Article

Concentrations and Migratabilities of Hazardous Elements in Second-Hand Children's Plastic toys

January 2018
Environmental Science and Technology 52(5)

DOI:10.1021/acs.est.7b04685

Authors:

University of Plymouth

About 200 second-hand plastic toys sourced in the UK have been analysed by x-ray fluorescence spectrometry for hazardous elements (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Sb, Se) and Br as a proxy for brominated flame retardants. Each element was detected in > 20 toys or components thereof with the exception of As, Hg and Se, with the frequent occurrence of Br, Cd and Pb and at maximum concentrations of about 16,000, 20,000 and 5000 μg g-1, respectively, of greatest concern from a potential exposure perspective. Migration was evaluated on components of 26 toys under simulated stomach conditions (0.07 M HCl) with subsequent analysis by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. In eight cases, Cd or Pb exceeded their migration limits as stipulated by the current EU Toy Safety Directive (17 and 23 μμ g-1, respectively), with Cd released from yellow and red Lego bricks exceeding its limit by an order of magnitude. Two further cases were potentially non-compliant based on migratable Cr, with one item also containing > 250 μg g-1 migratable Br. While there is no retroactive regulation on second-hand toys, consumers should be aware that old, mouthable, plastic items may present a source of hazardous element exposure to infants.

Contamination by hazardous elements in low-priced children’s plastic toys bought on the local markets of Karachi, Pakistan

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Children’s plastic toys may contain toxic metals to which infants and young children can be orally exposed and may pose acute or chronic adverse health effects. This research aims to evaluate the total metal concentrations (TMCs) of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, Cu, and Mn in children’s plastic toys bought in the local markets of Karachi, Pakistan, and compare TMCs to different toy safety regulatory limits. A total of 44 children’s plastic toys sourced in the Karachi local markets were analyzed by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer for contamination of hazardous elements. Toy samples were divided into two groups: plastic toys (DCT) and plastic toys with paints or coatings (DPCT). For plastic toys, 83% (19) of samples had TMCs that exceeded European Union (EU) toy safety regulation limits for Pb, and 65% (15) of samples that exceeded for Cd. For plastic toys with paints or coating, 43% (9) of samples had TMCs that exceeded EU migration limits for Pb and 24% (5) for Cd. More than 20 samples exceeded the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (US CPSC), Canadian, and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) toy safety regulation limits. In toy samples (n = 44), very high TMCs of Pb (64%), Cd (45%), Cr (5%), and Ni (2%) were observed. Zn, Cu, and Mn TMCs existed but were below the regulation limits. The contamination levels of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni and smaller extent of Zn, Cu, and Mn still pose health issues in children and may cause serious problems in their health. Graphical abstract

Contamination by Hazardous Elements in Low – Priced Children’s Plastic Toys Bought on the local Markets of Karachi, Pakistan

Preprint

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Children’s plastics toys maybe contain toxic metals to which infants and young children can be orally exposed and may pose acute or chronic adverse health effects. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the total metal concentrations (TMCs) of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, Cu, and Mn in children’s plastic Toys Bought in the local markets of Karachi, Pakistan, and compared TMCs to different regulatory limits. Total 44 children’s plastic toys sourced in the Karachi local markets had analyzed by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer for heavy metals contaminations. These toy samples had divided into two groups; Plastic toys (DCT) and Plastic toys with paints or coatings (DPCT). For plastic toys, 83% (19) of samples had TMCs that exceeded European Union (EU) toy safety regulation limits for Pb, and 65% (15) of samples that exceeded for Cd. For plastic toys with paints or coating, 43% (9) of samples had TMCs that exceeded EU migration limits for Pb and 24% (5) for Cd. More than 20 samples exceeded the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (U.S. CPSC), Canadian, and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) toy safety regulation limits. In toys samples (n = 44) very high TMCs of Pb (64%), Cd (45%), Cr(5%), and Ni (2%) were observed. Zn, Cu, and Mn TMCs were also existing but below the Regulation limits. The Contamination levels of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni and smaller extent of Zn, Cu, and Mn still pose health issues in children and may cause serious problems in their health.

Elemental concentration and migratability in bioplastics derived from organic waste

Article

Jun 2020
CHEMOSPHERE

In line with the Circular Economy approach, the production of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) with organic waste as the feedstock may a biotechnological application to reduce waste and recover high-value materials. The potential contaminants that could transfer from bio-waste to a PHA include inorganic elements, such as heavy metals. Hence, the total content and migratability of certain elements were evaluated in several PHA samples produced from different origins and following different methods. The total content of certain elements in PHA ranged between 0.0001 (Be) and 49500 mg kg-1 (Na). The concentrations of some alkaline (Na and K) and alkaline earth (Ca and Mg) metals were highest, which are of little environmental concern. The feedstock type and PHA stabilisation and extraction procedures affected the element contents. Several sets of experiments were conducted to evaluate the migration of elements from the PHA samples under different storage times, temperatures, and pH levels. The total contents of some heavy metals (As, Cd, Fe, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in PHA produced from fruit waste or crops (commercial PHA) were lower than those in the PHA samples produced from the mixture of the organic fraction of municipal waste and sludge from wastewater treatment. Both the PHA obtained by extraction from wet biomass (acid storage) with aqueous phase extraction reagents and commercial PHA were below the migration limits stipulated by the current Toy Safety Directive and by Commission Regulation (EU) 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food under frozen and refrigerated conditions.

The influence of additives on the fate of plastics in the marine environment, exemplified with barium sulphate

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2020
MAR POLLUT BULL

With an inherent density marginally below that of seawater, polyolefins (polyethylene-polypropylene) are predicted to float or undergo beaching in the marine environment. Polyolefins commonly observed on the seabed, therefore, require additional considerations that are usually based around increasing density through fouling or packaging into sinking faecal matter. Here, however, we propose that the presence of additives is of least equal significance to the behaviour of such plastics in marine systems. We compared barium, present largely as the filler, BaSO4 (density = 4.5 g cm⁻³), in consumer and beached plastics and established that the metal was more abundant and occurred at higher concentrations in the former samples, consistent with the environmental fractionation of plastics based on additive content. Significantly, the Ba content of polyolefins required to confer a density above seawater is about 13,000 mg kg⁻¹, a value that was exceeded in many consumer plastics but never observed in beached samples.

Potentially toxic elements in toys and children's jewelry: A critical review of recent advances in legislation and in scientific research

Article

Apr 2020
ENVIRON POLLUT

Contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in children's toys and jewelry is an ongoing problem where PTEs can become bioavailable especially via oral pathway (ingestion as a whole or of parts, and mouthing) and may cause adverse health effects for children. In the present review, legislation updates from the last decade in the United States (U.S.), Canada, and the European Union) on PTEs in toys and jewelry are presented. Then, a literature review mostly covering the last decade on the total concentration, bioavailability, children's exposure, and bioaccessibility of PTEs in toys and jewelry is provided. The U.S. and Canadian legislations mainly focus on lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) total/soluble concentration limits to prevent exposure and have received several updates within the last decade, extending particularly the covered span of children's products. It seems that the introduction, subsequent enforcement, and update of regulations in developed countries have shifted the problem towards developing countries. In terms of categories, metallic toys and children's jewelry still have the most severe PTE contamination and the presence of Pb and Cd in these articles is an ongoing issue. Some studies suggest that color can be used as an indicator for the potential presence of PTEs (linked to chemicals such as lead chromate, cadmium sulfide) but the evidence is not always clear. Another concern is vintage/second-hand toys and jewelry as those items might have been produced before the legislation was present. As total and bioaccessible concentrations of PTEs in toys and jewelry do not always correlate, approaches considering bioaccessibility (e.g. of the E.U.) are more scientifically appropriate and help with better estimation of risk from exposure. Studies on toy and jewelry contamination using in vitro bioaccessibility techniques has become more common, however, there is still no in vitro test specifically designed and validated for toys and jewelry.

