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AUTHOR:
Pierre du Plessis
AFFILIATION:
Faculty of Education University of
Johannesburg
CORRESPONDENCE TO:
Pierre du Plessis
EMAIL:
pierredp@uj.ac.za
POSTAL ADDRESS:
University of Johannesburg, Faculty
of Education, Auckland Park Campus,
Kingsway Avenue , Auckland Park,
2006
DATES:
Published: 27 Dec 2017
HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
du Plessis, P., 2017. Challenges for
rural school leaders in a developing
context: A case study on leadership
practices of eective rural principals.
KOERS — Bulletin for Christian
Scholarship, 82(3). Available at: https://
doi.org/10.19108/KOERS.82.3.2337
COPYRIGHT:
© 2017. The Author(s).
Published under the Creative
Commons Attribution License.
CHALLENGES FOR RURAL SCHOOL
LEADERS IN A DEVELOPING
CONTEXT: A CASE STUDY ON
LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF
EFFECTIVE RURAL PRINCIPALS
ABSTRACT
School leaders in all settings require suitable integration of leadership knowledge and skills to
respond eectively to the many challenges that beset them in their daily work. However, it is
argued that the rural context creates additional and distinctive challenges for school leaders,
as rural schools have unique challenges and traits that dierentiate them markedly from those
in urban areas. To help understand how rural leaders in rural schools deal with the challenges
and complexity in their work five schools were selected for the study. A qualitative research
paradigm was selected. The selection process involved a purposive sample. Three of the five
principals on whom the case studies were based were in their first year and the other two were
in their third and fourth year as a permanent teaching principal, respectively. Principals were
interviewed using semi-structured, in-depth interviews.
It was found that the desirability of principals acquiring a rural lens as a strategy for enhancing
leadership has important implications for their initial preparation and also for their ongoing
professional training.
Keywords: Principal, development, leadership, challenge, rural school.
1. INTRODUCTION
This study examined the leadership practices of rural school principals who have led
their schools to signicant improvements in learner academic achievement. It is argued
that the rural context creates additional and distinctive challenges for school leaders.
These unique challenges, in turn (Arnold, 2004), impede school leaders’ attempts to carry
out their multifaceted roles eectively. Sustained improvement in learners’ academic
performance is placed more at risk, with an ever-widening learning outcomes gap
between rural and urban learners (Lamkin, 2006). Nobody much cares to talk about
the challenge of educating poor rural learners. In reality poverty’s eect as a cultural
condition does not discriminate on geography; it matters little whether a learner levels
in single-wide trailer or in a double-story house. What does matter is this: the challenge
of educating our country’s poor rural children has not received the attention it deserves
(Lamkin, 2006). Most of what we know about eective leadership practice, the type of
practice that leads to meaningful (Arnold, 2004) academic reform has been gleaned from
studying urban and suburban school leaders. Conversely, the leadership practices of
rural school principals have generated little academic interest and even less scholarship.
As a result, there exists a signicant gap in the knowledge base regarding the work and
practice of eective rural school leaders.
In 2006, Waters and Marzano published their meta-analysis of eective school leadership
practice. In this authoritative work, Waters and Marzano reviewed hundreds of previous
studies on school leadership in order to identify those certain leadership practices
that could be directly linked with improving learner achievement. In the end, their
research identied six specic leadership responsibilities or correlates that were linked
in a statistically signicant way, to improved levels of learner achievement. Waters and
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Marzano’s six correlates now present the current standard for eective school leadership
practice. Today’s school principals are accountable for learner performance on high stake
assessments regardless of disparities in resources (Clarke & Wildy, 2004). To promote and
positively inuence student success, principals must understand the factors that inuence
success, and must reect upon and working towards improving their practice (Starr & White,
2008). Principals must also possess an understanding of the context in which they work in
order to meet the needs of the learners and community to which they are accountable
(Riley, 2013).
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The accountability movement has resulted in increased demands on principal leaders.
School principals are expected to serve as instructional leaders for their schools by devoting
time and attention to teacher evaluation, curriculum and assessment development and
student achievement data analysis (Monk, 2007). At the same time, principals continue to
serve as managers of their schools. They create schedules, supervise sta, and in many cases
call substitutes. Despite increased responsibility for instruction and student achievement,
principals continue to spend more than 60% of their time on managerial tasks (Robinson,
Hohepe & Lloyd, 2009).
