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Development of Agriculture in Ancient India
Dr. Dhananjay Vasudeo Dwivedi,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Sanskrit, Ranchi College, Ranchi-834008
Jharkhand
Email-dvd74@rediffmail.com , dvd1309@gmail.com
Phone No-09431590113, 09931306859
INTRODUCTION
The Sanskrit equivalent for agriculture is Kṛṣi and it is common to almost all the
Indian languages. The Sanskrit literature is replete with the references on Kṛṣi. The term Kṛṣi
occurs in the Ṛgveda quite a number of times, indicating their familiarity with cultivation.
Post Vedic literature provides more detailed information on agriculture and its various
aspects. Kṛṣi i.e. agriculture is known as dragging, pulling, plouging, tilling of the soil and all
the things related to them.
In effect, from time immemorial, agriculture has been the chief source of livelihood to
people of in India and corner stone of Indian economy. It has been the main productive
activity in India. Going by the ancient Sanskrit literature, the agriculture was considered to be
best among all occupations. Main reason behind it was that agriculture was the very basis of
leading the life with happiness and prosperity.
ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE
According to the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, Brahmā was regarded as the first inventor of
Agriculture.
1
According to this Purāṇa, in the beginning of the creation of the earth, the soil
yielded almost all type of corns, vegetables and fruits etc. However, as the time passed, the
soil became unproductive. Thereafter, Brahmā churned the soil, and got various kinds of
seeds. This seeds on their own accord started giving corns, fruits etc. Later on Brahmā
realized that these seeds were also not growing properly. Then He brought the agriculture
into practice. Seeing the ability of different classes of the people in the society he initiated
one class of the people to do this profession of agriculture. Since then the agriculture
depended on human toil.
However, according to the Atharvaveda
2
, Viṣṇu Purāṇa
3
, and Śrimad Bhāgvad
Mahāpurāṇa
4
, a king named Pṛthu, the son of a king Vena was regarded as the inventor of
agriculture. Pṛthu may be considered as a king who effectively brought the agriculture into
practice. In the Atharvaveda, King Pṛthī Vainya has been said to be inventor of agriculture. It
is he who for the first time did farming and grew grains.
1
Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa-46/65-75
2
Atharvaveda-8/10/11
3
Viṣṇu Purāṇa
4
Śrimad Bhāgvad Mahāpurāṇa-4/18/29-32
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IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
It goes without saying that agriculture was given due importance in ancient India.
Vedic seers knew that agriculture was the only option for food security. Food, as everybody
knows, is basic necessity of human being. Agriculture is helpful is attaining all the four goals
( ) of life. Human life is dependent on Anna and production of Anna is
dependent of agriculture. Hence, agriculture is basic necessity of human life. Yajurveda says
that one should make effort for producing abundant grains through agriculture.
5
Men depend
for their lives on agriculture-
6
Speaking about the importance
of agriculture, Vedic seer says-O gambler, stop gambling, and engage yourself in agriculture,
which is regarded as most valuable wealth, so that you will earn wealth, happiness, cattle and
happy married life. You respect this wealth and be content with this wealth-
7
The Ṛgveda further adds that the cultivator is bound to get plentiful crops and
immense wealth.
8
The Atharvaveda also highlights the importance of agriculture. Agricultural work
used to be practiced by skilled persons. Poets and scholars took this occupation and did
farming for happiness. Agriculture was a delighted occupation in which Gods like Indra and
Puṣā were also engaged. Success in agriculture leads to success in life.
9
The person
possessing abundant food grains is respected as a great man in the society.
10
Through
agriculture one can acquire vigour, energy and power.
11
In the Yajurveda and Taittirīya
Saṃhitā agriculture is regarded as the means of human welfare. It is the source of prosperity
and sustenance. It gives grain, strength and lustre.
12
In Taittirīya Saṃhitā agriculture has been
described as Chandas (metre).
13
In other words, it is the music that fills human life with
delight. Chandas also means covering. As agriculture keeps human beings with happiness, it
is known as Chandas. Bṛhatpārāśara says that there is no other religion than agriculture and
no profitable business other than agriculture-‘ ’
14
It further
5
Yajurveda-4/10
6
Atharvaveda-8/10/12
7
Ṛgveda-10/34/13
8
Ibid, 7/39/2
9
Atharvaveda-8/10/24
10
Aitreya Brāhmaṇa-2/5
11
Taittiriya Saṃhitā-9/3/7/3
12
Yajurveda-9/22, Taittirīya Saṃhitā-4/3/7/2-3
13
Taittirīya Saṃhitā-4/3/7/1
14
Bṛhatpārāśara-5/185
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adds that there is no other means than agriculture for obtaining happiness, food, clothing,
respect etc.