Total and bio-accessible toxic metals in low-cost children toys sold in major markets in Ibadan, South West Nigeria

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Toxic metals are usually added to children's toys to improve/impact some intrinsic properties such as colour which attracts children. Some of the toxic metals have life-threatening potentials on children when ingested. There is no specific legislation in Nigeria that monitors and regulates limits of such metals in toys. This study assessed total and bio-accessible concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Mn in imported low-cost children's plastic toys sold in popular markets in Ibadan, Nigeria. A total of 22 different toys were purchased and subjected to an indicative test for the presence of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) following the Beilstein method as well as analysing for total recoverable metals and migrated fractions into simulated saliva and gastric environments. Toy samples were crushed, ashed, and dissolved with dilute nitric acid for total recoverable metals while migration studies were carried out using simulated saliva and gastric environments to check bio-accessible fractions that could leach into the human system. Metals in all extracts were determined using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometric technique. The indicative PVC test showed 12 samples positive to PVC and 10 tested negative. Total recoverable metal concentrations (mg/kg) ranged as follows: Pb: Below Detection Limit (BDL) - 4838, Cd: BDL - 44.9, Cr: 0.331–79.8, Ni: 0.273–59.1 and Mn: 0.205–31.0 with Pb and Cr having 18 and 14% of samples higher than EU limits of 90 and 60 mg/kg. Bio-accessible concentrations in artificial saliva were: Pb: BDL - 42.4, Cd: BDL-0.450, Ni: BDL-1.40 and Mn: BDL-0.058 with Pb higher in 70% of samples compared to 2.0 mg/kg migrated EU limit while other metals were within the limits. Furthermore, metal concentrations that migrated to gastric environment were: Pb: 8.24–50.3, Cd: BDL-0.057, Ni: 0.103–1.96 and Mn: BDL-1.37 with Pb in 100% of samples higher than 2.0 mg/kg EU migrated limit. Chromium migration in both environments was BDL. The results of this study suggest that toxic metal contents are present in both PVC and non-PVC made toys, but higher in PVC containing toys. Though the calculated hazard index for health risk assessment of heavy metals was < 1 for all metals, Pb concentration in both total recoverable extract and saliva and gastric environments seem to be problematic and constant monitoring and regulation are required.

Study of controlled migration of cadmium and lead into foods from plastic utensils for children

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Lead (Pb) is a highly neurotoxic chemical element known for reducing intelligence quotient (IQ) and promoting antisocial behavior in children and adolescents, while cadmium (Cd) is a carcinogenic bioaccumulative element. Both these metals are included in the priority pollutant list of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and in the WHO List of Chemicals of Major Public Health Concern, where contaminated foods and beverages are the most common pathways of exposure. The objective of this study was to determine total Cd and Pb levels in colored plastic utensils (cups, mugs, bowls, feeding bottles, and plates) for use by children and to measure the specific migration of these elements into beverages and foods. Total contaminant levels were determined using a handheld X-ray fluorescence analyzer. Specific migration tests were conducted using the simulant solutions acetic acid 3% (m/v) and water. Migration levels were determined by ICP-MS. Specific migration tests for Pb were also performed on commercially available samples (cola soft drink, orange juice, vinegar, and milk), with levels determined by graphite-furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF-AAS). A total of 674 utensils were analyzed in loco at major commercial centers in Greater São Paulo, of which 87 were purchased for containing Cd and Pb concentrations above permitted limits. Mean concentrations of the metals detected in the purchased utensils were 1110 ppm for Pb and 338 ppm for Cd. For specific migration assays, Pb levels were 187, 13, and 380 times above the permitted limit (0.01 mg.kg -1) for acetic acid, water, and orange juice, respectively. Cd levels were 50 and 2.4 times above the maximum permitted limit (0.005 mg.kg -1) for acetic acid and water, respectively. The districts where the utensils were purchased were grouped according to their social vulnerability index and compared using ANOVA. Pb levels were different between low and medium/high social vulnerability groups (p = 0.006). The findings corroborate the initial hypothesis that these utensils constitute a major source of exposure to PTEs such as Cd and Pb, pointing to the need for stricter regulation and inspection by the Brazilian regulatory agencies.

Toxic and carcinogenic constituents of jewelry in the Indian retail market determined using x-ray fluorescence

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

The elemental composition of about 60 items of precious and non-precious jewelry in the Indian retail market has been explored through x-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurements using silicon drift and high-purity germanium detectors. The proportions of various elements have been established through the use of Gaussian fitting and background subtraction routines, along with corrections for photopeak detection efficiencies at different energies. Tabulated XRF yields were accounted for in the determination of proportions however matrix correction and absorption enhancement effects, if present, could not be included. The non-destructive characterization and quantification allowed by x-ray spectrometric methods indicate the presence of significant amounts of toxic bromine and antimony in fashion jewelry. A disturbing trend observed in many items of non-precious, metal imitation jewelry is that carcinogenic cadmium is the predominant constituent (around 80% w/w) which poses a significant health hazard for a large section of the population. The proportion of cadmium is found to be far greater than the minor fractions reported earlier. It has been determined that cadmium continues to be added to precious jewelry, albeit in smaller amounts, though its use is restricted by existing regulations. This pan-Indian study underscores the urgent necessity to inspect and regulate, particularly the metal imitation and fashion jewelry business, in order to mitigate the harmful effects of some of the constituent elements on human health and the environment.

COVID-19 discarded disposable gloves as a source and a vector of pollutants in the environment

Article

Apr 2021
J HAZARD MATER

The appearance of the virus SARS-CoV-2 at the end of 2019 and its spreading all over the world has caused global panic and increase of personal protection equipment usage to protect people against infection. Increased usage of disposable protective gloves, their discarding to random spots and getting to landfills may result in significant environmental pollution. The knowledge concerning possible influence of gloves and potential of gloves debris on the environment (water, soil, etc.), wildlife and humans is crucial to predict future consequences of disposable gloves usage caused by the pandemic. This review focuses on the possibility of chemical release (heavy metals and organic pollutants) from gloves and gloves materials, their adsorptive properties in terms of contaminants accumulation and effects of gloves degradation under environmental conditions.

Weathering and persistence of plastic in the marine environment: Lessons from LEGO

Article

Feb 2020
ENVIRON POLLUT

The residence times of plastics in the oceans are unknown, largely because of the durability of the material and the relatively short (decadal) period of time over which plastic products have been manufactured. In this study, classic LEGO bricks constructed of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and washed up on the strandlines of beaches of southwest England have been subjected to X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis and the spectra and any other identifiers matched with unweathered blocks stored in collections or sets of known history. Relative to unweathered equivalents, weathered blocks exhibit varying degrees of yellowing, fracturing and fouling, and are of lower mass, average stud height and mechanical strength. These effects are attributed to photo-oxidative degradation and the actions of physical stress and abrasion while exposed to the marine environment. Infrared spectra indicate that the polymer remains largely intact on weathering but with photo-degradation of the polybutadiene phase of ABS, while quantification of XRF spectra reveals that pigments like cadmium sulphoselenide become more heterogeneously distributed in the matrix when in the environment. Using measured mass loss of paired (weathered versus unweathered) equivalents and the age of blocks obtained from storage we estimate residence times of between about 100 and 1300 years for this type and thickness of plastic, with variations reflecting differences in precise additive composition and modes of weathering.

