptera: Buprestidae
Cerambyx dux (Faldermann) Longhorn beetle Coleoptera: Cerambycidae
Anarsia lineatella Zeller Peach twig borer Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae
Tropinota (= Epicometis) hirta (Poda) Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) Carob moth Lepidoptera: Pyralidae
Cimbex quadrimaculatus (Müller) Almond sawfly Hymenoptera: Cimbicidae
Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein Hymenoptera: Eurotomidae
Tetranychus pacificus McGregor,
Tetranychus urticae Koch, Tetranychus
turkestani Ugarov and Nikolski
Web-spinning spider mites
(Pacific spider mite,
two-spotted spider mite,
strawberry spider mite)
Trombidiforma: Tetranychidae
Anthonomus amygdali HustacheaColeoptera: Curculionidae
Brachycaudus amygdalinus(Schouteden)aHemiptera: Aphididae
Panonychus ulmi (Koch)a, Bryobia
rubrioculus (Scheuten)a
European red mite, brown
almond mite
Trombidiforma: Tetranychidae
Tetramorium caespitum (L.)a, Solenopsis
xyloni McCooka, Solenopsis molesta (Say)a
Ants (pavement ant, southern
fire ant, thief ant)
Hymenoptera: Formicidae
aSecondary pests.
Pest Management in Organic Almond 331
( Anonymous, 2008b). The life cycle takes
12–15 months to be completed (Talhouk, 2009).
Damage
C. carbonaria adults feed on leaves and
young shoots, but economic damage is rare.
Young trees, between the ages of 1 and 4
years, are at the greatest risk due to tree col-
lapse and death from larvae feeding in the
roots. Older trees may die if many years of
root feeding occur.
Distribution and host plants
The pest is known in Italy, the former
Yugoslavia, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Lebanon,
Israel, Syria, Iraq, Iran, south Caucasus and
Afghanistan (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969;
Lodos and Tezcan, 1995). Host plants include
primarily almond and other fruit trees such
as apricots, peaches, plums, cherries and sour
cherries (Lodos and Tezcan, 1995) and add-
itionally pistachios in Turkey (Nizamlıoglu,
1957).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. Weed control can help to
destroy the adult habitat under the canopy.
Tree trunks can be painted with whitewash
on the bark to prevent egg laying by adult
females. Early in the morning and late even-
ing, adults can be hand collected when they
are partly inactive on the trunk of trees.
When damaged leaves drop from the trees,
it is an indication of the damage by Capnodis,
and Capnodis can be collected and removed
by shaking the branches of young trees
( Anonymous, 2008b).
biological control. No information on bio-
logical control of C. carbonaria could be
found in the literature, however, the nema-
tode, Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser)
was reported to be very effective (96–100%
efcacy) against neonate larvae of Capnodis
tenebrionis (L.) in laboratory trials (Garcia
Del Pino and Morton, 2005). S. carpocapsae
in a chitosan formulation was found to be
very effective against C. tenebrionis in eld
trials in apricot plantations in Spain (Mar-
tinez de Altub et al., 2008).
There are very few natural enemies of
C. tenebrionis. Only Sclerodermus cereicol-
lis Kieffer (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) and
some entomopathogenic fungi were reported
in south Italy. Additionally, two commercial
formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis (Ber-
liner) were found to be ineffective against
this pest (Marannino and Lillo, 2007).
Cerambyx dux (Faldermann) (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae) (longhorn beetle)
Description
The adult of Cerambyx dux is dark brown
and 50–52 mm long. The antennae are
longer than the body. The eggs are 4.5 mm
long, oval and dirty white in colour. The
newly hatched larvae are very small, around
4.5 mm long. The larvae are soft and creamy
white in colour and cylindrical in shape.
The larva may reach 9–10 cm just before it
pupates (Talhouk, 1969). The pupae are ini-
tially dirty white, but become dark in col-
our over time (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969).
Life cycle
The longhorn beetle overwinters as the
adult stage after hatching from the pupa in
the late autumn within a tunnel inside the
trunk of a tree. The following year, the bee-
tle will emerge from the tunnel in the late
spring or early summer. The adult female
deposits eggs singly under the bark in crev-
ices or cracks. A single female can deposit
30–40 eggs during its lifetime. The newly
hatched larvae start boring into the trunk or
main branches of the tree and feed on the
wood (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Talhouk,
1969). Large amounts of sawdust or frass are
evacuated from the gallery holes on the
trunk. The larvae feeding in the wood pro-
duce tapping sounds. The larval develop-
ment is completed in 15–17 months, from
June until August or October in the Middle
East (Talhouk, 1969).
Damage
The damage is caused by the larvae boring
the tunnel in the wood tissue. This damage
332 H. Baspinar et al.
weakens the tree which may lead to the
breaking of affected branches or scaffolds
under the weight of heavy loads or the pres-
sure of the wind (Talhouk, 1969).
Distribution and host plants
The longhorn beetle is reported in countries
of the Middle East (Talhouk, 1969), and
Mediterranean countries including Bulgaria,
Crimea, Greece, Italy, Israel, Syria, the Leba-
non, Macedonia, north-west Iran and Turkey
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Anonymous,
2011). The list of host plants includes stone
fruits, such as peach, apricot, almond ( Avidov
and Harpaz, 1969) and plum ( Talhouk, 1969).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. Wood-boring pests of
trees are attracted to weak woody plants in
order to deposit their eggs (Talhouk, 1969).
Hence cultural practices such as regular ir-
rigation, pruning and proper fertilization
can help to maintain the trees in a healthy
state so they are resistant to pest attack.
Anarsia lineatella Zeller (Lepidoptera:
Gelechiidae) (peach twig borer moth)
Description
Anarsia lineatella moths are grey in appear-
ance with grey forewings. The wings may
have darker and lighter spots and lines. The
hindwings are lighter in colour than the
forewings. The wingspan is 14–18 mm and
the body length is 7–8 mm. The wings are
fringed with long hairs (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969; Talhouk, 1969).
The eggs are oval and 0.5 × 0.3 mm in
size, and when laid they are initially creamy
white in colour, but later turn to orange and
brown (Anonymous, 2008b). The newly
hatched larva is light brown and later it
turns to reddish brown in colour. Its head,
pronotum and legs are black with whitish
intersegmental areas giving the larvae a
banded appearance. The body of the larva is
covered with numerous hairs on the dorsal
surface and when mature, the larval length
is 10 mm. The pupa is elongate and 6 mm
long with numerous hairs (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969; Talhouk, 1969).