Rural circumstances create challenges for rural school principals. Rural school districts
often are not able to oer learners the same resources oered in suburban, and sometimes
urban, school districts (Oakes & Maday, 2009). Although rural school communities are
characterised by benets such as smaller schools, close-knit communities and strong
relationships between learners and teachers, rural school, districts and communities face
a number of barriers to achieving academic success. These barriers include lack of funding,
diculty in recruiting and retaining highly qualied teachers, outdated facilities, limited
technology, and a community culture that does not value higher education (Jimmerson,
2005). Lack of resources and limited advanced course oerings in rural school districts,
according to Halsey (2011) have been linked with academic performance decits.
High-stakes testing creates stress and frustration in schools that are struggling to meet
achievement benchmarks. The level of concern is compounded in rural schools, where
resources to improve student achievement are not readily available (Starr & White, 2008).
Regardless of uncontrollable factors that negatively inuence learner achievement,
accountability for learner success as measured by standardised tests rests with the school
principal.
3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study was to examine the leadership practices and challenges of rural
school principals. The principals who were the focus of this case study had a track record of
academic improvement and increased learner achievement in schools they had previously
led. The reason for doing the study will also provide some contextual background to the
article. The rst is their numerical signicance: a large number of schools in the Limpopo
province fall into the category of rural schools, led by a principal who has a substantial
teaching commitment. According to Southworth (2004), principals of rural schools tend
to have more direct inuence on the quality of teaching, providing them with powerful
opportunities to bring about change and improvement.
Rural schools particularly when they are remote or isolated can be vulnerable if their
communities decline in employment opportunities and infrastructure (Pegg, 2007). Thus
from a social justice perspective it is vital that principals located in rural and isolated
environments are able to take full advantage of powerful opportunities for change and
improvement because parents and learners may have little opinion but to accept the
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educational provision on oer from the local school. Considering the exigencies of
recognising, clarifying and valuing leadership of rural schools, the dearth of research into
leadership of these organisations (Southworth, 2004) is surprising and provides another
reason for the interest on investigating leadership in this specic context.
4. RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Educational researchers have long sought to establish a correlation between eective
principal leadership and student achievement. The assertion that principals impact student
achievement is widely accepted; the inuence of the principal on student achievement,
though indirect, has been found to be second only to the inuence of the teacher (Johnson
& Strange, 2007). A review of historical research on principal leadership indicated that
beliefs and expectations about the role of the principal in South Africa in the last decades
were reective of the nation’s political and social conditions at the time, according to Monk
(2007). As the importance of student achievement moved to the forefront, the principal’s
role was redened with an increasing focus on instructional leadership. However, despite
principals increasing accountability for student achievement, management responsibilities
continued (Catano & Strange, 2006).
The study was designed to contribute to the body of knowledge on leadership practices of
eective rural principals. Studies point to the importance of understanding the inuence of
context in principal leadership. Though much time and attention have been devoted to the
study of principal leadership in urban schools and districts, research on principal leadership
for academic success in rural schools and districts is not prevalent (Oakes & Maday, 2009).
In the nation’s current accountability system, nding out what principals do to eect
student achievement is of prime importance to educational leaders. Johnson and Strange
(2007) argued that research was needed that explored how leaders responded exibility to
manage their schools and to create conditions for learner success.
5. METHODOLOGY
This study uses a qualitative research approach. For the qualitative researcher, the goal
is to seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given
meaning (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003; Lingam, 2012). This study of leadership practices of
eective principals lends itself to the qualitative methods precisely because gaining a better
understanding of what constitutes eective leadership practice is by nature a subjective
value- laden pursuit.
Marshall and Rossman (2006) describe qualitative research as a broad approach to the
study of a social phenomenon. They described the characteristics of qualitative research
as: (a) taking place in the natural world, (b) using multiple methods that are interactive
and humanistic, (c) focussing on context, (d) being emergent rather than tightly pregured,
and (e) being fundamentally interpretive. The study of leadership practices of eective
principals reects many of these same characteristics. First, principal leadership takes place
in the natural or real world and not in a scientic laboratory. Thus it would be appropriate
to approach this study of school leadership within that same natural setting. The study of
school principal leadership practices within certain Lephalale rural schools in the Limpopo
province, where learner academic achievement has improved over the past ve years,
provides a unique contextual focus.