Children's exposure to hazardous brominated flame retardants in plastic toys

Article

Feb 2020
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

We report concentrations of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in 23 plastic samples from 20 new and second-hand children's toys sourced from the UK that had been previously shown to be Br-positive by XRF. The results reinforce existing evidence that the recycling of BFR-treated electronic plastics has led to the unintentional BFR contamination of articles not required to be flame-retarded. The principal BFRs detected were PBDEs (and in particular BDE-209), HBCDD and TBBP-A. PBDEs were detected in all samples with a maximum concentration of BDE-209 of 2500 mg/kg, and while TBBP-A was detected in 11 samples with a maximum concentration of 3100 mg/kg. HBCDD was detected in 14 cases and was present in four toys at concentrations (139–840 mg/kg) that would currently prevent their sale on the EU market. While estimated exposures to PBDEs via accidental ingestion of toy plastic fell well below USEPA reference doses, a child weighing 8.67 kg and ingesting 8 mg/day of a toy (the default assumption of the European Commission's Toy Safety Directive for scraped-off toy material) contaminated at our arithmetic mean concentration would be exposed to 0.2 ng/kg bw/day BDE-99. This compares closely to a health-based limit value (HBLV) proposed in The Netherlands of 0.23–0.30 ng/kg bw/day BDE-99. Of greater concern, the same child playing with a toy contaminated at the maximum concentration in this study would be exposed to 1.4 ng/kg bw/day BDE-99, thereby exceeding the HBLV. This paper is the first to consider BFR exposure via incidental ingestion of plastic from both contemporary and historical toys, revealing it to be considerable and for some children their most significant pathway of exposure.

Occurrence and fate of antimony in plastics

Article

Nov 2019
J HAZARD MATER

Antimony (Sb) is a technology critical element whose presence is ubiquitous in manufactured products, and in particular in plastics where it is used extensively as a flame retardant synergist for brominated compounds, as a catalyst for polyethylene terephthalate production, and as a pigment for colour. This study reviews the usage, regulations and fate of Sb in plastics by examining primary data on its production, applications, contents in and migration from manufactured objects, and presence in and release from waste, including the disposal and recycling routes for this material (i.e., non-controlled disposal, incineration, landfilling and recycling). Consumption of Sb and the relative apportioning of the metalloid between different uses in plastics change continuously and are largely driven by dynamic economic factors; accordingly, reference to secondary data or sources can be misleading. Since Sb is not recovered from plastics, its fate is entirely linked to the fate of plastics themselves which, as far as disposal and recycling are concerned, might be dictated by the presence of co-associated regulated substances such as brominated flame retardants. Significantly, because of the high leachability of Sb from bottom incineration ashes, the EU considers the metalloid as the most problematic substance regarding the potential reuse of this material.

Determination of Metals in Children’s Plastic Toys using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

Children’s health and safety may be compromised if exposed to metals through contaminated toys. Hence, evaluation of the quality of the toys available in markets is essential to protect children. This study undertaken to identify the presence of metals contents in plastic toys and compares the results with the national and international limits. For this purpose, 56 types of popular children’s toys marked were purchased from the UAE markets and the metal contents were estimated in 156 toy samples by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) technique. The results reveal that Ti, Fe, Zn and Mg were present in all types of toys. At the same time, other metals such as K and Na in 54 types of toys, Cr in 51 types of toys, Al in 50 types of toys, B, Ba and Ca in types of 49 toys, Mn in 41 types of toys, Cd in 40 types of toys, Ag in 39 types of toys, Ni in 25 types of toys, Pd in 23 types of toys, Cu in 18 types of toys, Bi in 4 types of toys and Co in 3 types of toys were also detected. Furthermore, Pd and B concentrations in 3 types of toys, while Zn and Ba concentrations in two types of toys exceeded the permissible limits. Toxic stabilizers and colours added to PVC during manufacturing are responsible for the existence of such elements in plastic toys. However, additional research is required to establish the role of metals in toys, identify potential risks to children’s health and propose regulations.

Development of nationally representative exposure factor database for children’s products in Korea

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024
J EXPO SCI ENV EPID

Background Children may be exposed to harmful chemicals from their products. Accurate exposure factors are critical for exposure assessment of children’s products. Product usage pattern parameters are relatively limited compared with the chemical concentration, children’s physiological and behavioral parameters. Objective The aim of this study was to determine nationally representative Korean exposure factors for the usage patterns of children’s products by sex, age, and season. Methods Using proportional quota sampling, a survey of 10,000 households with children aged 0–12 years was conducted twice, once in summer and winter. The children’s ages were divided into four groups: infant (0–2 years old), toddler (3–6), lower-grade elementary student (7–9), and higher-grade elementary student (10–12). Data on exposure factors such as use rate, use frequency, and use duration of 57 children’s products were collected. Results The 57 products were classified into five categories: baby products (13), toys (12), daily products (10), sporting goods (8), and stationery (14). The use rates of products in the daily products and stationery category were >90% in both seasons. Two of the 57 products showed significant sex differences in all three exposure factors (p < 0.001). Twenty-five of the 44 non-baby products showed significant age differences for all three exposure factors. Twenty-three of the 57 products varied significantly with season for all three exposure factors. Impact This study generated a nationally representative exposure factor database for the usage patterns of children’s products in Korea. The exposure factors for 57 children’s products were investigated through twice survey with quota sampling with each 10,000 children nationwide. Sex, age, and seasonal differences for children’s products were identified. These accurate exposure factors by sex, age, and season can be used as input parameters for refined exposure assessment.

United Nations Environment Programme and Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions (2023) Chemicals in Plastic: A technical report.

Technical Report

Full-text available

May 2023

https://www.unep.org/resources/report/chemicals-plastics-technical-report The report provides state of knowledge on chemicals in plastics and based on compelling scientific evidence calls for urgent action to address chemicals in plastics as part of the global action on plastic pollution. Overview of the report: The “Chemicals in Plastics: A Technical Report” aims to inform the global community about the often-overlooked chemical-related issues of plastic pollution, particularly their adverse impacts on human health and the environment as well as on resource efficiency and circularity. Based on compelling scientific evidence, it further highlights the urgent need to act and outlines possible areas for action. It also aims to support the negotiation process to develop the instrument on plastic pollution based on United Nations Environment Assembly resolution 5/14. The report outlines a set of credible and publicly available scientific studies and initiatives focused on chemicals in plastics and the science-policy interface. The report was developed by UNEP in cooperation with the Secretariat of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, with lead authors from the International Panel on Chemical Pollution, as well as contributions from key experts. Some key findings: Based on the latest studies, more than 13,000 chemicals have been identified as associated with plastics and plastic production across a wide range of applications. Ten groups of chemicals (based on chemistry, uses, or sources) are identified as being of major concern due to their high toxicity and potential to migrate or be released from plastics, including specific flame retardants, certain UV stabilizers, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), phthalates, bisphenols, alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates, biocides, certain metals and metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and many other non-intentionally added substances (NIAS). Chemicals of concern have been found in plastics across a wide range of sectors and products value chains, including toys and other children's products, packaging (including food contact materials), electrical and electronic equipment, vehicles, synthetic textiles and related materials, furniture, building materials, medical devices, personal care and household products, and agriculture, aquaculture and fisheries. Chemicals of concern in plastics can impact our health and our environment: Extensive scientific data on the potential adverse impacts of about 7,000 substances associated with plastics show that more than 3,200 of them have one or more hazardous properties of concern. Women and children are particularly susceptible to these toxic chemicals. Exposures can have severe or long-lasting adverse effects on several key period of a women’s life and may impact the next generations. Exposures during fetal development and in children can cause, for example, neurodevelopmental / neurobehavioural related disorders. Men are not spared either, with latest research documenting substantial detrimental effects on male fertility due to current combined exposures to hazardous chemicals, many of which are associated with plastics. Chemicals of concern can be released from plastic along its entire life cycle, during not only the extraction of raw materials, production of polymers and manufacture of plastic products, but also the use of plastic products and at the end of their life, particularly when waste is not properly managed, finding their way to the air, water and soils. Existing evidence calls for urgent action to address chemicals in plastics as part of the global action on plastic pollution, to protect human health and the environment, and transition to a toxic-free and sustainable circular economy. UNEP acknowledges the financial support from the Government of Norway, the Government of Sweden and the Government of Switzerland, for the development of the report.