15
Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti mentions that production of grains and other vegetation are the
sole purpose of highest fulfilment of the earth. The rich earth full of vegetation is the cause of
growth of living beings-
16
It further adds that it is the giver of all auspicious things, leading to the satisfaction of
Gods especially with its perpetual power to produce grain and fountains of sweet water-
17
Sages with divine insight eulogize agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice and as
life giver of living beings-
18
Men should exert and devote themselves to farming whether they get farmlands from
a king or purchase one for themselves-
19
They are said to please gods and sages. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest
wealth-
20
As this wealth cannot be taken away by others, it is commended by everyone.
Yielding profuse returns, it provides pure grains and other things which please Gods-
21
Keeping away dependence on others, always yielding wealth, it provides for the
guests, deities, and one’s own family-
22
Giving delight in several ways, the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any
other livelihood involves dependence-
23
15
Ibid, 5/186-187
16
Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti-1/18
17
Ibid, 1/19
18
Ibid, 1/235
19
Ibid, 1/236
20
Ibid, 1/237
21
Ibid, 1/238
22
Ibid, 1/239
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The natural inclination of people towards agriculture pleases Gods and be nurtured
with special effort as it sustains life of all living beings-
24
Sages are of the opinion that farming activity should be planned and undertaken in
every community, in every country, in every rural part, and in every tableland-
25
Sages of ancient times have pursued agricultural activities even on open yards of
cottages with a view to benefit all beings-
26
Undertaking in agriculture is to be pursued by all great men of sharp intelligence to
get permanent joy-
27
Kṛṣiparāśara has discussed the importance of agriculture. It says that even a learned
Brahmin who is proficient in all the four Vedas, who recites Śāstras and is intelligent, when
is overpowered by Alakṣmī, is reduced to humiliation caused be begging for food with folded
hands. And only through farming, one however ceases to be a suitor. By practicing
agriculture alone one is bound to be bhūpati (master of the earth). People even having surplus
of gold, silver, jewels and garments have to solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee would
pray God. People in spite of having gold ornaments in their necks, ears and hands have to
suffer from hunger in absence of food. Food is life, food is also the strength, food is
everything. The divines, the demons, and all human beings depend on food for surviving.
Food, verily, comes from grains and grains cannot be available without agriculture.
Therefore, leaving everything else one should strive for farming. Blessed is agriculture, holy
is agriculture, and agriculture is life of all living creatures-
23
Ibid, 1/240
24
Ibid, 1/244
25
Ibid, 1/245
26
Ibid, 1/246
27
Ibid, 1/248
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28
Various sūktas of Ṛgveda such as Kṣetrapati
29
, Parjanya
30
, Pṛthvī
31
, Go
32
, Āpaḥ
33
,
Akṣa
34
, Viśvedevā
35
and Araṇyanī
36
have well described in the importance of agriculture.
Similarly various sūktas of Atharvaveda including Kṛṣi
37
, Anna
38
, Anna samṛddhi
39
have
talked about the significance of agriculture.
Here one sūkta namely Kṛṣi sūkta from Atharvaveda is quoted in totality-
̍
40
i.e. the men of wisdom and firm attitude bind plough fast and harness the yokes on the
side to attain the wealth of grains among the men of learning.
41
i.e. O’ Ye peasants; lay on the plough, harness the yokes, sow seeds in the races
formed, and when the earnings are fraught with plenty of grain and after sometimes when
grains are ripe reap with sickle.
42
i.e. The sharp-shared plough, that brings out happiness and that is furnished with
traces and with stilts, becomes the means of having cow, sheep, rapid chariot and strong
blooming woman.
43
28
Kṛṣiparāśara-2/8
29
Ṛgveda-4/57
30
Ibid, 5/83
31
Ibid, 5/84
32
Ibid, 6/28
33
Ibid, 7/47
34
Ibid, 10/34
35
Ibid, 10/101
36
Ibid, 10/146
37
Atharvaveda-3/17
38
Ibid, 6/17, 7/58
39
Ibid, 6/142
40
Ibid, 3/17/1
41
Ibid, 3/17/2
42
Ibid, 3/17/3
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May Indra, the air with rain make furrow normal, may the Sun preserve its fertility.
May the well irrigated yield us good crop through each succeeding year.
44
Let the plough-shares turn up the plough-land in happiness and let hard-working
ploughers go with oxen in happiness. Air and Sun nourishing the earth with water, cause our
plants, bear abundant food.