This study’s intent is to gain special insight through rst-person accounts of the ways in
which individuals experience school leadership in rural schools where learner achievement
is on the rise. In this fashion, this study views the question of eective leadership practices
through the experiences of both school principals and the people who observe their work. By
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studying the phenomenon of eective rural principals who lead schools through a process
of rising student achievement and asking them to share their leadership experiences, a case
study approach with a phenomenological lens best uncover useful, pragmatic insights into
the leadership practices of these successful principals.
According to Stake (2003), the most unique aspect of case study research lies in the
selection of the particular cases to be studied. Because the goal is to select those cases
that provide the best opportunity to learn, qualitative researchers often use purposeful
sampling (Creswell, 2007). With purposeful sampling, the researcher purposefully selects
those individuals and sites for study that hold the greatest potential for providing a better
understanding of a study’s research problem and central phenomenon. For this study, the
criterion-based methodology was used. The subject pool consisted of all the rural schools
in the Lephalale school district in the Limpopo province. Twenty one principals were invited
to take part. Through the criterion- based methodology the sample was narrowed to ve
school principals.
The case study approach to qualitative analysis is a specic way of collecting, organising
and analysing data (Stake, 2003). Standardisation, open-ended interviews were the primary
source of data collection for this research study. Interviews were conducted on each of the
ve rural Lephalale school sites with each principal. Additionally, interviews, was conducted
with at least one principal, teacher and a school governing body member from each school.
Each interview was approximately 45–60 minutes in length, audio taped and transcribed
for analytical purposes. According to Horst and Martin (2007), the goal of the case records
is to take the reader into the case situation in this instance the working lives of each of the
ve principals.
Triangulation serves to clarify the meaning of the data collected for the researcher by
identifying dierent ways the phenomenon is being seen (Stake, 2003; Creswell, 2007). In this
regard, the study collected data through multiple sources (principals, teacher and governing
body member) and multiple data types (interview, observation and written communication)
instead of relying strictly on interviews with the ve principals. Data analysis in qualitative
research follows a familiar pattern (Barley & Beesley, 2007). Data is collected, analysed,
coded and sorted into themes. These themes are then presented in table or gure form
and published for discussion (Creswell, 2007). For this study, participant interviews served
as the primary source of data. Each participant’s interviewed information was transcribed
and analysed for citations related to specic leadership practices. Data analysis focussed
on examining thematic similarities and dierences in leadership practice among the study’s
ve principal subjects. For this study, the thematic focus was on identifying those principal’s
practices and habits that have helped a select group of rural school leaders improve learner
academic performance in their schools.
The interviews transcripts were reviewed and references to specic leadership practices
were highlighted and identied. In total, 223 specic citations were identied among the 15
interviews. For data verication and authentication purposes, each leadership practice had
to have been cited by at least two interview participants in order to be recognised for this
study. The most frequently referenced practices are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 : Most frequently cited principal leadership practices
Practice Citations
Teaching sta develops school’s curriculum 24
Has an open door policy 22
No limitations to principal’s authority 21
Encourages professional development for teachers 20
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Classroom management and discipline 19
Teaching strategies and delivery 17
Teacher motivation 13
Teacher recruitment 12
Student achievement data is analysed for GAPS 11
Secures money for technology upgrades 9
6. DISCUSSION
The data revealed a few interesting facts regarding leadership practices. Several references
to teacher motivation and teacher recruitment were expected, several practices contained
in Table 1 were not expected. The practice on the principal’s authority was sited 21 times –
the third highest in the study. Most of the ve principals responded in a manner similar to
that given by Principal B. “We can make any decision as long as we take responsibility for it.
All our actions are based on trust, performance and respect”.
Principal E said that “Although we are going to make mistakes in making decisions, to trust
us make a world of dierence”. This sentiment is echoed by Steyn (2012) in saying that
new conditions and expectations in education can create new challenges and perspectives
for the role of the principal. “My principal is a man you can trust at all times and takes
responsibility for most things at our school”, one teacher commented.
The highest leadership practice “Teaching sta develops school’s curriculum” has reference.
In order for curriculum planning to be eective, the school curriculum must address the
school’s needs both at local level and also as articulated in the education policy. School
curriculum planning works on developing an awareness of these needs, not only in terms
of managing the local environment of the school, but also in terms of the wider needs of the
learners as members of society.