Lead and other toxic metals in plastic play foods: Results from testing citizen science, lead detection tools in childcare settings

Article

Nov 2022
J ENVIRON MANAGE

A method development pilot study examining citizen science tools for assessing lead in childcare settings identified plastic food toys as an unexpected potential source of lead and arsenic. Collaborating researchers at three universities sought to develop a low cost, replicable approach for use in childcare centers to identify lead. Through graduate Environmental Health courses at Northeastern and Boston Universities, 197 Plastic Food Toys (PFTs) used in a childcare center were tested for lead using a portable X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) instrument and a colorimetric wipe method for detecting surface lead. The XRF identified concerning levels of lead and co-occurring arsenic in PFTs. The XRF analysis found 8.63% (17/197) of PFTs from the childcare center contained more than 100.00 ppm of lead, the U.S. Consumer Protection Safety Commission's (CPSC) upper regulatory threshold for lead in childrens' products. However, wipes did not detect removable surface lead. Lead concentrations ranged from 6.14 ppm to 11,999.00 ppm with a median of 40.00 ppm. Additionally, 7.10% of all PFTs tested had detectable levels of arsenic which ranged from 9.30 ppm to 1134.42 ppm and had a median value of 113.20 ppm. Arsenic concentrations in 6.60% of PFTs' exceeded the US voluntary standard for arsenic in children's products of 25.00 ppm (adopted from the EU standard). These findings prompted further sampling of similar newly-purchased PFTs. None of the newly-purchased PFTs tested positive for lead or arsenic (0/87). Several other elements were also identified, particularly in the used PFTs. Because these food-like toys are frequently put in children's mouths, we recommend further investigation of PFTs in circulation via citizen science combining the wipe and XRF method as they provide immediate data to participants. Additionally, CPSC should consider a systematic recall of some used PFTs to prevent exposure disparities by socio-economic status and increased surveillance for other toxic metals in new PFTs.

Percutaneous Absorption and Exposure Risk Assessment of Organophosphate Esters in Children’s Toys

Article

Aug 2022
J HAZARD MATER

The percutaneous penetration and exposure risk of organophosphate esters (OPEs) from children’s toys remains largely unknown. Percutaneous penetration of OPEs was evaluated by EPISkinTM model. Chlorinated OPEs (Cl-OPEs) and alkyl OPEs, except tris(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, exhibited a fast absorption rate and good dermal penetration ability with cumulative absorptions of 57.6−127% of dosed OPEs. Cumulative absorptions of OPEs through skin cells were inversely associated with their molecular weight and log octanol-water partition coefficient. Additionally, a quantitative structure-activity relationship model indicated that topological charge and steric features of OPEs were closely related to the transdermal permeability of these chemicals. With the clarification of the factors affecting the transdermal penetration of OPEs, the level and exposure risk of OPEs in actual toys were studied. The summation of 18 OPE concentrations in 199 toy samples collected from China ranged from 6.82 to 228,254 ng/g, of which Cl-OPEs presented the highest concentration. Concentrations of OPEs in toys exhibited clear type differences. Daily exposure to OPEs via dermal, hand-to-mouth contact, and mouthing was evaluated, and dermal contact was a significant route for children’s exposure to OPEs. Hazard quotients for noncarcinogenic risk assessment were below 1, indicating that the health risk of OPEs via toys was relatively low.

Interaction of microplastics with metal(oid)s in aquatic environments: What is done so far?

Article

Apr 2022

Microplastics (MPs) are being recognized as an emergent route of contaminants to aquatic environments, which initially attracted the research interest on their interactions with organic pollutants. Lately, a turning point of attention is evident, with more published studies reporting the presence of metal(oid)s in plastics. This review assembles the mechanisms occurring on microplastics surfaces that enhance sorption of hazardous elements (i.e., metals and metalloids) over environmental exposure. Reported findings of experimental studies are of major importance to understand the factors controlling the sorption/desorption of metal(oid)s to/from microplastics as much as determination of metal(oid)s in environmental plastics. Existence or formation of oxygen-containing functional groups and complexes from surface coatings strongly allow bond of metal(oid)s on reactive surfaces while sorption dynamics are strongly controlled by water chemistry parameters. Moreover, the present work evidences the potential impacts caused by metal(oid)s-MPs interactions to aquatic organisms, prioritizing the need of environmental realistic parameters to test. Bioaccumulation of metal(oid)s desorbed from ingested MPs prove the significant influence of these plastic particles in the bioavailability of pollutants to aquatic biota. In this way, this is a comprehensive manuscript committed to the estimation of the potential ecological risk of MPs to aquatic environments due to their association with metal(oid)s.

A Children’s Health Perspective on Nano- and Microplastics

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Background: Pregnancy, infancy, and childhood are sensitive windows for environmental exposures. Yet the health effects of exposure to nano- and microplastics (NMPs) remain largely uninvestigated or unknown. Although plastic chemicals are a well-established research topic, the impacts of plastic particles are unexplored, especially with regard to early life exposures. Objectives: This commentary aims to summarize the knowns and unknowns around child- and pregnancy-relevant exposures to NMPs via inhalation, placental transfer, ingestion and breastmilk, and dermal absorption. Methods: A comprehensive literature search to map the state of the science on NMPs found 37 primary research articles on the health relevance of NMPs during early life and revealed major knowledge gaps in the field. We discuss opportunities and challenges for quantifying child-specific exposures (e.g., NMPs in breastmilk or infant formula) and health effects, in light of global inequalities in baby bottle use, consumption of packaged foods, air pollution, hazardous plastic disposal, and regulatory safeguards. We also summarize research needs for linking child health and NMP exposures and address the unknowns in the context of public health action. Discussion: Few studies have addressed child-specific sources of exposure, and exposure estimates currently rely on generic assumptions rather than empirical measurements. Furthermore, toxicological research on NMPs has not specifically focused on child health, yet children's immature defense mechanisms make them particularly vulnerable. Apart from few studies investigating the placental transfer of NMPs, the physicochemical properties (e.g., polymer, size, shape, charge) driving the absorption, biodistribution, and elimination in early life have yet to be benchmarked. Accordingly, the evidence base regarding the potential health impacts of NMPs in early life remains sparse. Based on the evidence to date, we provide recommendations to fill research gaps, stimulate policymakers and industry to address the safety of NMPs, and point to opportunities for families to reduce early life exposures to plastic. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9086.

Estimating mouthing exposure to chemicals in children’s products

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022
J EXPO SCI ENV EPID

Background Existing models for estimating children’s exposure to chemicals through mouthing currently depends on the availability of chemical- and material-specific experimental migration rates, only covering a few dozen chemicals. Objective This study objective is hence to develop a mouthing exposure model to predict migration into saliva, mouthing exposure, and related health risk from a wide range of chemical-material combinations in children’s products. Methods We collected experimental data on chemical migration from different products into saliva for multiple substance groups and materials, identifying chemical concentration and diffusion coefficient as main properties of influence. To predict migration rates into saliva, we adapted a previously developed migration model for chemicals in food packaging materials. We also developed a regression model based on identified chemical and material properties. Results Our migration predictions correlate well with experimental data ( R ² = 0.85) and vary widely from 8 × 10 ⁻⁷ to 32.7 µg/10 cm ² /min, with plasticizers in PVC showing the highest values. Related mouthing exposure doses vary across chemicals and materials from a median of 0.005 to 253 µg/kg BW /d. Finally, we combined exposure estimates with toxicity information to yield hazard quotients and identify chemicals of concern for average and upper bound mouthing behavior scenarios. Significance The proposed model can be applied for predicting migration rates for hundreds of chemical-material combinations to support high-throughput screening.