Life cycle
The peach twig borer overwinters as a young
larva in a cavity, which is termed a hiber-
naculum, approximately 2 mm beneath the
bark of twigs and branches. In spring, the
larva becomes active and leaves the cavity
to feed on ower buds, leaves, nutlets, grow-
ing tips and the small buds. The larvae can
change their feeding site and may attack
several growing tips before they become ma-
ture. The larvae will burrow into a shoot tip
travelling 2–5 cm down into the wood, kill-
ing the terminal bud. When fully grown, the
larvae leave their tunnels to become pupae,
spinning a cocoon on the branches (Avidov
and Harpaz, 1969; Talhouk, 1969). Adults
hatch from the pupae in early to mid-spring,
depending on geographic area (Anonymous,
2008b). Females deposit their eggs, more
than 140 in number (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969), on fruit or foliage after copulation.
The peach twig borer produces four gener-
ations/year in Israel (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969), California (Strand, 2002) and in Syria
(Talhouk, 1969), and three to ve gener-
ations in Turkey (Anonymous, 2008b).
Damage
The rst generation larvae hatching from
the eggs prefer to feed on the fruits causing
damage and fruit drop. Attacked fruits indi-
cate a gummy point where the larva enters
into the fruit, and larva can feed on the
kernel or between the hull and the shell.
The larvae of the peach twig borer may also
attack both twigs and fruit during summer.
In nurseries and young orchards, the larvae
of the pest could cause severe damage on
vigorous growing shoots and cause undesir-
able growth and lateral branching of the
shoots (Anonymous, 2008b).
Distribution and host plants
The peach twig borer moth is reported to be
found in North America, many European
Pest Management in Organic Almond 333
countries, the Mediterranean countries, Syria,
Lebanon, Palestine, China, Japan, Australia
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Talhouk, 1969),
Iraq (Ahmad and Khadhum, 1986) and Iran
(Oloumi-Sadeghi and Esmaili, 1983). The
list of host plants includes peach, nectarine,
almond, apricot, plum, cherry and apple
(Anonymous, 2008b).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. Infested shoots should
be cut into 8–10 cm lengths weekly be-
tween March and September. They should
be placed in cages covered with mesh so
that once parasitoid adults hatch from the
parasitized larvae the adults can escape
and increase the parasitoid population in
the orchard. During this practice, undesir-
able lateral shoots should also be cut off to
prevent new infestations (Anonymous,
2008b). The infested fruits should be col-
lected and destroyed, so that the popula-
tion of the pest will be reduced in the next
growing season.
biological control. There are numerous
parasitoids and predators controlling the
peach twig borer populations. These in-
clude the following parasitoids that have
been determined to date:
• Apanteles anarsiae Faure et Alab., Apan-
teles glomeratus L., Ascogaster sp., Bra-
con gelechiae Ashmead, Macrocentrus
ancylivorus Rowher and Spilochalcis n.sp.
aff torvina (Cresson) (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae);
• Paralitomastix pyralidis (Ashmead) and
Paralitomastix varicornis Nees. (Hymen-
optera: Encyrtidae);
• Ephialtes subglobiatus L., Aptesis sp.,
Mastrus sp., Phaeoganes rustigatus
Wesm., Pimpla instigator F. and Pristo-
merus vulnelator Panz. (Hymenoptera:
Ichneumonidae);
• Periclora gestroci K. (Hymenoptera:
Belulidae);
• Brachymeria intermedia Perk. and
Hyperteles lividus (Ashmead) (Hymen-
optera: Chalcididae);
• Andreana sp. (Hymenoptera: Apidae);
• Dibrachys ofnis M. (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae);
• Haematopoda pluviallis L. (Diptera:
Tabanidae);
• Erynnia tortricis (Coquillett) (Diptera:
Tachinidae);
• Euderus cushmani Crawford (Hymen-
optera: Eulophidae); and
• Pyemotes ventricosus (Newport) (Acarina:
Pyemotidae) (Daane et al., 1993; Strand,
2002; Anonymous, 2008b).
The grey eld ant, Formica aerata
(Francoeur) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) is
reported to prey on the peach twig borer
during spring and summer, but it was not
able to keep the pest population below eco-
nomically damaging levels (Strand, 2002).
It was also reported that dormant- season
application of Steinernema carpocapsae
(Weiser) (Rhabditida: Steinernematidae) and
Heterorhabditis sp. (Rhabditida: Heterorhab-
ditidae) reduced overwintering larval popu-
lations of the peach twig borer in hibernacula
on almond trees in California orchards
(Agudelo-Silva et al., 1995).
mating disrupti on. Mating disruption with
sex pheromone can help to reduce the pest
population. This was reported to reduce
the peach twig borer moth populations in
plum orchards; however, it was not reliable
when used alone. It is effective in orchards
when the moth population is low (Strand,
2002).
chemical treatments. Sprays of microbial
product such as Bacillus thuringiensis and
the Entrust formulation of spinosad at bloom
can control the peach twig borer. Mid-
spring sprays of Entrust should be timed to
the hatching larvae of the rst generation
(Strand, 2002).
Tropinota (= Epicometis) hirta (Poda)
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) (flower chafers)
Description
The adult of Tropinota hirta is dark brown
and 8–12 mm long. The body is covered
334 H. Baspinar et al.
with dense and long yellowish-white hairs.
There are white patches on the elytra. Eggs
are 2.0–2.5 mm in diameter and spherical in
shape and white in colour. Larvae are a
brown-coloured grub (Anonymous, 2008b).
Life cycle
T. hirta overwinters as the adult stage in the
soil. Adults become active in the spring
during the blossoming period of the fruit
trees. The adult population reaches its peak
by the end of the spring. Adults feed on the
blossoms, young leaves and buds and even
fruits, and deposit their eggs into the soil.
The grubs feed on the roots of the weeds
after hatching from the eggs, and they de-
velop on decomposing plant matter, and do
not cause any damage to the almond trees
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Anonymous,
2008b). The grubs complete their develop-
ment in 6–9 weeks in the soil and pupate.
Adults hatching from the pupae overwinter
in the soil (Anonymous, 2008b).
Damage
The damage is caused to the owers, young
leaves, buds and even fruits which are at-
tacked by the adults, which then lay their
eggs into the soil. The grubs do not cause
any damage to the almond trees, as they
feed on the roots of weeds after hatching
from the eggs, and they develop on decom-
posing plant matter (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969; Anonymous, 2008b).