Principal C indicated that she aims at the holistic development of learners who attend
the school. In order to achieve this aim “I expect proper and systematic planning from
teachers including lesson plans and scheme of work”. One teacher at the same school (C)
indicated that when “I came to this school I went to class without any written lesson plan,
but the principal identied the gaps and expects interactive teaching and full involvement
of learners in the teaching learning process”.
Another teacher said that “the principal is actively involved in curriculum planning, and he
expects us to take extra responsibilities and leadership roles in developing the curriculum”.
The principals in the study, conveyed their expectation regarding curriculum development,
to teachers (through planned class visits, sta meetings, individual meetings and planning
sessions).
“It is not easy to be the instructional leader” principal D said. He explained that principals
often travel to district oces to make administrative arrangements. The more remote the
school is, the longer the principal is away from the school, and the less time spent by the
principal on supervising curriculum structuring and planning. Mulkeen (2005) indicated that
principals might have curriculum structuring and planning problems in rural areas for the
above mentioned reason.
“We are not visited by ocials from district very often and therefore the principal became
the curriculum leader for us” one governing body member said. Teachers indicated that
they planned the curriculum according to the needs of the schools. School curriculum
planning works on developing an awareness of these needs, not only in terms of managing
the local environment of the school but also in terms of the wider needs of the learners.
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Principals in the study help teachers to perform as designer and implementer of instruction.
Teachers at every level prepare plans that aid in the organisation and delivery of their
daily lessons. Regardless of the format, all teachers need to make wise decisions about
the strategies and methods they will employ to help learners move systematically toward
learner goals. Principal E indicated that “the more organised a teacher is, the more eective
the teaching and learning that would take place. Remember I am teaching as well, because
of the small school. So I need to be on top of my game as well, regarding curriculum”.
A third cited leadership practice was has an open door policy. Principal B said “whether it be
a learner, a parent or a teacher, I am always willing to discuss issues they might have. At rst
people were scared to come to my oce but they are not afraid of me anymore, and I think
it rubs o on teachers and parents”.
A forth leadership practice, viz. Encourage the professional development of teachers, highly
inuences the practices and attitude of the teachers. Teachers from all the schools in
the study said that a teacher could not be able to develop lesson plans and to teach in
an interactive way if he/she lacks pedagogical knowledge. Though some teachers in the
schools have pre-service professional qualications, principals encourage them to further
their studies. “Even with a qualication teachers have not developed their required
pedagogical skills due to some deciencies in the curriculum and assessment procedure of
the institutions oering these courses (Principal D)”.
“With the limited money we have available for professional development the principal tries
hard to send at least two teachers every year for in-service programs” one governing body
member commented. Whereas teachers lack updated professional knowledge, school
based teacher development activities provide the best opportunity for teachers to develop
themselves professionally (Lingam, 2012).
All principals in the study expect that teachers should collaborate with one another and
consult the principal if they have teaching and learning issues. The sta meetings, some
planning sessions, and sharing expertise at classroom level were the examples of in-house
teacher development activities and collaboration given by the principals.
A fth leadership practice Classroom management and discipline in rural areas present
additional diculties for school principals. One concern is that teacher absenteeism, which
may be very high in rural areas, could perhaps create serious constraints on eective
classroom management and discipline. Medical problems of teachers in isolated areas may
also weaken the control and discipline of teachers. A visit to a doctor which might take an
hour or two in an urban area, can involve an absence of three days for a rural teacher.
“It will be unfair to see all classroom diculties in terms of policing, teacher misbehaviour”
principal A said. “Systems fail teachers and can undermine teacher morale for example
failure to pay teachers on time and a delay in promotion” (Principal E). That is why my
“governing body chairperson and I try everything we can to see that teachers get their
salary on time and if they are transferred to another school, everything runs smoothly”,
according to principal D. Teachers in rural areas often feel neglected by the authorities.
Such perceptions may lower morale among rural teachers and deepen management and
discipline problems (Burke, Marx & Knowenstein, 2012).
A sixth leadership practice referred to teacher motivation and the extent to which teachers
are motivated is a signicant factor in inuencing the delivery of quality education according
to Riley (2013). A good working environment according to Herzberg’s two factor theory
(motivation and hygiene), will determine the quantity and quality of knowledge children
receive, the level of skills to enhance the development of young minds; and the sense of
security learners feel. ”The diculties we have in rural schools, make it not easy to motivate
teachers and to retain teachers in rural schools. We are trying to make working conditions
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as attractive as possible and to keep our sta happy and hope they will stay at our school”,
according to Principal B.