45
Let the bulls and horses pull the ploughs happily, let the men work happily, let the
plough turn out land nicely, let the traces be bound and let the driving goad be happily plied.
46
Let the air and Sun be favourable to me. They bedew this Earth with water which they
create in sky.
47
We praise the furrow and let it be directly favourable for us. May it be fruitful for us.
̱̱ ̱ ̱̍ ̱̍ ̱̍̍ ̱̍
̍ ̱ ̱̱̍̍̍ ̱̱
̍
48
Let the furrow be beswed with butter and honey and be made favourable for crops by
all the physical forces and various kinds of airs. Full of grains and enriched with butter let
this furrow make us happy with various cereals.
In effect, the agricultural work was considered to be pious job.
49
The Ṛgveda directs
even the elite class of the society to perform the job of agriculture as it was considered to be
equivalent of Yajña.
50
Ṛgveda mentions some experts in agriculture who knew how to
increase the output of agriculture.
51
According to the Atharvaveda, food is the basic necessity
for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in
agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their
43
Ibid, 3/17/4
44
Ibid, 3/17/5
45
Ibid, 3/17/6
46
Ibid, 3/17/7
47
Ibid, 3/17/8
48
Ibid, 3/17/9
49
Ṛgveda-10/117/7
50
Ibid, 10/101/3-5
51
Ibid, 1/161/2
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endeavour.
52
Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa
53
and Mahābhārata
54
are also of the opinion that people
engaged in agriculture are bound to lead a happy and prosperous life. According to Śukranīti,
agriculture of a land irrigated with river water is the best means of one’s livelihood.
55
ESSENTIALS OF AGRICULTURE-
Agriculture depends on many factors. Some of them are soil, farmers, seeds, farming
techniques, agricultural implements, irrigation, manures etc. Most of these factors would be
discussed at length in relevant chapters, however, some of the factors will be discussed here
itself.
Farmer-
Farmers are an integral part of an agricultural system. No one can even think of
agricultural practices sans farmers. Hence, farmers have been highly placed in Sanskrit
literature. Farmers have been termed as Kṣetrapati in Sanskrit literatures apart from Kṛṣaka,
Kṛṣika, Kṛṣīvala, Karṣaka etc. The word ‘Kināśa’ has also been used for farmer in Vedas.
Describing the significance of farmer, a seer of Ṛgveda says-We will be victorious and happy
with the association of our friend and owner of the field-Kṣetrapati. Let the owner of the field
bestow upon us cattle, horses and nourishment.
56
A seer of Yajurveda salutes owner of the
land-
57
Atharvaveda says that those actually working in the fields are the real
owner of the lands.
58
Bṛhatpārāśara says that a farmer favours all living beings by supplying
food grains to them through his noble service in the field. All sacrifices depend upon farmers.
Farmer helps to fill the treasury of a king by paying himself the taxes and making others able
to pay tax. The farmer feeds ancestors (manes), various deities and people-
59
According to Pāṇini there are three kinds of farmers-
Ahali-Farmers who do not have their own ploughs.
Suhali-Farmers who are in possession of good land or ploughs.
Durhali-Farmers who have old ploughs.
The Atharvaveda gives importance to the education of farmers for the country to
attain strong economy. The farmers educated in Vārtā Vidyā can produce more in the field.
According to Atharvaveda, in the country where the Vārtā is not advertised and popularized,
52
Atharvaveda-8/10/42-43
53
Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa-2/100/47
54
Mahābhārata-Sabhāparva/5/80
55
Śukranīti-3/276
56
Ṛgveda-4/57
57
Yajurveda-16/18
58
Atharvaveda-3/17/5
59
Bṛhatpārāśara-5/159
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the farmers not educated, there will be no good yield in the fields. Farmers will not be able to
get crops in plenty. Thus the economic condition of the individual and also of the nation
becomes weak.
60
Bṛhatpārāśara says that a educated and well behaved farmer will never be
poor and unhappy.
61
Manusmṛti says that the farmers should have sufficient knowledge about
seeds, proper season for cultivation, the good and bad qualities of the soil, he should be well
conversant with the measurement of the field, rainfall and the effects of other natural forces-
62
The Mahābhārata prescribes that king should give loans in the form of cash, seeds,
implements etc. to the farmers and thus encourage them to get more yield from the field.