Distribution and host plants
Flower chafers are known to occur in Europe,
the Near East and North Africa. Its list of
host plants includes apple, apricot, cherry,
sour cherry, peach, pear, plum and many
other plants (Anonymous, 2008b).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. The adults, grubs and
adults could be destroyed by tillage of the
soil. The trees can be shaken during the morn-
ing hours when the adults are motionless on
the plants, and the adults that are dropped can
be picked off by hand ( Anonymous, 2008b).
biotechnical control. Traps combined with
visual (blue colour) and chemical (1:1 cin-
namyl alcohol/trans-anethole mixture, known
as ower scent volatiles) play an important
role in mass trapping of the pest (Knudsen
et al., 1993; Toth et al., 2004).
Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zell.) (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae) (carob moth)
Description
Forewings of the adult Ectomyelois cerato-
niae are narrow, dull and dark grey in col-
our; two ‘w’-shaped light stripes stand out
on the forewings when the adult is at rest.
The hindwings are white in colour with dis-
tinctive veins. The body length and the wing-
span are 8–11 mm and 16–28 mm, respectively
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Anonymous,
2008a), depending on the geographical area
where they live.
The eggs are oval and 0.7 × 0.5 mm in
size, and when laid they are initially white in
colour, but later they turn to red-brown. The
larvae are 15–18 mm long, and the larval body
is pinkish with a brown head and pronotum.
The pupa is 3 × 10 mm in size, and pupation
takes place in a light grey cocoon (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969; Anonymous, 2008a).
Life cycle
The carob moth overwinters as larvae
within the almond ‘mummies’ (mummied
fruit), under the bark or in the crevices of
the trees. First adults appear between April
and June depending on the geographical
area. One female deposits 100–350 eggs on
the fruits during its lifespan. Larvae start to
feed on fruits right after they emerge from
the eggs. The carob moth produces four to
ve generations in a year (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969; Anonymous, 2008a).
Damage
The rst generation develops from mid-April
until late June (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969) and
is harmful to the almond. It can be considered
that from late June onwards the almond fruits
Pest Management in Organic Almond 335
become rigorous so that the second gener-
ation larvae are not capable of penetrating
into the fruits as long as the fruit skin is not
injured or split. The second and following
generations develop mainly in carob, citrus
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969) and pomegranate.
Distribution and host plants
The carob moth is distributed in Africa, cen-
tral and southern Europe, Central and South
America and the Near East, and it is likely to
be introduced into many temperate coun-
tries inside food consignments (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969). The list of host plants in-
cludes carob, orange, grapefruit, pistachio,
pomegranate, apple, pear, hazelnut, almond,
walnut, chestnut, date, g, grape, olive, per-
simmon and quince (Avidov and Harpaz,
1969; Anonymous, 2008a).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. All infested fruits both
on trees and on the ground should be col-
lected regularly from the almond orchards
and destroyed. The almond orchards prefer-
ably should be established in areas that are
free from the other hosts of the carob moth.
biological control. The predator Orius
minutus L. (Hem.: Anthocoridae) and the
parasitoids Phanerotoma avitestacea Fish.,
Habrabracon hebetor Say., Habrabracon
brevicornis (Wesmael), Bracon lactus Wes-
mael, Apanteles sp. (Hym.: Braconidae), Pri-
stomerus vulnerator Panz. (Hym.: Ichneu-
monidae) and Trichogramma spp. (Hym.:
Trichogrammatidae) are common natural
enemies in Turkey (Anonymous, 2008a). It
was reported that P. avitestacea, Clausicel-
la suturata Rond. (Dip.: Tachinidae) and the
ectoparasitic mite Pyemotes (= Pediculoi-
des) ventricosus (Newp.) (Acarina: Pyemoti-
dae) were common natural enemies in Israel
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969). Apanteles mye-
loenta Wilkinson (Hymenoptera: Braconi-
dae) was found to be very common in Iran
(Kishani-Farahani et al., 2012). Apanteles
spp. group ultor (Hym.: Braconidae) was re-
ported as a very common parasitoid species
of the carob moth in Iraq (Al-Maliki and
Al-Izzi, 1986). Enhancement of the natural
enemies could help to reduce the carob
moth population in almond orchards.
In addition to natural enemies, Bacillus
thuringiensis can control carob moth popu-
lations when sprayed regularly at intervals
of every 10–15 days from the rst larval
emergence (Anonymous, 2008a).
mating disruption. There are some commer-
cial mating disruption products to control
the carob moth in dates, which could be
tested in almond orchards.
Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae) (navel orangeworm)
Description
Adult moths have silvery grey and black pat-
terns on the forewings and legs. The hindwings
are light, darkening at the apex and along the
veins. A pair of palps in front of the head forms
a snout-like projection. The body length and
the wingspan are 8–12 mm and 19–23.5 mm,
respectively (Wade, 1961). Females have a lar-
ger wingspan, with a range from 18 to 27 mm.
Eggs are oval and 0.5–1 mm in diam-
eter, and when laid are initially white in
colour. As the eggs mature, they turn pink
and then to red-brown. Newly hatched lar-
vae are reddish brown in colour, but change
to pink or white depending upon diet. The
head and pronotum are dark in colour in all
instars, and a pair of crescent-shaped marks
on the second segment helps distinguish
the moth from other larvae. Larvae grow to
15–18 mm long, and the larval body is pinkish,
and head and pronotum are brown. The pupa
ranges in length from 7.25 mm to 12 mm, is
light to dark brown, and is often found within
shells or between the shell and the hull.
Life cycle
The navel orangeworm moth (NOW) over-
winters as pupae and larvae within dried,
shrivelled mummied fruit that remain on
the tree after the previous year’s harvest. Lar-
vae do not enter diapause, so adult emergence
may occur during warm periods within the
336 H. Baspinar et al.
winter. Pupation occurs within the mummies
in early spring, and emergence marks the be-
ginning of the rst ight. First generation eggs
are laid on mummy nuts, and these serve as
the only food source for the developing lar-
vae. First generation female moths emerge in
late spring or early summer for the second
ight and lay eggs on mummy nuts or fruit
damaged by other moth pests. Developing lar-
vae will feed on almond hulls and kernels,
but develop faster on almond kernels. Succes-
sive ights will increase egg-laying female
populations. As the almond-ripening process
begins, and hull-split is initiated, female
moths will lay eggs on the exposed shell and
kernel. On average, a female deposits 84.6
eggs, with as many as 250 being observed
(Wade, 1961). NOW typically produces four
generations a year in California with the se-
cond, third and fourth ight potentially caus-
ing damage to the almond crop (Strand, 2002).