Working conditions have continually played a large role in teacher decisions to migrate or
leave the profession (Jimmerson, 2005). “We hope by assisting teachers with administrative
support, resources if available and with decision-making, it will help to motivate them”,
most of the principals echoed.
A seventh leadership practice is teacher recruitment. In tough economic times, money, or the
lack thereof, can be a key deterrent when enticing quality educators to a rural school. Rural
teachers also reportedly feel unprepared to meet the array of unique needs of learners in
these communities (Semke & Sheridan, 2012; Strange, 2011).
“Our principal leaves cards with positive notes on our tables in the class room, and even
mail some motivating notes to our homes to keep us motivated” one teacher commented.
“My principal is a respected person in the community and she listens and respects us”,
another teacher said. One governing body member (School B) indicated that they meet with
universities to identify nal year students that will t into rural schools and communities.
An eighth leadership practice student achievement data is analysed for gaps. All principals
indicated that they now use test results data to improve on teaching and learning. They
encourage teachers to use the data from assessment tasks and tests or examinations to set
new targets for their respective subjects.
The ninth leadership practice is to secure money for technology upgrades. Teachers should be
able to utilize information-communication technology (ICT) as teaching and learning tools
(Monk, 2007). However, this is still not feasible in many of the rural schools where basic
amenities such as electricity supply are still inaccessible.
“We do not have many computers, but we try and keep up with technology in sending
our teachers for computer training. The ideal is to have more computers and teaching
programmes so that learners can benet as well” (Principal E, teacher). “It is not easy
because we do not have the money to support us in improving technology” (governing body
member from school C).
It is imperative that appreciable numbers of new teaching positions - many of which will
be in rural areas, need to be lled and equipped with modern facilities that will make rural
teachers teach with ease (Clarke & Wildy, 2004).
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
As education in the accountability era continues to evolve, rural school principals will be
expected to ensure that all learners demonstrate academic achievement at increasing
levels of prociency. Distinguished levels of leadership will be required in order for rural
educational leaders to meet the rigorous demands placed upon them. Rural school
principals will need to balance leadership responsibilities and priorities, while at the same
time building sta trust and relationships, to sustain educational outcomes for all learners.
A good plan has to address poverty and sustainable development, as well as promoting
social cohesion – that is, the need to work together to solve problems (Oakes & Maday,
2009).
In order to improve a rural school coupled with the motivation of teachers, both the principal
and the teachers need further professional and pedagogical skills to perform their expected
roles more eectively. The study demonstrated that the specic leadership practices
presented in Table 1 provided a comprehensive foundation for evaluating rural school
leadership. This framework of leadership practices should be considered by educational
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leaders as a foundation for professional assessment, self-assessment and for planning
professional growth for building rural school principals.
Professional development for school leaders at both the local school district and university
levels should focus on both the learning-centred leadership framework and on change
principles. If education systems as a whole are to embrace a constructive approach (Lewis,
2003) to succession planning in rural and remote districts, it is helpful to refer to the notion of
the rural lens. Policy makers and administrators who examine the implications of succession
planning through a rural lens must be more inclined to consider the distinctiveness of
rural and remote communities in order to rethink ways in which appropriate educational
leadership can be nurtured with these environments. These strategies should include a re-
examination of how rural principals are currently prepared, developed and supported to
work in rural communities, so they are more likely to nd such postings appealing and are
better equipped to make a dierence to the performance and vitality of the schools they
serve.
There must be provision for job-embedded and real-time opportunities for teachers to
improve their practice and connect professionally, observing and co-teaching with others,
sharing successful strategies and lessons learned, and visiting other schools. Leaders need
to nd eective, rural-specic responses to address them.
8. CONCLUSION
The study investigated the challenges for rural school principals and the leadership practices
they implement for eective schooling. Rural schools face many challenges that do not exist
in urban areas, such as geographic isolation, poor working conditions of teachers, lack of
resources and poor community involvement.
Given that the school leaders have highlighted the challenges they face in their work, the
authorities concerned cannot be complacent; they must try to take constructive steps to
make rural education as attractive and eective as possible.
Provision of teaching resources and supply of well-qualied teachers together with adequate
funding would make a signicant contribution to facilitating the work of rural school leaders
and in achieving school eectiveness and improvement.
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