63
Each and every member of the society should help those involved in agricultural
activities. According to Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti, Kings, Kṣatriyas, wealthy people, Vaiśyas, and
the Sudras should all assist farmers in their agricultural ventures for the benefit of the people-
64
Help to agriculture has been said to be religious as well as conducive to success and
health. Therefore, kings, warrior class, Brāhmaṇas, Vaiśyas, and Śudras should render help to
agriculture in the measure of their capacity, which would be yielding great fruit. This can be
done through donations of different types of seeds and cattle-
65
Great sages have said that abundant merit is acquired through donation of land,
digging of wells, protection of agricultural fields, construction of water reservoirs and
especially of wells, and establishment of charitable institutions for food. Great merit accrues
by assisting agriculture-
66
Helping in agriculture according to one’s capacity is stated to yield great rewards-
67
60
Socio-economic ideas in Ancient Indian Literature, p 20
61
Bṛhatpārāśara-5/187-188
62
Manu Smṛti-9/330
63
Mahābhārata-Sabhāparva-5/68
64
Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti-1/198
65
Ibid, 1/199-200
66
Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti-1/201-202
67
Ibid, 1/203
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Discussing characteristics of good farmers, Kāśyapīyakṛṣisūkti says that those who
are engaged in agricultural pursuits should be free from hypocrisy, jealousy etc. seeking
mutual interests-
68
They are devotees of cow, earth, and gods; they are absolutely truthful in speech,
intent on being agreeable to others, and always contended in mind-
69
They are without any vices like drowsiness, idleness etc., devoid of excessive desire,
anger etc. mutually friendly and are always ready to help-
70
Farmers are said to be excellent, of holy appearance, and are real protectors of water
reservoirs, canals etc.-
71
Agricultural implements-
This aspect has been very well discussed in the book entitled ‘History of Technology
in India’ published by Indian National Science Academy. The development of agriculture is
reflected in the numbers of tools and implements fashioned by any community and their
effectiveness. Of the different stages in cultivation the impact of implements is seen in the
first and basic one, that is tillage. The Vedic literature mentions abhrī as a digging tool. It was
hollow and was a span or sometimes a cubit long. It was used both for leveling the land and
for digging holes. Though generally translated as spade, some scholars suggest it to be a
mattock and not real spade. Vedic hymns dedicated to abhrī testify to the appreciation of its
utility. The Vedic terms for plough are lāṅgala and sīra. It was made of hard wood like
Khadira and Udumbara. Sīra (plough) was īṣā (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper
side. The Ṛgvedic plough is taken to be a simple and light implement made of wood. But the
reference to its well smoothed handle and its sharp pointed share
72
suggests that there was an
effort to improve it to make it something of which the owner could feel proud. The Ṛgveda
73
refers to six to twelve oxen being yoked to the plough. In the Kāṭhakasaṃhitā
74
the number
goes up to twelve or even twenty four. The Atharvaveda also refers to ploughs drawn by six
68
Ibid, 1/182
69
Ibid, 1/183
70
Ibid, 1/186
71
Ibid, 1/187
72
Atharvaveda-3/17/3
73
Ṛgveda- 6/91/1
74
Kāṭhakasaṃhitā- 15/2
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to eight oxen. This would suggest heavy ploughs required for breaking the hard soil. The
Ṛgvedic mantra
75
refers to the use of horses for ploughing. The application of horse power
would also imply a heavy plough. There is ample literary evidence to indicate that ploughing
had become the most important operation in tilling. Pāṇini
76
refers to the verb halayati
meaning ‘uses the plough’. This is further indicated by the term ‘lāṅgalagrāha’ (one holding
the plough) used by Patañjalī
77
as referring to the cultivator.
78
The literary sources mention a
number of tools used in digging. Besides Khanitra
79
and Ākhana
80
we have a special type of
hoe called stambaghna
81
which was used for weeding out the stumps. After ploughing the
clods were broken and the fields were leveled with the help of spade or hoe. The Amarkośa
82
implies that loṣṭhabhedana was a separate tool for breaking clods. Patañjali
83
informs that
leveling of the field was done by a wooden log yoked by two oxen. The Amarakośa
84
gives a
consolidated list terms for important parts of plough. They are Yotra (rope), Nirīśa or Kuṭaka
(the part where ploughshare is attached to pole), Phāla or Kṛṣika (ploughshare), Laṅgala or
Hala (plough) and Īṣā (pole).
The Kṛṣiparāśara gives a very detailed account of the different parts of plough.