Hazardous metal additives in plastics and their environmental impacts

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021
ENVIRON INT

Historically, many additives and catalysts used in plastics were based on compounds of toxic metals (and metalloids), like arsenic, cadmium, chromium(VI), and lead. Despite subsequent restrictions, hazardous additives remain in plastics in societal circulation because of the pervasiveness of many products and the more general contamination of recycled goods. However, little is understood about their presence and impacts in the environment, with most studies focusing on the role of plastics in acquiring metals from their surroundings through, for example, adsorption. Accordingly, this paper provides a review of the uses of hazardous, metal-based additives in plastics, the relevant European regulations that have been introduced to restrict or prohibit usage in various sectors, and the likely environmental impacts of hazardous additives once plastics are lost in nature. Examination of the literature reveals widespread occurrence of hazardous metals in environmental plastics, with impacts ranging from contamination of the waste stream to increasing the density and settling rates of material in aquatic systems. A potential concern from an ecotoxicological perspective is the diffusion of metals from the matrix of micro- and nanoplastics under certain physico-chemical conditions, and especially favorable here are the acidic environments encountered in the digestive tract of many animals (birds, fish, mammals) that inadvertently consume plastics. For instance, in vitro studies have shown that the mobilization of Cd and Pb from historical microplastics can greatly exceed concentrations deemed to be safe according to migration limits specified by the current European Toy Safety Directive (17 mg kg⁻¹ and 23 mg kg⁻¹, respectively). When compared with concentrations of metals typically adsorbed to plastics from the environment, the risks from pervasive, historical additives are far more significant.

Determination of metals in children’s plastic toys using X-ray florescence spectroscopy

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Children’s toys may contain substances that children can be exposed to via multiple pathways. The aim of this study was to assess the presence of metals in children’s plastic toys using X-ray florescence. Fifty-six children’s plastic toys were purchased from several wholesale markets, supermarkets, and retail stores in the UAE, and fifty-four out of them were labeled “Made in China.” X-ray fluorescence analysis was conducted on 442 samples from 56 toys to investigate the elemental composition of the toy material. The elements detected with higher frequencies were Ti (100%), Cl (78.6%), Zn (67.9%), Si (66.1%), Iron (48.2%), and Cu (16.1%). Chromium and nickel were detected only in one toy with low concentrations, while Pb was not detected in any of the toys analyzed. In conclusion, the analyzed plastic toys contain metals and the presence of these metals in some cases may pose a health risk to children. Chlorine presence in more than three quarters of toys may indicate that the toys were made of PVC. The study revealed the presence of titanium and silicon in toys. However, more research is needed to verify their role in toys and to identify associated health risks. The study did not reveal toxic elements such as Pb, Cd, and As.

Chemicals of concern in plastic toys

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021
ENVIRON INT

We present a list of Chemicals of Concern (CoCs) in plastic toys. We started from available studies reporting chemical composition of toys to group plastic materials, as well as to gather mass fractions and function of chemicals in these materials. Chemical emissions from plastic toys and subsequent human exposures were then estimated using a series of models and a coupled near-field and far-field exposure assessment framework. Comparing human doses with reference doses shows high Hazard Quotients of up to 387 and cancer risk calculated using cancer slope factors of up to 0.0005. Plasticizers in soft plastic materials show the highest risk, with 31 out of the 126 chemicals identified as CoCs, with sum of Hazard Quotients >1 or child cancer risk >10⁻⁶. Our results indicate that a relevant amount of chemicals used in plastic toy materials may pose a non-negligible health risk to children, calling for more refined investigations and more human- and eco-friendly alternatives. The 126 chemicals identified as CoCs were compared with other existing regulatory prioritization lists. While some of our chemicals appear in other lists, we also identified additional priority chemicals that are not yet covered elsewhere and thus require further attention. We finally derive for all considered chemicals the maximum Acceptable Chemical Content (ACC) in the grouped toy plastic materials as powerful green chemistry tool to check whether chemical alternatives could create substantial risks.

The Urban Lead (Pb) Burden in Humans, Animals and the Natural Environment

Article

Oct 2020

Centuries of human activities, particularly housing and transportation practices from the late 19th century through the 1980’s, dispersed hundreds of millions of tons of lead into our urban areas. The urban lead burden is evident among humans, wild and domesticated animals, and plants. Animal lead exposures closely mirror and often exceed the lead exposure patterns of their human partners. Some examples: Pigeons in New York City neighborhoods mimicked the lead exposures of neighborhood children, with more contaminated areas associated with higher exposures in both species. Also, immediately following the lead in drinking water crisis in Flint MI in 2015, blood lead levels in pet dogs in Flint were 4 times higher than in surrounding towns. And combining lead’s neurotoxicity with urban stress results in well-characterized aggressive behaviors across multiple species. Lead pollution is not distributed evenly across urban areas. Although average US pediatric lead exposures have declined by 90% since the 1970s, there remain well defined neighborhoods where children continue to have toxic lead exposures; animals are poisoned there, too. Those neighborhoods tend to have disproportionate commercial and industrial lead activity; a history of dense traffic; older and deteriorating housing; past and operating landfills, dumps and hazardous waste sites; and often lead contaminated drinking water. The population there tends to be low income and minority. Urban wild and domesticated animals bear that same lead burden. Soil, buildings, dust and even trees constitute huge lead repositories throughout urban areas. Until and unless we begin to address the lead repositories in our cities, the urban lead burden will continue to impose enormous costs distributed disproportionately across the domains of the natural environment. Evidence-based research has shown the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of some US public policies to prevent or reduce these exposures. We end with a series of recommendations to manage lead-safe urban environments.

Estimation of Some Metals in Children's Colorful Modeling Clay Sold in the Markets of Erbil City, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2020

Toxic heavy metals are commonly introduced in the manufacturing of various children's products. In this study, nine different types of modeling clay brands collected from several markets in Erbil city were analyzed to assess the content of heavy metals including Cd, Cr, Cu, and Ni. The metals analyses were performed on different colors available in each of the purchased brands. Strong acids such as nitric acid (HNO 3 65%), and perchloric acid (HClO 4 70%) were performed to digest samples. Concentrations of the selected metals were determined using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (FAAS). Data showed that numbers of examined clays samples detected with Cr, Cd Cu, and Ni metals were 0, 5, 36, and 40 out of 54 examined clay samples, respectively. Ni and Cu were found in varying concentrations in most (detected in 8 brands out of 9 collected clay brands) of the examined clay brand samples. The total of the detected metals load in the nine analysed brands were as follows; Chinese-3 (221.41 mg/kg) > Italian (75.84 mg/kg) > Chinese-4 (68.00 mg/kg) > German (61.31 mg/kg) > Chinese-6 (58.67 mg/kg) > Turkish (54.05 mg/kg) > Chinese-5 (52.51 mg/kg) > Chinese-1 (23.7 mg/kg) > Chinese-2 (23.31 mg/kg). Data confirms that the concentrations of the selected metals in whole examined samples were below European Union permissible limits (EN 71-3:2013, Category-I) for the migratable metals in pliable clay toys except one clay sample (819.2 mg/kg of Cu in blue clay color). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to find the presence of significant differences among analysed brands of modeling clay samples.

