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Abbreviations: LCPUFAs, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids; ω6, omega-6 family; GLA, γ-linolenic acid; AA, arachidonic
acid; ω3, omega-3 family; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA,
docosahexaenoic acid; AL, linoleic acid; AAL, alpha-linolenic acids;
vitamin A, beta-carotene; vitamin K, phylloquinone; vitamin E, alpha-
tocopherol; B1, thiamine; B2, riboavin; B3, niacin; B5, pantothenic
acid; B6, pyridoxine; B9, folic acid; B12, cobalamin; B7, biotin; FAO,
food and agriculture organization; PCs, phenolic compounds; SW,
subcritical water; SPE/SFE, solid-phase/supercritical-uid; VOCs,
volatile compounds; AA-CSIA, stable isotope analysis; FDA, american
food and drug administration; EFSA, european food safety authority;
GRAS, generally recognized as safe; PCA, p-coumaric acid; NC,
narigenin chalcone; N, naringenin; LQ, liquiritigenin; D, daidzein;
A, apigenin; G, genistein; L, luteolin; DK, dihydrokaempferol; DQ,
dihydroquercetin; Q, quercetin
Introduction
Chlorella and Spirulina are two of the most well-known microalgae
genus. Chlorella is unicellular and Spirulina is a lamentous
cyanobacterium, multicellular. Both are live in fresh water and have
bioactive compounds like protein, vitamins, pigments, long chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, sterols and other compounds that make
those microalgae very interesting from the health benets point of
view.
The name Chlorella was derived from the Greek chloros and from
the Latin ella, which mean green and small, respectively. Chlorella
microalgae have been present on earth since the pre-Cambrian
period-2.5 billion years ago. Japan is currently the world leader in
Chlorella microalgae consumption.1–3 The name Spirulina was based
on its spiral shaped. However, linear shaped Arthospira microalgae
have been identied.4 Spirulina microalgae are commonly called
blue-green algae-cyanobacteria; Arthospira Platensis and Arthospira
Maxima are cultivated worldwide.
Phytoplanktons such as microalgae have a nutritional value. In
this sense, the genus Chlorella and Spirulina are two of the most
prominent microalgae due to their high production of (I) Long-Chain
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids; (II) Phenolic Compounds; (III) Volatile
Compounds; (IV) Sterols; (V) Proteins, Amino Acids, Peptides; (VI)
Vitamins; (VII) Polysaccharides; (VIII) Pigments and (IX) Food.
i. Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids produced by microalgae
can be used by the food industry as food supplements, since
microalgae synthesize the omega-6 family (ω6), which includes
γ-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid, and the omega-3 family
(ω3), which includes eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic
acid.5,6
ii. Phenolic Compounds are considered one of the most important
classes of natural antioxidants, which can be used as dietary
supplements. Phenolic compounds produced by microalgae
include caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid that can be
extracted with subcritical water technology.7,8
iii. Volatile Compounds, such as carbonyls, alcohols, aldehydes, esters,
terpenes, among others, are naturally produced by microalgae and
can be used as a avoring. Microalgae are an attractive alternative
for producing avors due to the production under mild conditions,
high region-and enantio-selectivity, and for not generating toxic
waste.9
iv. Sterols, including phytosterol, brassicasterol, ergostenol,
poriferasterol and clionasterol, play a fundamental role in
microalgae physiology, particularly regarding membrane integrity.
Phytosterol - structurally similar to cholesterol - is one of the most
promising sterols, since it can be used in healthy diets, especially
those aiming to reduce coronary heart disease.10
v. Proteins, Amino Acids, Peptides-Chlorella sp. and Spirulina
sp. contain high protein contents (more than 50% dry weight);
MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. 45
©2018 Andrade et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
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Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources
of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food
supplements; an overview
Volume 6 Issue 1 - 2018
Lidiane M Andrade, Cristiano J Andrade,
Meriellen Dias, Claudio AO Nascimento,
Maria A Mendes
Chemical Engineering Department of Polytechnic School,
University of São Paulo, Brazil
Correspondence: Lidiane M. Andrade, Dempster MS Lab-
Chemical Engineering Department of Polytechnic School of
University of São Paulo, Brazil, Rua do Lago, 250, bl B, 3rd oor,
CEP: 05508-080, São Paulo, SP, Brazil, Tel +55-11-26481558,
Email lidiane.andrade@gmail.com
Received: December 08, 2017 | Published: January 19,
2018
Abstract
Chlorella and Spirulina are the two of the most well-known microalgae genus. Both
microalgae genus have a significant content of proteins, vitamins, pigments, fatty
acids, sterols, among others, which make their production/application by the food
industry quite interesting. Chlorella genus is a eukaryotic microorganism, whereas
Spirulina genus (cyanobacteria) is a prokaryotic microorganism. The aim of this review
was to provide an overview on Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae, particularly as an
alternative source of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements, in which
the following compound groups were addressed: (I) Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty
Acids; (II) Phenolic Compounds; (III) Volatile Compounds; (IV) Sterols; (V) Proteins,
Amino Acids, Peptides; (VI) Vitamins; (VII) Polysaccharides; (VIII) Pigments and
(IX) Food. Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae and their derivatives are concluded
not to be widely commercially exploited. However, they are remarkable sources of
functional foods, nutraceuticals and food supplements.