Damage
Kernel feeding by NOW larvae causes eco-
nomic losses, especially in areas of higher
population densities (Strand, 2002).
Distribution and host plants
The NOW is commonly found in Mexico and
throughout the south-western USA (Wade,
1961). The list of host plants includes citrus,
apples, apricots, gs, nectarine, peach, pear,
plum, quince, almonds, pecans and walnuts.
It is commonly found within trees or shrubs
that produce seed pods. These include carob
pods, bottle-tree seeds, dates, jujube, loquat,
pomegranate, Acacia farnesiana, Genipa
americana, Texas ebony and yucca pods
(Wade, 1961).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. Cultural practices that can
help with control of this pest include:
• Sanitation – all infested fruits both on
trees and on the ground should be col-
lected regularly from the almond
orchards and destroyed. Mummy nuts
can be removed from the tree by mech-
anically shaking or by hand pulling.
• Early harvest – almonds should be har-
vested as soon as feasible. An earlier
timed harvest can reduce the exposure
to NOW ights, leading to a reduction
in damage.
• Varietal selection – hard-shelled or other
varieties that have a tight shell seal are
more resistant to infestation by NOW.
biological control. There are two parisitoid
wasps introduced into California to manage
this pest. The encyrtid wasp, Copidosoma
plethorica (Caltagirone) lays its eggs inside
the NOW larva, and each egg develops into
a large number of larva that consume the
host and pupate inside the exoskeleton. The
bethylid wasp Goniozus legneri Gordh lays
eggs on the surface of the NOW larva and
the egg hatches into a larva that consumes
the NOW larva from the outside. Both wasps
can occur within the same orchard, and con-
trol is greater when both species are present.
Even with high densities, natural popula-
tions do not provide reliable control of NOW.
Flocks of birds that move into the or-
chard during the dormant period will often
feed upon mummy nuts. This feeding assists
the sanitation process and effectiveness is
determined by the type of bird and proxim-
ity of the orchard to bird ight patterns.
In addition to natural enemies, Bacillus
thuringiensis can control NOW, but since this
bacterium must be ingested, coverage is crit-
ical. Sprays must be made regularly at inter-
vals of 10–15 days once hull-split has begun.
mating disruption. There are some commer-
cial mating disruption products to control
the NOW being tested within almonds in
California.
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock)
(Hemiptera: Diaspididae) (San Jose scale)
Description
The adult male of Quadraspidiotus perni-
ciosus, the San Jose scale is a yellow-brown
two winged insect that is very small in size,
between 1 mm and 2 mm. The female lives
under a scale covering and when scraped
Pest Management in Organic Almond 337
away, may reveal a bright yellow body. There
is no visible egg stage and nymphs emerge as
‘crawlers’ during the rst instar and migrate
to other feeding sites.
Life cycle
There are three stages during the rst instar,
which include the ‘crawler’, ‘white-cap’ and
‘black-cap’. The bright yellow crawler is
about 0.2 mm in length and will relocate
through animal, wind or human interven-
tion. Within 8–24 h of emergence, it will in-
sert mouthparts into the tree, and begin to
feed on the tree’s sap. As it feeds, a white
waxy covering begins to form (‘white-cap’
stage), and after a week of feeding, the cap
will begin to turn black (‘black cap’ stage).
The development of the male requires three
moults, and upon emergence it is short lived.
Females live under a scale, and emit a sex
pheromone to attract males. The male ight
and female receptivity tend to peak in the
early spring, and within 5–6 weeks the rst
crawlers emerge. Crawlers that emerge in
mid-spring will give rise to the rst gener-
ation male ight in the summer, and two more
generations will follow. Crawlers produced in
the late autumn will overwinter as black caps
and produce the overwintering ight.
Damage
Damage is from sucking of plant juices and
injection of a toxin, which leads to death of
twigs, limbs and overall decline in product-
ivity. Red halos often appear around the
feeding on green 1-year-old wood, and dam-
age is often visible as necrotic spots when
the scale-infested bark is scraped away.
Distribution and host plants
The San Jose scale has a worldwide distribu-
tion. The list of host plants includes apple,
pear, sweet cherry, peach, prune, other tree
fruits and nuts, berry bushes and many
kinds of shade trees and ornamental shrubs.
Management for organic farming
biological control. San Jose scale has many
natural enemies that can keep the pest under
control. Within Californian orchards, two
predaceous beetles have been identied
(Chilocorus orbus Casey and Cybocephalus
californicus Horn) as well as several wasps.
The most important wasps are the Encyrti-
dae species including Encarsia perniciosi
(Tower) and Aphytis spp.
chemical control. If large populations are de-
tected, applications of narrow-range oil when
the trees are dormant in winter are effective
in reducing all the stages of San Jose scale.
Spring sprays timed to crawler emergence
are also effective, but later sprays are not.
Cimbex quadrimaculata (Müller)
(Hymenoptera: Cimbicidae) (almond sawfly)
Description
The adult of Cimbex quadrimaculata is
22–24 mm long; its head is dark brown and
thorax black in colour. The abdomen is yel-
low with black crossing, narrow lines. The
egg is greenish in colour and about 2.75 mm
long. The general colour of the larvae is grey
and there are many black dots on the body.
The body of the larvae is about 38 mm long
when full grown. The pupae are light brown
and 25 mm long (Talhouk, 1969).
Life cycle
C. quadrimaculata overwinters as the ma-
ture larval stage in the soil. It pupates in
March–April depending on the geographical
area. Adults emerge in late March and April.
They deposit their eggs on the foliage of the
trees. The larvae hatching from the eggs feed
greedily on the leaves, and can cause severe
damage on young trees. The larvae leave the
trees usually moving into the soil in May
when they attain full size, and they remain
in diapause in their cocoons until the fol-
lowing spring (Talhouk, 1969).
Damage
It is not considered as a serious pest, but in
some years the larvae can defoliate lonely
trees (Talhouk, 1969).
338 H. Baspinar et al.
Distribution and host plants
The almond sawy is known to be found in
Cyprus, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey
and parts of Western Europe (Talhouk, 1969).
Avidov and Harpaz (1969) have recorded it
in Israel. The pest attacks almond and pear
(Talhouk, 1969).