Identification of plastic toys contaminated with volatile organic compounds using QCM gas sensor array

Article

Dec 2019
TALANTA

In this paper, we propose a fast and easy-to-use analytical method to identify the children toys contaminated with potentially dangerous substances from the class of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). It is shown that the use of cross-sensitive gas sensor array based on piezoelectric sensors, modified with different sorbents, allows reliable recognition of items with the elevated levels of VOCs. Applying chemometric methods for processing of the sensor array data, it is possible to classify the toys into clean and hazardous ones with sensitivity and accuracy around 96%. Taking into account the simplicity of the suggested procedure, it appears to be an attractive option for cost-effective pre-screening of potentially dangerous plastic toys in comparison with the expensive and time-consuming chromatographic methods.

Investigation of the heterogeneity of bromine in plastic components as an indicator for brominated flame retardants in waste electrical and electronic equipment with regard to recyclability

Article

Dec 2019

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) can contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs) that pose a threat to human health and the environment. In addition, Br-containing plastics reduce the recycling potential of WEEE. In order to gain a better insight into the distribution of Br in plastics from WEEE, the total concentration of Br was measured on the level of device types and plastic components using handheld X-ray fluorescence (hXRF). In 35 % of the sample size (882 components from 369 different devices, which originate from 6 device types) Br was detected, 5 % exceeded the RoHS limit. Only few and older devices contained high Br concentrations, while the majority were below the RoHS limit and could be recycled. In addition, 18 different plastic types were identified by infrared spectroscopy, with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene being the most abundant (44 % of all samples). Manual dismantling of devices into individual plastic components enabled us to examine Br hotspots and the variety of plastic types in WEEE. Based on this analytical procedure, WEEE recyclers could exclude certain equipment or plastic components (e.g. power supplies or PC housings) directly on-site prior to WEEE recycling and shredding in order to produce high-quality recycled products and avoid cross-contamination.

Eliminating Plastic Pollution: How a Voluntary Contribution From Industry Will Drive the Circular Plastics Economy

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019

Marine plastic pollution is a symptom of an inherently wasteful linear plastic economy, costing us more than US$ 2.2 trillion per year. Of the 6.3 billion tonnes of fossil fuel-derived plastic (FFP) waste produced to date, only 9% has been recycled; the rest being incinerated (12%) or dumped into the environment (79%). FFPs take centuries to degrade, meaning five billion tonnes of increasingly fragmented and dangerous plastics have accumulated in our oceans, soil and air. Rates of FFP production and waste are growing rapidly, driven by increased demand and shifting strategies of oil and gas companies responding to slowing profit growth. Without effective recycling, the harm caused by FFP waste will keep increasing, jeopardizing first marine life and ultimately humankind. In this Perspective article, we review the global costs of plastic pollution and explain why solving this is imperative for humanity's well-being. We show that FFP pollution is far beyond a marine environmental issue: it now invades our bodies, causing disease and dysfunction, while millions of adults and children work in conditions akin to slavery, picking through our waste. We argue that an integrated economic and technical solution, catalyzed through a voluntary industry-led contribution from new FFP production, is central to arrest plastic waste flows by making used plastic a cashable commodity, incentivizing recovery and accelerating industrialization of polymer-to-polymer technologies. Without much-needed systematic transformation, driven by a contribution from FFP production, humanity and the oceans face a troubling future.

Mobilization and bioaccessibility of cadmium in coastal sediment contaminated by microplastics

Article

Sep 2019
MAR POLLUT BULL

Cadmium has had a number of historical applications in plastics but is now highly regulated. In this study, plastics containing pigmented or recycled Cd at concentrations up to 16,300 μg g-1 were processed into microplastic-sized fragments and added to clean estuarine sediment. Plastic-sediment mixtures (mass ratio = 1:100) were subsequently exposed to fluids simulating the digestive conditions encountered in marine deposit-feeding invertebrates prepared from a protein and a bile acid surfactant in seawater and the mobilization of Cd measured as a function of time. Kinetic profiles over a six-hour period were complex, with some fitted using a diffusion model and others exhibiting evidence of Cd interactions between the plastic and sediment surface. The maximum concentration of Cd released from plastic-sediment mixtures was about 0.8 μg g-1 and orders of magnitude greater than Cd mobilization from sediment alone. It is predicted that large communities of deposit-feeders could mobilize significant quantities of Cd from historical microplastics.

The effect of lead on dermal exposure of plasticizers in toys and associated risk assessment

Article

Nov 2024

A comprehensive analysis of children's blood lead levels in Latin America and the Caribbean over the last eight years: Progress and recommendations

Article

Apr 2024

In 2017 we published a review on blood lead levels (BLL) in children from Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) for data available up to 14th of March 2014 and recommended the identification and control of “lead hot spots”. In the present study, an evaluation of progress toward reducing BLL in the region was carried out. A systematic review of the latest literature on lead exposure in the LAC region held on the PubMed, Web of Science and LILACS databases (January 2014 to March 2022) was conducted using the PRISMA methodology. Only original papers published in peer-reviewed English, Spanish, or Portuguese journals were eligible. A total of 558 papers were retrieved, 77 of which met the selection criteria and 31 (40.25 %) were carried out in Mexico. The prevalence of children with BLL above 10 μg/dL was 22.08 % in the previous review versus 6.78 % in the current study. In the present review, the prevalence of children with BLL above 5 μg/dL was 29.62 %, and only one study reported a BLL prevalence rate between 3.3 and 5 μg/dL. The highest BLLs were associated with well-known sources or occupational exposures. The number of countries (n = 13) that published data on BLL in children was lower compared to the previous review (n = 16). Most studies were conducted in areas with known lead exposure sources, similar to the earlier review. The percentage of children at risk of lead poisoning in the region remains unknown because few studies have published data on environmental exposure levels and most samples were relatively small. The recommendation to identify and control sources of lead exposure was maintained, while further suggestions for establishing a systematic public health surveillance system for lead were proposed to help reduce the knowledge gap and inform public health policy-making in LAC.

Trace element pollution from drifted plastic debris in coastal terrestrial species at Zamami Island, Okinawa

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

There has been little research on the pollution of drifted debris in terrestrial ecosystems in coastal areas compared to research focusing on aquatic environment and aquatic organisms. In this study, two species of terrestrial hermit crabs and three species of coastal plants were collected from a polluted site (Nita) and a control site (Furuzamami) in Zamami Island, Okinawa, and analysed to evaluate element contamination in order to evaluate the risk of drifted debris as a source of trace element pollution in terrestrial ecosystems. In both species of terrestrial hermit crabs, Cd was detected at significantly higher concentrations in both the muscle and hepatopancreas of individuals collected from the polluted site. In addition, Pb, often contained in polyvinyl chloride products along with Cd, had higher concentrations in the hepatopancreas of terrestrial hermit crabs in the contaminated site than in the control site. Among the three coastal plants, Pandanus tectorius was the most sensitive to trace element pollution via drifted debris. In general, plants tended to accumulate elements in accordance with their leachability from plastics. This result suggested that trace elements, leaching from drifted debris to soils, accumulated in the plants. These results indicate that leaching rates from drifted plastics have a greater effect on element accumulation in plants than in terrestrial hermit crabs. The degree of influence of the leaching rate of elements from drifting debris differed between the hermit crabs and plants. In addition, the accumulation of elements that were easily adsorbed by plastics was observed in each species. In the environment, drifted debris is potentially hazardous as a medium of contamination to organisms, as it adsorbs various elements during their transport in the ocean. Fullsize Image

Integrating Post-Ionization Separation via Differential Mobility Spectrometry into Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry for Toy Safety Screening

Article

Dec 2023

Direct analysis in real time (DART) enables direct desorption and ionization of analytes, bypassing the time-consuming chromatographic separation traditionally required for mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. However, DART-MS suffers from matrix interference of complex samples, resulting in compromised detection sensitivity and quantitation accuracy. In this study, DART-MS was combined with differential mobility spectrometry (DMS) to provide an additional dimension of post-ionization ion mobility separation within a millisecond time scale, compensating for the lack of separation in DART-MS analysis. As proof-of-concept, primary aromatic amines (PAAs), a class of potentially hazardous chemicals, were analyzed in various toy products, including bubble solutions, finger paints, and plush toys. In addition to commercial Dip-it glass rod and metal mesh sampling tools, a customized rapid extractive evaporation device was designed for the accelerated extraction and sensitive analysis of solid toy samples. The incorporation of DMS in DART-MS analysis enabled the rapid separation and differentiation of isomeric analytes, leading to improved accuracy and reliability. The developed protocols were optimized and validated, achieving good linearity with correlation coefficients greater than 0.99 and acceptable repeatability with relative standard deviations less than 10%. Moreover, satisfactory sensitivity was realized with limits of detection and quantitation ranges of 0.2–5 and 1–20 μg/kg (μg/L) for the 11 PAA analytes. The established methodology was applied for the analysis of real toy samples (n = 18), which confirmed its appealing potential for toy safety screening and consumer health protection.