Keywords: chlorella, spirulina, functional foods, nutraceuticals, food supplements
MOJ Food Processing & Technology
Review Article Open Access
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 46
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
microalgae can thus be used as a source of essential amino acids,
including lysine, leucine, isoleucine, tryptophan and valine.11
vi. Vitamins are fundamental to maintain human health. Chlorella
and Spirulina microalgae produce vitamin A (beta-carotene),
vitamin C, vitamin E, thiamine (B1), riboavin (B2), niacin
(B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), folic acid (B9) and
cobalamin (B12).12
vii. Polysaccharides produced by microalgae are usually very
complex; immulina and immurella were isolated from Spirulina
platensis and Chlorella pyrenoidosa, respectively. The structural
complexity of these polysaccharides may give them the biological
activities against cancer, which can be explored by pharmaceutical
companies.13,14
viii. Pigments-the major classes of pigments from microalgae are
carotenoids and phycobiliproteins. In this sense, microalgae that
produce xanthophylls (caroteinoids) seem to be a good alternative
to replace Marigold owers.15,16
ix. Food-the consumption (human, animal diets or sh food) of
Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae impact positively on health.15–18
Therefore, there are numerous exceptional compounds of interest
that can be produced by microalgae, in particular Chlorella and
Spirulina microalgae. These biocompounds can be further applied as
functional, nutraceuticals and supplements feed.
Discussion
Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
Microalgae consist of approximately 30% lipids making them
very interesting as food supplementary by humans. In this sense,
microalgae are a source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
(LCPUFAs) especially of the omega-6 family (ω6) such as γ-linolenic
acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid (AA), and omega-3 family (ω3)
as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Omega 3 and 6 families are essential fatty acids - they cannot be
synthesized de novo by humans; and therefore, must ingest from
food.19,20 Thus, as detailed below, omega 3 and 6 families are
intimately related to health maintenance and disease prevention, in
which microalgae are a promising source of ω3 and ω6.
GLA - ω6 fatty acid is an essential fatty acid presenting anti-
inammatory properties. Although the human organism is capable of
producing very long chain fatty acids from linoleic (AL) and alpha-
linolenic acids (AAL), its synthesis is affected by several factors,
which makes the ingestion of these fatty acids essential for the
maintenance of a healthy condition.19,20
Arachidonic acid is present in the membranes of body cells, and is
the precursor of eicosanoid production through the metabolic pathway
of the arachidonic acid cascade. It is one of the essential fatty acids,
which need to be obtained via feeding by most mammals. Some of
them have little, if any, ability to convert linoleic acid to arachidonic
acid, and so it is essential that they get it in the diet.21
During breastfeeding, arachidonic acid can be found in breast
milk and the placenta. This acid is responsible for the development of
babies, some studies indicate that the low intake of arachidonic acid
from the diet of premature babies, can cause health problems for these
children. For those who practice physical exercise, arachidonic acid
is also important; it can be one of the keys to muscle development.
Studies have shown that this acid has increased performance levels.22
Lower levels of AA can contribute to neurological diseases such as
Alzheimer23 and Autism.24,25
Fatigue, poor memory, dry skin, heart conditions, suicidal behavior
(depression) and schizophrenia can be related to deciency of ω3.
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), (ω3 fatty acid) has an anti-inammatory
action in our body, since it acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3,
thromboxane-3, and leukotriene-5 group, substances that are part of
our defense against inammation by helping to neutralize the pro-
inammatory activity of other similar molecules.
One of the key benets of EPA is to aid heart health and blood
circulation, preventing clots from forming in the blood and reducing the
risks of thrombosis and cerebrovascular accident (stroke). Individuals
who have inammatory diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid
arthritis, may benet even more from the EPA use.26 DHA is essential
for fetal development and helps to form the retina, in addition, DHA
has antioxidant action and is the most benecial fatty acid for brain
health, since it favors cognition and connections between neurons,
beneting the memory, attention, reasoning, imagination, judgment
and various other aspects related to our mind.
In fact, a study that provided 900mg of algae DHA for six months
for a group of people suggests that DHA supplementation at this level
may support the memory of healthy adults aged 55 or older (based on
a clinical study using 900mg DHA per day for six months in healthy
adults with a mild memory complaint). In addition, there are research
that links DHA to increased production of anti-inammatory and
neuroprotective substances preventing the formation of deleterious
substances in the brain, which would decrease the risks of having
neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
The metabolic pathway of polyunsaturated fatty acids is shown in
Figure 1. Fatty acids of families ω-6 and ω-3 can be produced by
the body from linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, by the action of
enzymes elongase and desaturase. The elongase acts added two
carbon atoms in the initial part of the chain, and the desaturases act
by oxidizing two carbons in the chain, creating a double bond in the
cis-conguration. Research has pointed out that ideal ratio between
ω3/ω6. Western diets have an omega 6 to omega 3 ratio of about 10
to 20:1. Several recommendations have been established by authors
and health agencies from different countries on the ideal ratio of
omega 6 and omega 3. Countries such as Germany and Sweden have
established the ratio 5:1, while in Japan this recommendation is more
rigorous, being 2:1. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is
less demanding and recommends the ratio of 5-10:1.27
Regarding recent reports on the production of LCPUFAs from
microalgae, Ferreira et al.30 evaluated the fatty acid prole of
Chlorella homosphaera, Chlorella sp. and Chlorella minutissima,
when cultivated in a heterotrophic mode (BG 11 or basal media) with
0, 5 and 10g of glucose/L. They found that the highest concentration
of lipids in the dry biomass of (I) Chlorella homosphaera, (II)
Chlorella sp. and (III) Chlorella minutissima strains were (I) 22.4%
w/w (BG 11-10g of glucose/L); (II) 21% w/w (Basal-5g of glucose/L)
and (III) 21.5% w/w (Basal-10g of glucose/L), respectively. Whereas,
the highest concentration of total PUFA was (I) 35.25% w/w (Basal-
0g of glucose/L), (II) 24.35% w/w (Basal-10g of glucose/L) and
(III) 25.65% w/w (Basal-10g of glucose/L). Similarly, the highest
production of ω3-ω6 were (I) 35.05% w/w (Basal-0g of glucose/L),
(II) 24.05% w/w (Basal-0g of glucose/L) and (III) 24.95% w/w
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 47
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
(Basal-10g of glucose/L). The authors concluded that heterotrophic
cultivation of Chlorella is an effective strategy for the production of
PUFAs, particularly the essential fatty acids. These biomolecules can
be applied in the food production. In this sense, some commercially
available products (human nutrition) produced with Chlorella and
Spirulina microalgae are shown in Table 1.