Management for organic farming
C. quadrimaculata is not a serious pest. The
parasitization rate in the larval and pupal
stage of the pest is quite high. Listrognathus
mactator (Thunberg) (Hymenoptera: Ich-
neumonidae: Cryptinae) (Özgen et al., 2010)
and Opheltes glaucopterus (Linnaeus) and
Phobetes nigriceps (Gravenhorst) (Hymen-
optera: Ichneumonidae: Ctenopelmatinae)
(Özbek, 2014) were determined as larva–
pupa parasitoids of C. quadrimaculata.
Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein (Hymenoptera:
Eurotomidae) (almond fruit wasp)
Description
Eurytoma amygdali wasp is black in colour,
and forewings are transparent, metallic and
shiny and triangular in shape. The tibiae
and the connecting other leg segments are
yellow in colour. Females bear a distinctive
ovipositor (Anonymous, 2008a). The body
length is between 4 mm and 8 mm (Avidov
and Harpaz, 1969).
The eggs are minute and milky white in
colour and bear two prolonged appendages,
one being longer than the other. Larvae are
without legs, 7–8 mm in length and white in
colour. The body of the larvae is covered
with scattered hairs. The pupa is white in
colour in the beginning, but later turns dark
during its development (Anonymous, 2008a).
Life cycle
E. amygdali overwinters as a developed larva
inside almond fruits, and before almond blos-
som time the larvae pupate, and the adults
emerge in late February to early March in the
Middle East (Talhouk, 1969). However, the
majority of the overwintering larvae develop
into the pupal stage in the next spring. The
duration of the pupal stage takes about 18–51
days depending on the temperature. The rst
adults appear between March and April in Is-
rael, and also in mid-April and June, depend-
ing on climatic and geographic conditions
(Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Anonymous,
2008a). After the adults emerge from the fruit,
an emergence hole is visible which is about
2mm in diameter. After copulation, females
can deposit 47–88 eggs into the endosperm of
the fresh fruit. The incubation period of eggs
is variable; it takes place between 24 days and
27 days. It was reported that emergence usu-
ally starts in March in Israel (Plaut, 1971) and
in April and May in Greece (Katsoyannos etal.,
1992). Males emerge earlier than females, and
females deposit up to ve eggs per fruit under
normal conditions (Plaut, 1971). Laboratory
studies have shown that the females of this
species use a host- marking pheromone, im-
mediately after oviposition. Therefore, the
pheromone enables the females to distinguish
the infested and uninfested fruit and to se-
lect uninfested fruits for depositing eggs dur-
ing the oviposition period (Kouloussis and
Katsoyannos, 1991). Drilling and deposition
of the egg into the nuclear tissue of the young
fruits takes about 9–34 min, up to ve eggs
per fruit being laid under natural conditions
(Talhouk, 1977a). It has one generation/year.
Mentjelos and Atjemis (1970) stated that
when larval development was completed by
the end of June or the beginning of July, then
the larva enters diapause and remains in this
stage for one to three winters in Greece.
Damage
After the eggs hatch, the young larva starts
to tunnel into the middle of the fruit.
E.amygdali is one of the only pests reported
to feed on almond fruits in the east Mediter-
ranean countries (Talhouk, 1977a). It can
damage up to 50% of the almond orchards
in Bulgaria (Ivanov, 1960) and 71% in
Macedonia (Cakar, 1980).
Distribution and host plants
The geographical distribution of E. amyg-
dali includes the Middle East and east
Pest Management in Organic Almond 339
Mediterranean countries (Plaut, 1972; Tal-
houk, 1977a). The pest develops on almond,
apricot and plum (Anonymous, 2008a).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. All infested fruits both
on trees and on the ground should be col-
lected from the almond orchards after har-
vesting, and destroyed.
biological control. Many natural enemies
of E. amygdali have been reported from al-
mond-growing countries. The parasitoids,
Aprostocetus bucculentus (Kostjukov) (Hy-
menoptera: Eulophidae), Gugolzia bademia
Doganlar (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and
Adontomerus amygdali (Boucek) (Hymen-
optera: Torymidae) are common in Turkey
(Bolu and Özgen, 2007; Anonymous, 2008a).
Adontomerus amygdali (Hymenoptera:
Chalcidoidea: Torymidae) and Aprostocetus
bucculentus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea:
Eulophidae) are gregarious ectoparasitoids
on the larvae of E. amygdali. Pyemotes
amygdali Cobanoglu and Doganlar (2006)
(Acarina: Pyemotidae) is a gregarious ecto-
parasitoid on prepupae, pupae and newly
hatched adults of all of the hymenopterous
insects (Doganlar et al., 2006). Thanasimus sp.
(Coleoptera: Cleridae) is a predator of hy-
menopterous insects in almond fruits. The
natural parasitism on E. amygdali by A. amyg-
dali reached 0.38–35.2% in places where
the parasitoid was present. But, in the case of
A.bucculentus it was less than 5%. Parasitism/
predation rates by P. amygdali and Tha-
nasimus sp. which have been found in Hatay
province (Turkey) ranged from 7.56% to
44.53% and 0.38% to 11.2%, respectively
(Doganlar et al., 2006). It is likely that the
natural enemies help to keep the pest popu-
lation at a lower level, so the habitat in al-
mond orchards should be amended and
protected to ensure the survival of popula-
tions of parasitoids.
chemical control. Determination of the rst
emergence of adults is very important in the
spring. Cages covered with mesh cloth can
help to determine the rst adult emergence
by observing the infested fruits from the
previous year placed in the cages. Chemical
spraying that is acceptable in organic pro-
duction can be started after emergence
of the adult in the spring. The emergence
period of adults can vary between 24 days
and 45 days. If the emergence period were
extended, one more spray may be needed to
control the pest effectively.
Web-spinning spider mites
Web-spinning spider mites that are pests on
almond include the following species:
• Tetranychus pacicus McGregor (Acari:
Tetranychidae) (Pacic spider mite);
• Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetra-
nychidae) (two-spotted spider mite);
and
• Tetranychus turkestani Ugarov and
Nikolski (Acari: Tetranychidae) (straw-
berry spider mite).
Description
Mites are tiny arthropods (< 1 mm) belonging
to the class Arachnida (other examples:
spiders, ticks). The web-spinning mite spe-
cies described in this section are more or
less similar in morphology (adult stages),
life cycle, feeding habit and nature of dam-
age to the plants. Therefore, the same man-
agement strategy applies to all three species.