According to it the eight parts of a plow are i) Īṣā, the beam of the plow connected to yoke;
ii) Yuga, the yoke to which the oxen are tied; iii) Sthāṇu, the wooden support of the
plowshare; iv) Niryola, the rod joined to the beam and used to control the direction of the
plow; v) Niryolapāśikā, the handle for the farmers’ grip on the plow; vi) Aḍḍacalla, wooden
pegs fitted through holes on the yoke; vii) Śaula, the plowshare consisting of an iron blade
which digs up mud; viii) Paccanī, the stick to drive the oxen. Īṣā is five hands in length (the
length from elbow to the tip of the middle finger is one hand). Sthāṇu should be five vitastis
(the length from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger of an extended palm is one
vitasti). Niryola should be one and a half hand while Yuga should be extended up to the ears
of the oxen. Niryolapāśikā and Aḍḍacalla should each measure twelve aṅgulas (the breadth
of a finger is one aṅgula and twelve aṅgulas make one vitasti.). Śaula should be of an aratni
measure (the distance between the elbow and the tip of the little finger is one aratni). Paccanī
should be strong, made of bamboo, with iron-end and should measure twelve and half or nine
‘fists’. The circular Ābaddha (a disc-plow used on hard, virgin soil) should measure fifty four
aṅgulas (in diameter); Yotra (the belt used round the neck of the ox) four hands and the rope
(Rajjū) five. The Phālaka (plowshare) is stated to measure a ‘hand’ and four ‘fingers’ while
75
Ṛgveda-8/9/2,3, 5, 7
76
Aṣṭādhyāyī-3/1/21
77
Aṣṭādhyāyī-3/2/9
78
Bṛhat Saṃhitā-4/9
79
Aṣṭādhyāyī -3/2/184
80
Ibid, 3/3/125
81
Ibid, 3/3/83
82
Amarkośa- 2/9/12
83
Aṣṭādhyāyī- 1/4/49
84
Amarakośa-2/9/13, 14
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phalikā resembling a leaf of an Arka shrub should measure nine aṅgulas. A Viddhaka (It is a
harrow that plows multiple rows. This is used for sowing seed in dry soil.) should have
twenty-one spikes. A Madikā (It is a wooden plank fitted to the plow to level soil inundated
with shallow water) measuring nine hands is recommended for several uses. This according
to Parāśara, is the equipment of a plow. Farmers advised to make it sufficiently strong to be
used fruitfully in the various activities of farming. Any implement which is not manufactured
as per the above said measurements will, at time of farming operations, obstruct the work at
every step. There should be no doubt about it-
85
The description of the plough and its parts in Mānasāra
86
is more graphic. The
Mahābhārata (12/262/46) and Manusmṛti
87
describe a plough as consisting of an iron blade
driven into a piece of wood. The plough was a mark of prosperity and a householder’s
position was determined in terms of the number of ploughs he owned. It was considered the
most sacred and essential implement in agricultural operations. Kings like Janaka (of
Rāmāyaṇa) ploughed the fields themselves. Balarāma (Kṛṣṇa’s brother) used to carry the
plow on his shoulder and was known as Haladhara. It was believed to be highly meritorious
to gift a plow. Stealing or misappropriating plows was heavily punishable and more so, if it
was done in the season of plowing. The king was to determine the punishment after
considering the time and compulsion of offence.
MANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
85
Kṛṣiparāśara-112-120
86
Mānasāra-5/56-57
87
Manusmṛti-10/84
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Farms yield gold if properly managed but lead to poverty if neglected-
88
Farms should never be left to the care of anyone other than oneself.
89
Only the
capable, motivated by the welfare of people should undertake farming. An incapable farmer
lands himself in poverty-
90
An agriculturist who looks after the welfare of his cattle, visits his farms daily, has
knowledge of the seasons, is careful about the seeds, and is industrious is rewarded with
harvests of all kinds and never perishes-
91
Possessed of the knowledge of the science of agriculture dealing with plantation of
bush and trees, or assisted by those who are trained in such sciences, the Superintendent of
Agriculture shall in time collect the seeds of all kinds of grains, fruits, vegetables, bulbous
roots, roots, pāllikya, fibre-producing plants and cotton-
92
The work of agriculture shall not suffer on account of any want of plough
and other necessary instruments. Nor shall be there any delay in procuring them the
assistance of blacksmiths, carpenters, borers, ropemakers, as well as those who catch snakes,
and similar persons-
93
In this way one can say that Sanskrit Literature is full of facts related to agriculture and
its various aspects.
88
Kṛṣi Parāśara-1/79
89
Ibid, 1/80
90
Ibid, 1/82
91
Ibid, 1/83
92
Kauṭilya Arthaśastra-2/24/1
93
Ibid, 2/24/3