Figure 1 A) DHA biosynthesis-N-3 pathway; B) AA-Biosynthesis-N-6
pathway.28,29
Table 1 Chlorella and Spirulina commercialized for human nutrition31
Microalgae
genus Main producers Products Production
(Ton/Year)
Chlorella
Taiwan Chlorella
Manufacturing Co.
(Taiwan)
Tablets, powders,
nectar, noodles 2,000
Klotze (Germany) Powders
Spirulina
Hainan Simai
Pharmacy Co.
(China)
Powders, extracts
3,000
Earthrise
Nutritionals (USA)
Tablets, powders,
extracts
Cyanotech Corp.
(USA)
Tablets, powders,
beverages, extracts
Myanmar Spirulina
Factory
Tablets, chips,
pasta and liquid
extract
Therefore, Chlorella and Spirulina are very interesting alternative
sources of LCPUFAs, which can be applied to a variety of nutraceutical
and pharmaceutical purposes.
Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds (PCs) also known as polyphenolics are
biocompounds chemically composed of one or more phenolic rings
that can be halogenated. These halogenations are responsible for the
different biological activities.7,8 PCs are considered one of the most
important classes of natural antioxidants. They protect both the cells
and other natural body chemicals from the damage caused by free
radicals. These are reactive atoms that contribute to tissue damage in
the body. Free radicals, for example, oxidize low-density lipoprotein
- LDL cholesterol, which can lead to its adhesion to arteries and lead
to heart disease.32,33
PCs are indicators of stress microalgae metabolism. PCs are
secondary metabolites that are not directly involved in biological
processes as photosynthesis, cell division and reproduction.34 PCs
are also related to the chemical protective mechanisms of microalgae
as against biotic factors such as, settlement of bacteria, ultraviolet
radiation and metal contamination.35–38
Considering the importance of PCs to be used as supplementary
food evaluated the subcritical water (SW) technology to optimize
the extraction of phenolic compounds from Chlorella sp. microalgae
to be further applied as an antioxidant was evaluated.39 It was found
compounds as caffeic acid, ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid. It is
worth noting that the extraction is commonly carried out by organic
solvents, a non-environment-friendly compound, that is, SW is an
interesting alternative. The production of PCs from Spirulina maxima
also was studied. The authors have found mainly pinostrobin, gallic
acid, cinnamic acid, p-OH-benzoic acid, chlorogenic acid and vanillin
acid, showing concentrations of 33.61, 19.82, 15.77, 14.18, 13.70 and
7.12% (based in the relative area), respectively.40
A new extraction technique based on a combination of
solid-phase/supercritical-uid (SPE/SFE) to obtain phenolic
compounds from Spirulina platensis was studied.41 They have
found 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde (853.85ng/g of dried cell)
and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (604.94ng/g of dried cell) as main
compounds; and protocatechuic acid (137.98ng/g of dried cell),
vanillic (254.29ng/g of dried cell), syringic (3.45ng/g of dried cell),
caffeic acid (169.52ng/g of dried cell), chlorogenic acid (72.11ng/g of
dried cell) and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (107.35ng/g of dried cell) as
minority compounds.
Some studies have demonstrated the ability of microalgae to
produce polyphenols, for example Chlorella pyrenoidosa, produce
p-coumaric acid (the precursor of the avonoid synthesis)-Figure 2.42
The phenolic compounds biosynthesized by Chlorella and
Spirulina microalgae were compared.42 They found that Chlorella
microalgae have more content of phoroglucinol, which is used by
the pharmaceutical industry - gastrointestinal disorders43 and also
apigenin, which induces autophagy in leukemia cells (Table 2).44 On
the other hand, Spirulina microalgae have more content of p-coumaric
acid, which has antioxidant properties45 and ferulic acid that also has
antioxidant properties and is commonly used as
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 48
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Thus, Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae are rich sources of
phenolic compounds that have antioxidants properties, among others
interesting nutritional and health properties.
Volatile compounds (VOCs)
In the last years the interest in microalgae volatile compounds
(VOCs) has increased, mainly due to the diverse structural features
and interesting biological activities of VOCs. However, VOCs can
cause musty, shy, and mud-like odor and produce harmful toxins,
which is particularly important in water quality.47–53
Other interests concerning to VOCs have been drawing attention
due to their biological activities54,55 which have been identied as
carbonyls, alkenes, saturated and unsaturated aliphatic alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, esters, thioesters, suldes terpenes, fatty acids,
isoprenylated and brominated hydroquinones; and phycotene.
VOCs present antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticancer
activities.48,56,57
The steam-volatile metabolites of Chlorella vulgaris, which
was grown in fresh water culture, have been studied.58 It was found
that more than 105 VOCs were produced, even so only 30 compounds
were identied, for example hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols, esters,
aldehydes and ketones-33.76, 23.93, 15.62, 8.02, 3.24 and 2.71% of
the total VOCs, respectively. More details are shown in Table 3. It was
also studied the phytotoxic effect of the VOCs. The authors found an
acid phytotoxic effect signicantly higher in comparison to the other
fractions, due to mainly linoleic acid.