Adult mites are pale green to black in
colour, which changes into red or orange
during the winter. Male mites are smaller
than females and they do not overwinter.
Life cycle
Adult females overwinter under bark, leaf
litter and winter weeds on the orchard oor.
Upon reaching the conducive environmen-
tal conditions in spring, mites migrate from
their overwintering sites to the trees for egg
laying. Mites deposit eggs on the underside
of the leaf surface, and upon hatching rst
instar larvae start feeding on leaves. At least
three moults occur. Early in the season,
mites are abundant in the bottom half of the
trees, but will become widespread throughout
the tree later in the season depending on
temperature and the degree of infestation.
340 H. Baspinar et al.
Temperature plays a signicant role in in-
creased mite reproduction, thus maximum
population increase occurs between June
and September. Spider mites can complete
their life cycle within 7 days under high
temperature conditions, and can have be-
tween eight and ten generations/year in
California (Strand, 2002).
Damage
Spider mite infestations often begin on the
underside of the leaves. All stages of mites
feed on almond leaves by sucking the cell
contents. Spider mite infestation is charac-
terized by the presence of webbing cover-
ing tree leaves and twigs. The webbing has
several biological and ecological functions
including dispersal and reproduction of
mites, and protection from natural enemies
(Gerson, 1985; Kennedy and Smitley, 1985).
In the beginning, damage by spider mite
feeding results in stippled leaves, which ad-
vances to yellowing and dropping of leaves
as the infestation progresses. The degree of
mite infestation is negatively correlated
with chlorophyll content and photosyn-
thetic activity of the leaves (Andrews and
La Pré, 1979), and this eventually affects
tree health and productivity. Mite damage
in the current year translates into the re-
duction in growth and productivity of the
trees in the following years (Barnes and
Andrews, 1978).
Distribution and hosts plants
The three spider mite species possess a
wide geographical distribution, and they
are one of the most widely distributed pests
of many wild, ornamental and cultivated
plants. In the USA, two-spotted spider
mites feed on over 300 host plants, and one-
third of them are cultivated crops.
Pest monitoring
Spider mites favour a dry and low-moisture
type of environment, thus water-stressed or-
chards are often at risk of high infestation.
Properly irrigated orchards may not require
treatment for mites in most cases as almond
trees can tolerate low to moderate mite pres-
sure without affecting tree productivity.
Another important aspect of effective
mite control is judicial use of available con-
trol measures. The mite population in sev-
eral crops including almond is often well
controlled by natural enemies, and the use
of broad-spectrum insecticides can disrupt
the natural control system resulting in
elevated levels of spider mite population.
Ahigh natural enemy:mite ratio does not re-
quire treatment intervention in almond.
Monitoring of orchards for predators
and spider mites is critical. Sampling at least
once every 2 weeks during the early part of
the growing season and weekly thereafter
until harvest is recommended. If the or-
chard has a history of heavy mite infestation
or water-stressed trees, monitoring every
few days may be necessary. During the early
phase of the growing season, sampling
should focus on areas with a greater likeli-
hood of early infestation such as areas near
to dirt roads and areas with water-stressed
trees. Once infestation has reached the eco-
nomic threshold, sampling is necessary for
the rest of the orchard. Dividing orchards
into sampling areas is helpful to determine
whether the spot treatment in a high mite
infestation area is sufcient. For each sam-
pling area, 15 random leaves should be se-
lected from each of ve selected trees, and
these should be examined with a hand lens
on both sides of each leaf for the presence
of spider mites and eggs, predatory mites or
eggs, and other predators. The treatment
decision can be made based on presence/
absence sampling for mite and predator. De-
tails of the sampling protocol are described
in Strand (2002).
Management for organic farming
use of oil. Several types of organic oil are
available commercially to use both in con-
ventional and in organic productions, al-
though all oil types may not be acceptable
for organic use. Since oil works by contact
action (including smothering and barrier ef-
fects), good spray coverage is crucial for its
effectiveness. Due to the potential risk of
phytotoxicity, it is important to apply oil to
well-watered trees. Oil also kills benecial
arthropods that come into contact during
the spray application, but there are minimal
Pest Management in Organic Almond 341
risks on remaining benecials due to low re-
sidual activities. More than one application
may be necessary to control a large pest
population.
cultural control. Irrigating the orchard
properly to reduce water-stressed trees is
critical to reduce overall mite populations
in the orchard. In addition, reducing dusty
conditions by oiling or watering dirt roads
and maintaining a good ground cover in the
orchard are preventative measures to min-
imize mite infestations.
biological control. There are several spe-
cies of biocontrol agents that are effective in
reducing the spider mite population in al-
mond. The abundance and effectiveness of
species can vary with the geographic region
and other environmental factors. The west-
ern predatory mite, Galendromus occidenta-
lis (Nesbitt), six-spotted thrips, Scolothrips
sexmaculatus (Pergande) and a black-
coloured ladybird beetle species, also called
the spider mite destroyer (Stethorus sp.) are
reported in almond orchards in the USA
(Strand, 2002). The western predatory mite is
the most widespread and effective predator.
Similar in size to a spider mite, the western
predatory mite lacks black spots on its body,
and is highly mobile. Six-spotted thrips can
quickly migrate among leaves and prey on
spider mites efciently. Spider mite destroyer
beetles are good iers and can concentrate
their feeding on spider-mite-aggregated areas
of the orchard. These natural enemies are
available commercially to use as an augmen-
tative release in almond orchards to boost
natural populations.
Secondary Pests
Ants
Ants that are pests on almond include the
following species:
• Tetramorium caespitum (L.) (pavement
ant);
• Solenopsis xyloni McCook (southern
re ant); and
• Solenopsis molesta (Say) (thief ant).
Description
The workers of the pavement ants are dark
brown to black in colour with body size
~ 3.5 mm long, consisting of parallel furrows
or ridges on the head and thorax (Bruder and
Gupta, 1972). Reproductive ants (swarmers)
have wings, and are twice as big as workers
with similar other morphological structures
(Jacobs, 2013). Pavement ants prefer sandy
or loamy soil for nesting. Not much infor-
mation is available about the colony biology
for this ant.
Southern re ants are stinking ants na-
tive to the southern parts of the USA. The
southern re ant workers vary from 1.8 mm
to 6.4 mm in size. This ant has an amber-
coloured head and thorax with a black ab-
domen. The eyes are noticeably big and the
body is covered with golden hairs. Similar
to pavement ants, re ants also have a two-
segmented pedicel, a structure that connects
the abdomen with the thorax. The distribu-
tion of this ant ranges from California to
South Carolina (southern part) and Florida
(north-west corner) (Smith, 1965; Taber, 2000).