Evaluation of formaldehyde emissions by school supplies using a low-cost passive sampler and spectrophotometric determination

Article

Apr 2023

This article presents the development and application of a low-cost passive monitor for indoor formaldehyde (CH 2 O) monitoring. The system is based on the diffusion sampling of formaldehyde and the pararosaniline reaction on a collection filter, followed by the elution and analysis of the product by spectrophotometry. The system was validated against a standard atmosphere of formaldehyde with 99% of collection efficiency. The device was applied in the assessment of formaldehyde emissions for school supplies (glitter glue, modeling clay, crayons, glue stick, felt pen, and plastic ink), in which the highest concentrations of formaldehyde were obtained for the felt-tip pen (approximately, 170 μg/g) and the lesser to glue stick (14 μg/g). The application of the passive sampler in a primary classroom environment demonstrated that relative high levels of formaldehyde can be measured in schools are usually considered to be linked to the high density of furniture in the classrooms, but it was also verified that school supplies can significantly contribute in the concentrations of formaldehyde indoor when associated to poor ventilation.

Metals as toxicants in event-based expedited production of children’s jewelry

Article

Full-text available

May 2023
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Globally, the hazardous substance in children’s goods is of great concern. Toxic chemicals are potentially harmful to the health and growth of infants and children. Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)-contaminated children’s jewelry is widely encountered in many countries. This study aims to determine the concentration of metal toxicants (Pb, Cd, Ni, Cu, Zn, Co, and Fe) in event-based (Independence Day festival) children’s jewelry, considering time-limited and fast production products that may compromise the quality and safety parameters during manufacturing. The determinations are for the time-constraint industrial production of children’s jewelry in the context of the toxic substances in a variety of base materials used. This is the first time event-based children’s jewelry has been monitored and critically assessed for metal contamination. Forty-two samples, including metallic, wooden, textile, rubber, plastic, and paint-coated plastic children’s jewelry, were tested. Seventy-four percent of samples detected Pb and Cd in quantifiable amounts. Ni in 71%, Cu in 67%, Co in 43%, and Zn and Fe were detected in 100% samples with quantifiable amounts. Twenty-two ID-CJ samples exceeded the US regulatory limit for Pb and four samples for Cd. However, twenty-nine samples for Pb, eleven for Cd, five for Co, and one for Cu exceeded the EU regulatory limit. The highest concentration of Pb was found in paint-coated plastic jewelry, and the highest Cd was found in metallic jewelry. These results suggest that the potential hazards of event-based children’s jewelry deserve the attention of government agencies seeking to limit children’s exposure to toxic chemicals. Intergovernmental organizations and individual countries regulate chemicals in consumer products, but a coordinated international approach is lacking. Some continents and countries still lack in regulations for children’s products, especially jewelry, and toys. Graphical abstract

The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Background: Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth’s environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted. Goals: The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics’ impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations—the poor, minorities, and the world’s children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives. Conclusions: It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices. The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics’ harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment. The thousands of chemicals in plastics—monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances—include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics’ known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics’ hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals.

An investigation into the present levels of contamination in children’s toys and jewelry in different countries: a systematic review

Article

Jul 2022

Abdolmajid Fadaei

Contamination by heavy metals and toxic elements in children’s toys and jewelry is an ongoing challenge in different countries. These contaminants can enter the children’s body via oral, dermal, and respiratory routes, leading to adverse health effects. This study aimed to investigate the present levels of contamination in children’s toys and jewelry in 15 countries, including UK, Saudi Arabia, Cambodia, China, Kosovo, Nigeria, North American, Kazakhstan, UAE, Pakistan, Iraq, Israel, West Bank/Palestine, Czech Republic, and Turkey. In this review, the legislation and recommendation of the United States (U.S.), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Turkish Standards Institute (TSE), Canada, and the European Union (E.U.) on toxic elements in toys and jewelry are introduced. Plastic or metallic toys and children’s jewelry still have the most severe toxic elements pollution and the existence of lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), barium (Ba), Zinc (Zn), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), bisphenol A, phthalates, parabens, azo dyes, and flame retardants has been regarded as an ongoing challenge in these articles. Finally, this review offers benchmarking of the concentrations of toxic elements in all types of children’s toys and jewelry in different nations.

Circular economy could expose children to hazardous phthalates and chlorinated paraffins via old toys and childcare articles

Article

Jun 2022

The European waste framework directive encourages reuse, refurbishment and recycling of products and materials in order to reduce plastic waste. However, thousands of chemicals are used in plastic materials. Many of these are potentially toxic, and may cause hormonal and developmental disruption in children. This includes phthalates and short chain chlorinated paraffins, which are used as plasticizers and flame-retardants. European legal frameworks regulate the amounts of these substances in toys in an effort to protect children's health and safety. Currently, limits are set to 0.1% for phthalates and 0.15% for SCCPs. Here, we have investigated levels of these compounds in toys and childcare products that were purchased prior to and after legislation on stricter exposure levels was implemented (total of 157 items, 54 and 103 new and old, respectively). We found that a larger portion of older toys and items (83.5%) contained amounts that exceed legal limits, compared to newer toys and items (29.6%). Concentrations of DEHP, BBP, DIDP, and SCCPs were significantly higher in old items, and both DEHP and DINP were found at concentrations exceeding 400,000 mg/kg in several old balls, which is approximately 40% of the weight of the toy, and 400 times above the legal limit. These findings indicate that old toys have the potential to pose a greater risk to children, and that regulations can be useful tools to protect children from exposure to toxic chemicals. We also stress that the waste framework directive, which urges reuse and repurposing of objects such as second hand items used for dress-up play, can lead to continued exposure via chemicals in older items. We conclude that movement towards circular economy threatens to expose children from legacy compounds already restricted on the market if efforts are not made to remove these items from circulation.

An analysis of major and trace element pollution caused by plastic litter using Atactodea striata (Gmelin, 1791) in Yonaguni Island, Okinawa [In Japanese with English abstract]

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

In this study, the major and trace element pollution from plastics was evaluated by comparing the elemental concen- trations in Atactodea striata (Gmelin, 1791) collected from Nama Beach with a lot of plastic litter and Kataburu Beach with little plastic litter in Yonaguni Island, Okinawa. The pollution was also analyzed by focusing on the difference in the amount of plastic litter depending on the season. The results of the pollution analysis using the difference of the amount of plastic litter between the sites suggested the plastic-derived pollution of Al, Ni, Zn and Pb in the analysis of muscle tis- sue, and the pollution of Al, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb in the analysis of internal organs tissue. Furthermore, the analysis of the pollution using the seasonal difference of the amount of plastic litter suggested that Al, Mn, Zn and Ba were trans- ferred from plastics to organisms in the analysis of internal organs tissue. Al, Mn, Zn and Ba have a high ability to leach from plastic litter in acidic solvents, so it was suggested that such elements can be transferred from plastic to organisms. In addition, Al, Mn, and Zn, which were suggested to be contaminated in both analysis using inter-site and inter-seasonal differences in the amount of plastic litter, were shown to be highly likely to have accumulated in the Atactodea striata from plastics.