Recently, was determined the chemical prole of VOCs (Spirulina
strains) and then, applied those VOCs in food products.59 As result,
they obtained mainly (93.19%) hydrocarbons (medium length alkanes
and alkenes) and in small quantities, odorous compounds, such as
2-methylisoborneol, 2-pentylfuran, 𝛽-cyclocitral, and 𝛽-ionone, as
can be shown in Table 4.
One of the most important sensory properties of food is the avour.
Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae have shown great potential to be
applied in food due to their rich composition of VOCs, which present
biological activities (VOCs). In addition, microalgae VOCs, usually
are not related to musty, shy, and mud-like odor.
Sterols
Sterols are lipids containing a ring formation in their chemical
structures. Sterols play a fundamental role in the membrane integrity
of microalgae.60 Over the last years, there is an increasing interest
in the microalgae sterols, particularly due to their advantages of
production and; nutritional and pharmaceutical importance.10
Sterols composition of red and brown microalgae are quite
predictable however, the sterol composition of the green algae is
unpredictable.61 Green microalgae such as Chlorella microalgae are
shown to biosynthesized a variety of sterols.62
The sterols composition of Chlorella pringsheimii and Chlorella
fusca were investigated.63 They found brassicasterol, ergostenol,
poriferasterol and clionasterol in Chlorella pringsheimii, and
ergosternol and chondrillasterol in Chlorella fusca.
Among sterols, phytosterol, which is structurally similar to
cholesterol, is one of the most promising sterols. It can be used in
healthy diets, in particular those that aim to reduce coronary heart
disease.64 According to the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) the chemical structure of phytosterol can be
illustrated as shown in Figure 3.
The bioactivity functions of microalgae-derived phytosterol and
their potential application in functional food and pharmaceutical
industry, were described, such as immunomodulatory, anti-
inammatory, anti-hypercholesterolemic, antioxidant, anticancer and
antidiabetic.10
Ergosterol and 7-dehydroporiferasterol are the major ’s sterols
found in microalgae, both represent 45% of the total sterols.65 In
this sense, some sterols from Chlorella vulgaris such as ergosterol,
7-dehydroporiferasterol peroxide, 7-dehydroporiferasterol, ergosterol
peroxide and 7-oxocholesterol were identied, in which all of them
showed effective anti-inammatory and anticancer activities.66
Cholesterol and β-sitosterol were found in Spirulina maxima.67
The authors studied the correlation between sterols and antimicrobial
activity. Similarly, 3 sterols produced by Spirulina platensis were
identied: campesterol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol; 8.7, 25.4 and
29.4% respectively.68
Concluding, the interest in microalgae sterols is increasing due to
their higher concentration, when compared to plant sterols. Chlorella
and Spirulina microalgae are sterols producers. Additionally,
phytosterol (biosynthesized by microalgae), which cannot be
synthesized by humans and have been made part of the human diet,
could easily to be applied in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industry.
Proteins, amino Acids and peptides
Microalgae proteins have been receiving attention by the food
industry, mainly due to their great potential as an essential amino acid
source.3,69
Microalgae such as Chlorella sp. and Spirulina sp. contain
high protein contents-more than 50% dry weight.68, 69 In this sense,
microalgae have higher nutritional quality when compared to
conventional plants, especially soy. Microalgae also have other
nutritive compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins,
polysaccharides, pigments, minerals and thus they are often used as
functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements.3,70,71
Spirulina sp. microalgae are composed of phycobiliproteins,
which is a group of proteins related to the photosynthesis system
(phycobiliproteins show pigment properties). Phycobiliproteins
are well-known due to their hepatoprotective, anti-inammatory,
immunomodulatory, anticancer and antioxidant properties.13,34,72
Moreover, phycobiliproteins can also be applied as labels for
antibodies, receptors, and other biological molecules that classify
cells activated by uorescence and are used in immunoblotting
experiments and microscopy or uorescence diagnosis.73
Chlorella sp. microalgae are safe sources of proteins - dietary
supplementation. Microalgae proteins have shown signicant results
in reducing blood pressure, lowering cholesterol and glycemia levels,
accelerating wound healing and improving immune functions.74,75
The large-scale microalgae cultivation started in the 1960s in
Japan, in which Chlorella microalgae were used as a food additive. In
the 1970s and 1980s, the industrial production of microalgae expanded
to USA, China, Taiwan, Australia, India, Israel and Germany. In the
last years, the production of Spirulina and Chlorella microalgae has
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 49
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
increased, and currently it is practiced by most countries. The annual
production is about 7,500 tons of dry biomass (5,000 and 2,500 tons
of Spirulina and Chlorella microalgae, respectively).76
Regarding the application of microalgae as a source of essential
amino acids, the following essential amino acids were identied:
lysine, leucine, isoleucine, tyrosine, tryptophan and valine, in which
essential amino acids comprised approximately 35% of total amino
acids.73 These amino acids contribute to the high nutritional quality of
microalgae, making them highly suitable for use as supplements or as
nutraceuticals.73,77,78 A new application of microalgae amino acids was
developed.79 This application allows investigators to link consumers
to food sources by tracing essential amino acids from producers to
consumers. They used stable isotope analysis (AA-CSIA), to evaluate
nutrient sources, especially essential amino acids, from Chlorella and
Spirulina microalgae, as shown in Table 5.