Thief ants are slightly smaller than the
re ants. These ants are present in relatively
small numbers and nest in proximity to other
ant nests, from which they often steal food.
Ant nests are in small mounds or
patches of loose soil, commonly found close
to wetted areas in orchards. These nests are
closer to berms in orchards with ood irri-
gation and with clay soil, but are also found
in other areas of the orchard that have con-
ditions of loose soil. Fire ants swarm upon
disturbance. Southern re ant nests are often
associated with clumps of weeds, such as
nuts edge (Cyperus esculentus L.) or spotted
spurge (Euphorbia maculata (L.)). Ants are
active as pests in orchards with peak activ-
ities in the morning and just before sunset
(Strand, 2002).
Damage
The southern re ants are a more widespread
problem in almond, although pavement
ants are more problematic in the northern
part of the Central Valley of California.
Damage on almond by ants is due to direct
feeding on the nut kernels; feeding on
342 H. Baspinar et al.
kernels results in chewing marks and white
dust in the nuts. Ants can completely hol-
low out the meat from the kernel leaving
only parts of the pellicle (i.e. the outer skin
of the kernel). Ants can damage nuts still
attached to the young trees; however, the
major damage occurs to harvested nuts that
are on the orchard oor as a part of the har-
vesting process (Zalom and Bentley, 1985).
Orchards with a sprinkler or a drip irrigation
system and with cover crops are more at risk
of infestation. Almond varieties with a tight
shell seal or with minimal splits (< 0.75 mm)
experience less damage, and the shell seal
can vary according to other factors such as
the year, the crop size, the nut size and
horticultural practices.
Distribution and host plants
T. caespitum is native to Europe but is also
actually reported in North America. S. xyloni
is found in the USA and Mexico, and S. mo-
lesta is reported in North America, Mexico
and recently in Malaysia. They are omniv-
orous, and S. xyloni feeds on various plant
parts such as fruits, seeds, honeydew, plant
sap, stems, buds and tubers of several plants
including althea, dahlia, citrus, okra, pecan,
walnut, almond, tomato, melons, potato,
strawberry, yukka, maize and aubergine
(Smith, 1937, 1965; Zalom and Bentley,
1985; Taber, 2000). S. molesta are present in
relatively small numbers and nest in prox-
imity to other ant nests (Thomson, 1989),
from which they often steal food.
Pest monitoring
In spring, surveying the orchard oor for
ant colonies 2–3 days after irrigation is very
important. For sampling, the orchard block
should be divided into ve survey areas
(each survey area ~ 93 m2 (= 1000 ft2)) in-
cluding the area from mid-alley to mid-alley
beneath the trees. Active ant colonies should
be surveyed and counted from individual
survey areas. Based on total colony counts
from ve survey areas (i.e. 5 × 93 m2 = 465 m2)
in spring, and the number of days in which
nuts are on the ground after the harvest
provides estimates of the percentage nut
damage caused by ants (Table 12.4). In add-
ition, inspecting a sample of 500 harvested
nuts for ant damage provides information on
the effectiveness of current pest management
practices, and therefore provides guidelines
for future pest management planning. Full
details of the sampling protocol are ex-
plained in Strand (2002).
Management for organic farming
Insect growth-regulator-based baits are ef-
fective methods for managing ant popula-
tion in almonds. Baits are more effective
than insecticide sprays to control ants be-
cause receiver ants (worker ants) carry baits
inside the colony and the whole colony can
be destroyed. Since baits are relatively slow-
acting products, application should be made
several weeks before the harvest. Higher
moisture reduces the effectiveness of the
baits, so it is recommended to avoid use of
baits 1–2 days before and after irrigation.
Some of these baits are registered for use in
organic production.
cultural control. Flood irrigating can re-
duce ant populations. Damage is signi-
cantly higher in orchards that harvest the
nuts off the ground. Nuts should be removed
Table 12.4. Percentage damage caused by ants to almonds on the ground in an almond orchard. (From
Strand, 2002.)
No. of colony entrances/
465 m2 (5000 ft2)a in spring
Days nuts are on the ground
4 7 10 14 21
15 0.9% 1.6% 2.1% 3.1% 4.9%
45 1.4% 2.3% 3.2% 4.7% 7.0%
185 2.0% 3.6% 5.0% 7.0% 11.1%
aValue of 5000 ft2 is the value according to Strand (2002). This has been converted into square metres (5000 ft2 = ~ 465 m2).
Pest Management in Organic Almond 343
from the orchard oor as rapidly as possible
following tree shaking to minimize ant dam-
age on harvested nuts. Table 12.4 shows the
risks of potential damage by ants depending
on the time between tree shaking and the re-
moval of nuts from the ground.
Brachycaudus amygdalinus (Schouteden)
(Hemiptera: Aphididae) (short-tailed
almond aphid)
Description
The body of the apterous female Brachy-
caudus amygdalinus on almond is dark
green, but pale green on the posterior part
of the abdomen, and 1.6–2.1 mm long. It
has short legs and antennae. The antenna is
six segmented, the siphunculi are short and
pale green, the apices dark and the cauda is
very short. The male is winged, the head and
thorax are black, and the abdomen is dark
brown. The body is 1.1–1.8 mm long, the
cauda and siphunculi are black, and the
genitalia are dark brown (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969; Lodos, 1982; Blackman and
Eastop, 2000).
Life cycle
B. amygdalinus overwinters in the egg stage,
eggs having been laid by gamic females
within bark crevices and in bud axils of the
almond tree. The eggs hatch in the next
spring when the almond trees are in leaf,
and reproduce virginoparously. The popu-
lation of B. amygdalinus can reach high
levels on the underside of the leaves in the
spring as a result of rapid colonization of
foundresses (Avidov and Harpaz, 1969).
The colonies become overcrowded, and the
winged form exists by the summer. They
migrate back to the alternative hosts during
summer, and the almond trees are free from
the aphid during summer until autumn
(Swirskii, 1954).
Damage
Infested leaves roll up and drop prema-
turely, and new growth is stunted as a result
of feeding by the aphid pest (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969).