Another interesting approach in microalgae proteins is related to
bioactive peptides from microalgae, which can exert hormonal effects
in the physiological stages of the human body.80 Peptides extracted
from microalgae have antioxidant, anticoagulant, antihypertensive,
immunomodulatory, antimicrobial and cholesterol lowering
functions.81 The puried peptides from Chlorella vulgaris species
was described as a great potential in the protection of DNA against
oxidative damage of cells.82 The peptides extracted from Chlorella
vulgaris species can be used in the prevention of diseases such as
atherosclerosis, cancer and coronary diseases.
In this sense, proteins, amino acids and peptides from microalgae
seems to be a very interesting alternative, in comparison to the
traditional sources of proteins, amino acids and peptides, which can
be applied to the human dietary requirements.
Vitamins
Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae are vitamin producers that are
used in animal and human metabolisms,83 in which the vitamins that
are commonly produced by microalgae are: vitamin A (in the form of
beta-carotene), vitamin C, vitamin E and vitamin B such as thiamine
(B1), riboavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine
(B6), folic acid (B9) and cobalamin (B12).12 These vitamins are used
to nourish the body, detoxify and normalize intestinal function, as
well as stimulate the immune system and regenerate cells.12
Table 6 summarizes the vitamins content in Spirulina and Chlorella
microalgae. When compared to Chlorella microalgae, Spirulina
microalgae are richer sources of vitamin E, vitamin B1 and vitamin B7.
Vitamin E protects the membrane lipids from oxidative damage and
also prevents diseases such as coronary, atherosclerosis and multiple
sclerosis, whereas thiamin (vitamin B1) presents anti-inammatory
properties while biotin (vitamin B7) presents maintaining hair, nails
and skin healthy properties.84
Chlorella microalgae biosynthesis vitamin A. In fact, vitamin
A is the most abundant vitamin produced by microalgae. Vitamin
A is involved in immune function, vision, reproduction and
cellular communication.84,85 Niacin (vitamin B3) is also abundantly
biosynthesized by microalgae. Vitamin B3 is important for the
metabolism of fats, cholesterol synthesis, DNA synthesis, regulation
of glucose (blood sugar), reduce cholesterol and cardiovascular
disease.85,86
Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) is present in microalgae at low
concentration. Vitamin B12 from microalgae in Chlorella sp. has
better bioavailability than Spirulina microalgae.87 Vitamin B12
deciency can cause neurological and psychiatric problems, due to its
importance for neurological function and also for a proper red blood
cell formation and DNA synthesis.
Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae have an interesting
concentration of folic acid (Vitamin B9), which is necessary for the
formation of cells and maintenance of metabolism, preservation of
skin and mucous membranes and for the normal development of
bones and teeth.69,88
Ingestion of small amounts of microalgae (biomass) may aid to
reach all vitamin requirements (animal feed and human nutrition).
Microalgae vitamins can enhance the nutritional value of algae cells
- applied as a nutritional supplement. Nevertheless, it is important
to note that the vitamin contents (microalgae) signicantly change
with environmental factors (cultivation), harvesting strategy and the
method of drying the cells.12,88
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate structures that are
widely used by industries, in particular food industry. Regarding the
search for new natural antioxidants, the use of microorganisms such
as Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae has been widely studied due to
their high concentration of polysaccharides.13,14,89,90
In this sense, the polysaccharides from Chlorella and Spirulina
microalgae improve the enzymatic activity of the cell nucleus and
synthesis of DNA repair, besides being a benecial species to the
immune system.14,32
Moreover, polysaccharides from Spirulina platensis and Chlorella
pyrenoidosa microalgae have signicant antioxidant properties,
tumor activities, and immunomodulatory properties, as well as their
great potential for the removal of superoxide and hydroxyl peroxide
radicals.89,91
Two high molecular weight polysaccharides that were named
immulina and immurella were identied.92 The immulina and
immurella polysaccharides were isolated from Spirulina platensis
and Chlorella pyrenoidosa, respectively. These polysaccharides
presented higher activity against cancer, when compared to the fungal
polysaccharides such as schizoplyllan, lentinan and krestin. The
composition of immulina and immurella is shown in Table 7.