Distribution and host plants
The geographical distribution of the short-
tailed almond aphid includes central and
western Asia, Crimea, Israel, Europe, South
Africa, the Middle East, Ukraine, Pakistan
and Turkey (Bodenheimer and Swirski, 1957;
Avidov and Harpaz, 1969; Lodos, 1982;
Blackman and Eastop, 2000, 2006). The pest
develops on almond and peach (Blackman
and Eastop, 2000).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. Growers should avoid
application of excess nitrogenous fertilizer
and irrigation to control shoot ushing and
leaf formation where there are high popula-
tion numbers of colonizing aphids.
biological control. Enhancing the numbers
of natural enemies in the spring may help to
control B. amygdalinus populations. There
are numerous natural enemies that either
feed or breed on the aphids. Many species
of Aphidiidae, Braconidae, Eulophidae, En-
cyrtidae and Pteromalidae are parasitoids of
aphids; and many species of Chrysopidae,
Coccinellidae, Lygaeidae, Miridae, Nabidae,
Anthocoridae, Cecidomyiidae, Syrphidae
and Trombidiidae are predators of aphids
(Anonymous, 2008a).
In addition to B. amygdalinus on al-
mond the following aphid species are also
reported: (i) Hyalopterus amygdale (Blan-
chard) (Russo et al., 1994); (ii) Brachycaudus
amygdalinus (Schouteden) (Avidov and
Harpaz, 1969; Talhouk, 1977b; Sekkat, 1984;
Russo et al., 1994); (iii) Brachycaudus heli-
chrysi (Kaltenbach); (iv) Pterochloroides
persicae (Cholodkovsky) (Talhouk, 1977b);
(v)Hyaleptorus pruni (Geoffroy); and (vi) Myzus
persicae (Sulzer) (Sekkat, 1984).
Anthonomus amygdali Hustache (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae) (almond weevil)
Description
The adult of Anthonomus amygdali is brown
in colour and 3.0–4.2 mm long. The egg is
milky white, oval in shape and 0.8 × 0.5 mm
344 H. Baspinar et al.
in size. The larva has a cylindrical body and
is 4.8–5.5 mm long, and the head of the
larva is shiny reddish brown.
Life cycle
A. amygdali overwinters as a larva and
feeds on the buds throughout winter. It pu-
pates in the spring months. Adults of the
pest are situated in the shelter during the
summer and become active in the autumn.
They feed on the buds of the almond trees
and deposit their eggs on the buds which
generate in the next spring. They produce a
single generation annually.
Damage
The infestation rate of the pest on the blossom
of almond trees was estimated to be 1–5% in
west Turkey (Önuçar and Zümreoğlu, 1985).
Distribution and host plants
Distribution includes many countries in Europe
and the Middle East (Anonymous, 2013b).
The pest develops on almond, apple, cherry,
peach, plum, quince, walnut and Pyracantha
coccinea Roem. (Anonymous, 2008b).
Management for organic farming
cultural practices. It may help to reduce
damage by pruning off the damaged shoots
and branches of the trees. Additionally,
adults can be picked off when they drop on
a sheet placed on the ground by shaking the
trees. Also damage can be reduced by pick-
ing off the damaged blossoms on the ground
(Anonymous, 2008b).
biological control. Scambus pomorum (Rat-
zeburg) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), Bra-
con disdiscoidens Weems and Syrrhizus
delusorius Foraty (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
are known as common and effective parasit-
oids (Anonymous, 2008b).
Other pests
Fifty-four species from the superfamily
Curculionoidea (Rhynchitidae – two species,
Brentidae – 20 species, Curculionidae – 30
species and Scolytidae – two species) were
collected from almond trees (Bolu and Leg-
alov, 2008). There were many other pests in
almond orchards, namely Tatianaerhyn-
chites aequatus (Linnaeus) and Epirhyn-
chites smyrnensis (Desbrochers des Loges)
(Coleoptera: Rhynchitidae), Diloba caerule-
ocephala (L.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Nord-
mannia acacia (F.) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae),
Polydrosus roseiceps Pesarini (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae), Hedya nubiferana (Haworth)
(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Aporia crataegi
(L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), Agrilus roscidus
Kiesenweter (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
and Capnodis tenebricosa (Oliver) (Coleop-
tera: Buprestidae) (Bolu et al., 2011). How-
ever, the number of studies on the biology,
damage and control methods of these other
pests are not sufcient, and they need to be
developed.
Other mites in the almond orchard
Other mites in the almond orchard include:
• Panonychus ulmi (Koch) (Tetranychi-
dae) (European red mite); and
• Bryobia rubrioculus (Scheuten) (Tetra-
nychidae) (brown mite).
Description
Both European red mites and brown mites
are not considered a major problem in al-
mond orchards. These mites overwinter as
eggs on tree parts such as fruit spurs, buds
and twigs. They have red eggs which look
similar except the European red mite egg
which has a typical spine-like projection
(i.e. a stipe) arising from the centre of the
egg. Newly hatched larvae are green, which
changes into red after feeding. Stipes are
lacking in brown mite eggs.
Life cycle
Egg hatching of brown mites coincides
with the leaf and ower bud opening time
in almonds. Freshly hatched larvae which
are red in colour with six legs, eventually
change to a brown colour with eight legs
Pest Management in Organic Almond 345
resembling the adults. Brown mites are not
active during the hot summer time, and
have two to three generations/year, while
European red mites are active for a longer
part of the growing season and have ve
to ten generations in California (Strand,
2002).
Damage
Feeding by European red mites causes leaf
stippling. Under prolonged feeding, leaf
margins initially look yellowish brown,
which eventually turns into a burned type of
symptom. Healthy trees can tolerate high
infestations (up to 50 mites per leaf). Brown
mite feeding can cause leaf chlorosis, but
leaf dropping is rare. Feeding activities on
leaves occur only during the cool parts of
the day. Infestation by brown mites is often
conned to a few trees in the orchard.
Sampling and management
Generally these mite species are under nat-
ural control. In fact, they serve as food
sources for important benecials during the
early part of the season. One of the bene-
cials, the western predatory mite is effective in
reducing European red mite and brown mite
populations. Although not prevailing in all
orchards, the brown lacewing, Hemerobius
sp., is an effective predator against mite pests.
Spur sampling to look at mite egg presence
between late autumn and early January is re-
commended to guide treatment decisions.
Late dormant application of oil targeting mite
eggs is suggested if infestation exceeds 20%
of the sampled spurs. Occasional infestations
of brown mite can be seen in a cool spring if
the dormant treatment is inadequate. Bio-
logical control and certain oil sprays are
available for use in organic production.
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