Rhamnose was found as the main compound ≈52.3% of total
polysaccharides produced by Spirulina microalgae.93 Similarly, the
extracts of Spirulina microalga polysaccharides were characterized,
in which rhamnose represented ≈49.7% of total polysaccharides.94
Regarding Chlorella polysaccharides, two polysaccharides
(69,658Da and 109,406Da) that were produced by Chlorella
pyrenoidosa strains were identied. Both polysaccharides were
composed mainly of rhamnose and mannose; 37.8 and 15.2%,
respectively.91
Therefore, recently, microalgae polysaccharides have been
used as alternative source of polysaccharides by the food industry,
nutraceuticals, cosmetics and mainly pharmaceutical industry, since
microalgae polysaccharides have antiviral activity against the virus
Herpes simplex virus (type 1 and 2).14,91,95,96
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 50
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Table 2 Content of phenolic compounds in Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae42
Phenolic compound Chlorella (ng/g) Spirulina (ng/g)
Phloroglucinol 74,000 51,000
p-Coumaric acid 540 920
Ferulic acid 0.63 0.97
Apigenin 9.9 6
Table 3 Composition of VOCs found in Chlorella vulgaris58
Class Compounds Composition (%)
Hydrocarbons
α-pinene 2.11
β-pinene 7.63
dodecane 1.76
hexadecene 15.3
heptadecane 0.74
heptadecene 2.11
octadecane 3.21
tetracosane 0.35
heptadecene 0.55
Acids
odecanoic 0.2
tetradecanoic 0.9
hexadecanoic 8.73
octadecanoic 2.2
octadec-9-enoic 0.73
octadec-9,12-dienoic 10.2
octadec-9,12,15-trenoic 0.97
Alcohols
hexadecanol 10.8
octadecanol 2.3
nonadecanol 2.01
phytol 0.51
Esters
methyl-hexadecanoate 2.2
methyl-octadecanoate 3.52
methyl-octadec-9-enoate 0.98
methyl-octadec-9,12-dienoate 1.32
Aldehydes
hexanal 0.14
nonadecanal 0.9
hexadecanal 2.2
Ketones
decanone 0.7
hexadecanone 1.7
α-ionone 0.13
β-ionone 0.18
U* 12.72
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 51
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©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Table 4 Composition of VOCs produced by Spirulina platensis59
Class Compounds Composition (%)
Hydrocarbons
2-pentylfuran 3.03
tetradecane 0.27
pentadecane 6.48
hexadecane 5.12
6,9-heptadecadiene 0.62
heptadecene 77.67
Alcohols
2,6-dimetrylcyclohexanol 2.41
2-ethyl-1-hexanol 0.38
2-methylisoborneol 0.98
Ketones
1,1,3-trimetryl-2-cyclohexanone 0.38
β-ionone 1.59
Esters diisobutyric acid 1-tert-buty-l-2-methyl-1,3-propanediyl ester 0.45
*A β-cyclocitral 0.65
Table 5 Essential amino acids found in Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae79
Microalgae Isoleucine Leucine Phenylalanine Valine
Chlorella 26.74 31.05 26.35 28.07
Spirulina 31.29 34.42 35.17 35.62
Table 6 Vitamin content in Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae per 100g of dry cells
Vitamins Chlorella Spirulina
Vitamin A 30.77mg 0.34mg
Vitamin C 10.4mg 10.1mg
Thiamin (vitamin B1) 1.7mg 2.4mg
Riboavin (vitamin B2) 4.3mg 3.7mg
Niacin (vitamin B3) 23.8mg 12.8mg
Pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) 1.1mg -
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) 1.4mg 0.4mg
Folate (vitamin B9) 94µg 94µg
Cobalamin (vitamin B12) 0.1ug 0ug
Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) 1.5mg 5.0mg
Vitamin K (phylloquinone) -25.5µg
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 52
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Table 7 Composition of polysaccharides from Spirulina platensis (immulina) and Chlorella pyrenoidosa (immurella).92
Immulina polysaccharide (% mole) Immurella polysaccharide (% mole)
Rhamnose 35.4 Arabinose 31.6
Glucuronic acid 9.7 Galactose 26.8
Fructose 7.7 Rhamnose 12.4
Galactose 7.1 Glucose 5.4
2-methyl-Rhamnose 5.9 3-methul-Arabinose 3.0
Xylose 5.5 3-methyl-Mannose 2.5
3-methyl-Rhamnose 4.2 Xylose 2.4
2-methyl-Xylose 4.2 4-methyl-Arabinose 2.4
4-methyl-Rhamnose 3.9 Mannose 2.3
Glucose 3.6 Ribose 1.9
Mannose 2.4 2,4-dimethyl-Arabinose 1.3
Galacturonic acid 2.0 3-methyl-Galactose 1.2
3-methyl-Galactose 2.0 3-methyl-Xylose 0.9
Arabinose 1.8 3-methyl-Rhamnose 0.9
Amino sugar 1.5 3,5-dimethyl-Hexose 0.7
2-3-dimethyl-Fucose 1.2 6-methyl-Galactose 0.5
N-acetyl-glucosamine 0.9 Glycerol 0.5
2-methyl-Glucose 0.5 2-keto-3-deoxy-Octulonosic acid 0.4
Glycerol 0.4 2,3,6-trimethyl-Mannose 0.4
3,6-dimethyl-Mannose 0.4
2,3-dimethyl-Mannose 0.4
2-methyl-Galactose 0.4
N-acetyl-Galactosamine 0.3
N-acetyl-Glucosamine 0.3
Amino sugar 0.3
Figure 2 Pathway for avonoid biosynthesis in Chlorella (A) and Spirulina (B) microalgae. (Enzyme abbreviations: PCA, P-coumaric acid; NC, narigenin chalcone;
N, naringenin; L, liquiritigenin; D, daidzein; A, apigenin; G, genistein; L, luteolin; DK, dihydrokaempferol; DQ, dihydroquercetin; Q, quercetin).42
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 53
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Figure 3 Chemical structure of phytosterol (campesterol is obtained removing 242. Removing 241 and 242 is yield cholesterol. Double bound between C22
and C23 it is obtained stigmasterol. Hydrogenating C5 and C6 stigmastanol are produced. Hydrogenating C5 and C6 and removing 242, campestanol is obtained.
Taking away 242, double bound between C22 and C23 and inverting the stereochemistry at C24 it can obtain brassilcasterol).10
Figure 4 Chemical structure of the main phytosterols from microalgae: (A) 7-dehydroporiferasterol, (B) Ergosterol and (C) 7-oxocholesterol.10
Figure 5 Primary steps of the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids (non-mevalonate pathway) in most green microalgae species-G3P glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate;
DXP 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate; MEP 2C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate; IPP Isopentenyl pyrophosphate; DMAPP dimethylallyl pyrophosphate; GGPP
geranylgeranyl diphosphate.16
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 54
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©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
Figure 6 Schematic diagram of phycobilisome situated on the thylakoid
membrane.100
Pigments, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins
Currently, rapid advances in biotechnology processes have
been taking place worldwide. Regarding the production of specic
biocompounds such as pigments, microbial processes, in particular
those obtained from microalgae, have advantages over higher plants
extraction (e.g. Marigold owers), for instance easier cultivation,
higher concentration, year-round production, potential to use agro-
industrial wastewater as nutrient source, specic pigments as
astaxanthin are rarely synthesized by higher plants (vascular plants).
In addition, microalgae do not require arable land.15,16
Pigments are fundamental for photosynthetic algae metabolism.
In other metabolisms such as human metabolism, pigments can act
as antioxidant, anti-carcinogen, anti-inammatory, anti-obesity, anti-
angiogenic and neuroprotective.
The major classes of microalgae pigments are carotenoids and
phycobiliproteins, in which carotenoids are sub-classied in two
groups: carotenes and xanthophylls (oxygenated derivatives of
carotenes). In addition, carotenoids are mainly used by the food industry
as dietary supplements, fortied foods and food dyes and animal feed.
Whereas phycobiliproteins are a group of colored proteins with linear
tetrapyrrole prosthetic groups (bilins). Usually, phycobiliproteins
are sub-classied into three groups: phycoerythrin, phycocyanin and
allophycocyanin. The main potential applications of phycobiliproteins
are: antioxidant, anti-inammatory, anti-tumor, immunomodulating,
radical scavenging, antiviral and antifungal.15,16,97,98
Carotenoids are hydrophobic compounds which have color
orange, red and yellow. Usually, they share C40 backbone structure
of isoprene units, in which more than 600 different carotenoids have
been derived from C40 backbone structure. The bioproduction of
carotenoids is biochemically related to photo-synthetic metabolism,
for instance lutein can transfer absorbed energy to chlorophylls.
However, pigments have others biochemistry function such as
astaxanthin and canthaxanthin, which play a role in cell protective
mechanisms. Currently, the major carotenoids produced at industrial
scale are β-carotene, astaxanthin, lutein, lycopene, and canthaxanthin.
Nevertheless, other pigments such as fucoxanthin (microalgae) have
good potential to be produced at industrial scale in the short-term
future (Figure 5).16,99
On the other hand, phycobiliproteins are water soluble pigment
proteins (Figure 6). Phycobiliproteins are classied based on their
spectral properties. Phycoerythrin (λA max=540 570nm; λF max=575-
590nm), phycocyanin (λA max=610 620nm; λF max:645 653nm) and
allophycocyanin (λA max=650 655 nm; λF max=657 660nm).100
Phycobiliproteins can be used in the production of fermented milk
products, ice creams, soft drinks, sweet cake decoration, milk shakes,
etc.100
The optimum conditions of phycobiliproteins production are related
to environmental stress conditions, in particular light. Light, carbon
and nitrogen sources stimulate the synthesis of phycobiliproteins.
Compared to carotenoids, the biosynthesis of phycobiliproteins is
more complex due to transcription, translational and posttranslational
pathways and synthesis of amino acids, proteins and phycobilins.97
The concentration of lutein produced by Chlorella salina, in
which ≈ 5.06mg of lutein per gram of dry alga was found.98 Regarding
recovery and purity of microalgae pigments, Li et al.101 reported that
the nal purity of lutein by Chlorella vulgaris was 94% and the yield
was 88%, respectively.
The production of C-Phycocyanin by Spirulina sp. was described.18
C-Phycocyanin is sensitive pigment (light, pH, temperature
and oxygen). Thus, strategies are needed to make the industrial
applications of C-Phycocyanin feasible. The authors concluded that
high concentration of sugars enhanced the stability of C-Phycocyanin,
which leads to applications as confectionery and pastry.
Despite of (I) great market (market value of lutein is expected to
reach US $309million by 2018, market value of β-carotene is expected
to reach US $334million by 2018), (II) high added-value (average
price of 5% astaxanthin is about US $1,900/kg) and (III) many studies
on the production of pigments by microalgae, many challenges still
remain, in particular harvesting and extraction processes.16,99
Microalgae as food
Microalgae in the human diet: The use of microalgae as food products
has been increasing due to concerns regarding health and safety
issues, for instance replacing synthetic dyes (synthetic β-carotene
has been related to lung cancer and cardiovascular diseases). In this
sense, according to American Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) food products based
on Spirulina sp. are classied as GRAS (Generally Recognized As
Safe).15–18 In addition, clinical studies indicated that the Spirulina
consumption could lead to the reduction of cholesterol, protection
against some types of cancers, enhance immune response, increase
of intestinal lactobacilli (probiotics), protection against radiation
(sunscreen lotion) and alternative treatment for obesity.102,103
Spirulina sp. has been used for a long time by people as
consumable food in Mexico (Aztecs and other Mesoamericans) and
Chad (Africa).15,104 Currently, the market for microalgae pigments has
increased, in particular for human consumption.16
Many food products can be produced by the use of microalgae
or their biocompounds, for instance isotonic beverages, cereal bars,
instant soups, pudding, cake powder mix and biscuits.15 In this sense,
Spirulina platensis can be used as a source of protein for malnourished
people, in which chocolate biscuits fortied with Spirulina platensis
presented higher protein content and higher digestibility.103 Similarly,
the protein content (bread) increased due to the addition of dried
Spirulina platensis (bread composition).105 Moreover, it was observed
that the concentrations of 11 amino acids, signicantly, increased,
Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements;
an overview 55
Copyright:
©2018 Andrade et al.
Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
in which 4 out of them, are essential amino acid acids (threonine,
methionine, leucine and isoleucine).105
An interesting approach using microalgae is the different
compositions of wheat our, cassava our and Spirulina platensis
biomass in the development of doughnuts, in which the presence
of microalgae biomass enhanced the nutritional quality of cassava
doughnut in terms of the protein, mineral, ber and lipid.17
22 different Indian recipes with dried Spirulina were studied and
all recipes were approved in terms of sensory evaluation. They also
affect positively hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia.106
Elaborated fresh spaghetti enriched with Chlorella vulgaris and
Spirulina maxima was compared to standard semolina spaghetti
(chemical composition, optimal cooking time, cooking losses,
swelling index and water absorption, etc.).9 The authors concluded
that presence of microalgae enhanced the nutritional and sensorial
quality of pasta. In addition, no changes in cooking and textural
properties were observed.
Microalgae in animal nutrition: Microalgae can also be used for
animal nutrition, in which ≈30% of algae produced worldwide
is currently used in animal nutrition;102 for instance, fed hens with
Chlorella microalgae.107 The authors observed that the content of
linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increased in the egg yolk.
Similar results were found by using Spirulina microalgae instead of
Chlorella microalgae.108
In this sense, the effect of dietary supplementation (light lambs)
with microalgae rich in docosahexaenoic acid was investigated.109
The intramuscular fat was the most affected parameters. The authors
concluded that the microalgae enhanced the quality (nutritionally) of
lamb muscle, in particular the relations total polyunsaturated fatty
acids/total saturated fatty acids; ω3/ω6 fatty acids. Whereas the diet
supplementation with Spirulina platensis in the rabbit with high
blood serum cholesterol levels decreased the cholesterol levels and
also increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.110 Similarly, adult
rabbits that were fed with Spirulina platensis showed an increasing of
the digestibility of crude proteins.111
A subtle improvement in the body weight growth of piglets that
were fed with Spirulina platensis was observed.112
When fattening calves were fed with the suspension of Chlorella
and Scenedesmus microalgae, it was found that microalgae enhanced
the digestibility of crude ber, which leads to reduced total feeding
cost, compared with animals fed with sesame seed oil.101
It was already proved that the use of Chlorella and Spirulina
microalgae can be applied as a food source, in which it is intrinsically
associated to many positive effects on health. The consumption
(human or animal diets) of Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae has
been occurring for a long time, particularly in Mexico and Chad
(Africa), however, it is restricted in some countries, for instance Brazil.
In this sense, the food industry can use microalgae in formulations
of doughnuts, spaghetti, biscuits, etc., which show a remarkable
potential, especially in nutraceutical terms.
Microalgae in sh feed: Fishmeal is traditionally used in sh feed and
in the recent years, due to the increasing in sh production, microalgae
appear as an economic and environmental-friendly alternative and
also because they contain almost all nutrients that is needed for sh.
The effect of dietary Chlorella on the growth performance and
physiological parameter (blood parameters and digestive enzyme) of
Gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) was evaluated. The addition
of 0.8-1.2% of Chlorella showed better growth, higher contents of
lyzosyme (blood parameter) that affect protein/lipid metabolism and
immunity of gibel carp and also higher amount of digestive protein
(amylase, lipase and protease) in comparison to the control (without
Chlorella supplementation). Furthermore, the cholesterol of sh fed
with Chlorella was lower than that found in the control.113
The effects of Chlorella vulgaris (supplement food) on blood
and immunological parameters of Caspian salmon exposed to Viral
Nervous Necrosis virus and they observed that the presence of
Chlorella in sh fed diet could act as a natural immunuestimulant.114
Another study showed the replacement of sh meal by Chlorella
meal supplemented by dietary cellulase to crucian cap Carassius
auratus and after evaluated the growth performance, digestive
enzymatic activities, histology and myogenic genes’ expression they
conclude that Chlorella meal could totally replace the sh meal.115
Spirulina can be also applied in sh feed providing an increased
growth rate of kenyi cichlids on Spirulina-based diet in comparison to
the control (without Spirulina). The Spirulina feeding frequency (once
and three times a day) on growth performance and seed production on
kenyi cichlids (Maylandia lombardoi) were evaluated. The growth
and the seed production on kenvi cichlids fed with Spirulina three
times a day were higher compared to fed once a day.116
Conclusion
In recent years, much interest has been focused on the potential
of microalgae biotechnology, mainly due to the identication of
several substances synthesized by these microorganisms. Microalgae
are of great importance, both biologically and economically. Their
economic importance is related to the wide range of microalgae
applications all over the world, from the food industry to medicine,
from immuno-stimulants to biofuels, from cosmetics to agriculture.
The immense biodiversity of microalgae and consequent high
variability in their biochemical composition, combined with the use of
genetic improvement and the establishment of large-scale cultivation
technology has allowed certain species (e.g Spirulina microalgae)
to be commercially available. The cultivation of microalgae has
been carried out aiming at the production of biomass for both food
manufacturing and also for obtaining natural compounds with high
added value. Among these natural compounds are polyunsaturated
fatty acids, carotenoids, phycobilins, polysaccharides, vitamins,
sterols and many natural bioactive compounds such as antioxidants,
cholesterol reducers, which can be used especially for the production
of functional foods.
Acknowledgements
The São Paulo Research Foundation-FAPESP (Project number
2013/50218-2) and BNDES-FUNTEC/VALE (Project number 2542).
Conicts of interest
The author declares no conict of interest.
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Citation: Andrade LM, Andrade CJ, Dias M, et al. Chlorella and spirulina microalgae as sources of functional foods, nutraceuticals, and food supplements; an
overview. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2018;6(1):45‒58. DOI: 10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00144
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