A computer-aided simulation of the potential uptake of cadmium and lead into saliva from mouthing of children's pacifiers using the Joint Expert Speciation System

Article

Jan 2022

The ingestion of certain trace metals has been a major concern of the world and there have been links to cancer, renal failure, anemia, cardiovascular and reproductive complications. Pacifiers are amongst the childcare objects that may expose children to potentially toxic metals through mouthing behaviors. Despite high levels of hazardous chemicals reported in some childcare products including pacifiers; there has been limited information on the chemical species formed in saliva and as a result their bioavailability levels. Using the Joint Expert Speciation System, this study determined chemical speciation and predicted bioavailability at a range of 18-92% for cadmium and 1-23% for lead of the total metal concentrations through the creation of simulated saliva models at low and high pH. The degree of predicted uptake using a net-neutral species approach was dependent on the total concentrations of lead and cadmium within a standard range of low molecular mass ligands and the pH of the saliva. These saliva models predicted cadmium to be more bioavailable than lead, indicating there may be an elevated risk from the mouthing action of pacifiers or similar items containing cadmium compared to lead. This study, therefore, offers regulatory bodies opportunities to strengthen safety compliance monitoring for materials used in pacifiers.

Study of Controlled Migration of Cadmium and Lead Into Foods From Plastic Utensils for Children

Preprint

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Lead is a highly neurotoxic chemical element known for reducing intelligence quotient (IQ) and promoting antisocial behavior in children and adolescents, while cadmium is a carcinogenic bioaccumulative element. Contaminated foods and beverages are the most common routes of exposure. The objective of this study was to determine Cd and Pb concentrations in colored plastic utensils for use by children and to measure the specific migration of these elements into beverages and foods. Pb and Cd concentrations were determined using a handheld XRF. Specific migration tests were conducted using the simulant solutions. Migration levels were determined by ICP-MS and migration tests for Pb were also performed on actual samples GF-AAS determination. Utensils (n=87) were purchased for containing Cd and/or Pb concentrations above permitted limits. The mean of Pb and Cd were 1110 and 338 ppm respectively. For specific migration assays, Pb levels were 187, 13 and 380 times above the permitted limit for acetic acid, water and orange juice, respectively. Cd levels 50 and 2.4 times above the permitted limit for acetic acid and water, respectively. The districts where the utensils were purchased were grouped according to their Social Vulnerability Index and compared using ANOVA. Results revealed a group difference in mean Pb levels for low versus medium/high social vulnerability (p = 0.006). The findings corroborate the initial hypothesis that these utensils constitute a major source of exposure to PTEs such as Cd and Pb.

A review of the success and challenges in characterizing human dermal exposure to flame retardants

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021
ARCH TOXICOL

Since organic flame retardants (FRs) have several industrial applications, they have been largely detected in environmental and biological samples, and humans have been highly exposed to them. Although the effects of oral and inhaled FRs have been well studied, dermal exposure to them has only recently been pointed out as a potential route of human exposure. Consequently, the effects of FRs on the skin and secondary target organs have been poorly investigated. This review article summarizes the main findings regarding dermal exposure to FRs, points the limitation of the published studies, and suggests future perspectives for better understanding of how dermal exposure to FRs impacts the human health. This review lists some gaps that must be filled in future studies, including characterization of the bioavailable fraction and assessment of exposure for new FRs, to establish their physiological significance and to improve the development of 3D dermal tissue for more reliable results to be obtained.

Integrative comparison of cadmium and iron oxide as yellow pigment in terms of cellular stress and genotoxicity in vitro and in vivo

Article

Jan 2021

BackgroundsHeavy metals cadmium has been used as a yellow pigment due to its bright and lasting color. Considering the toxicity of cadmium, yellow iron oxide has been suggested as a substitute due to its cost-effectiveness. However, cellular and molecular safety information of yellow iron oxide is not fully understood.Methods Metal-mediated cellular stress indicated by metallothionein 1 expression were measured by western blotting and qRT-PCR in cadmium- or iron oxide-treated HepG2 cells. Genotoxicity were detected using comet assay and micronuclei assay in HepG2 cells and rat liver tissue. Observed toxicological effects were quantified and scored on a scale bar for integrated analysis.ResultsYellow iron oxide showed significantly low metallothionein 1 expression and genotoxicity in all results. This result indicates high potential of iron oxide as an alternative to cadmium.Conclusion We demonstrated the comparative toxicity of the cadmium and yellow iron oxide in terms of stress-responsive biomarker expression and genotoxicity in HepG2 cells and rat liver tissue. Our study with the integrated strategy suggests usefulness of the yellow iron oxide as a substitute material in cadmium-containing products and reports useful tool to comprehensively assess the toxicity of suspected toxicants or newly developed materials.

Abundance and distribution of beach litter with acutely toxic metal concentrations

Article

Oct 2020
MAR POLLUT BULL

We determined if colour, category (e.g., food packaging) or intertidal activity could explain the occurrence of litter with acute levels of metals. Six beaches were sampled; an industrial site, a local and remote park and three beaches. Food packaging accounted for 66% of litter with acute levels of metals found in 10% of samples. Acute levels were independent of colour and category, but dependent on intertidal region and its anthropogenic use. Litter with acute levels of cadmium and lead were recovered from the industrial intertidal and high concentrations of zinc and cadmium associated with candy wrappers were found on recreational beaches. In addition to the intrinsic and extrinsic loads that litter carries, also too are memory effects, i.e., the previous use of the item carries over its trace metal burden posing extreme risks to marine ecosystems. In the managing of risk associated with beach litter, legacy contaminants need be considered.

Stainless steel sheets as the substrate of disposable electrochemical sensors for analysis of heavy metals or biomolecules

Article

May 2020
ANAL CHIM ACTA

In this paper, low-cost stainless steel sheets with excellent electric conductivity were utilized as the robust substrate for fabrication of disposable working electrodes. The stainless steel electrodes were modified with carbon cement and then coupled in paper-based analytical devices for analysis of heavy metals (cadmium and lead) in toys and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in plants, respectively. For stripping analysis of cadmium and lead, the dilution ratio of the carbon cement, the pH value of the buffer solution, the pre-deposition potential and time, and the bismuth concentration were optimized with the detection limits reaching 1 μg•L⁻¹. After optimization of the dilution ratio of carbon cement, the similar devices could also be used for analysis of IAA at the concentration of less than 0.5 μM. This strategy could be successfully applied for differentiation of migratable lead in toys or in situ amounts of IAA in root tips of Arabidopsis thaliana in real time, respectively. Our results implied that the electric conductivity of the substrate could possibly be critical for the improvement of the analytical performance of the modified electrodes. This study suggested that stainless steel could become a suitable and cost-effective substrate for fabrication of disposable carbon-based electrodes used in electrochemical detection.

Creating an Eco-Friendly Early Years Setting: A Practical Guide

Book

May 2020

Cheryl Hadland

Sustainable resourcing

Chapter

Full-text available

May 2020

Cheryl Hadland

Mobilisation kinetics of Br, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb and Sb in microplastics exposed to simulated, dietary-adapted digestive conditions of seabirds

Article

May 2020
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

Samples of beached plastics and historical and contemporary consumer plastics containing hazardous elements derived from reaction residues or functional additives have been micronised and subject to extraction conditions representative of the digestive environment of seabirds. Mobilisation of Br, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb and Sb into NaCl solution, an avian physiologically-based extraction test (PBET) and a dietary-adapted PBET (DA-PBET) incorporating fish oil as part of the avian diet was monitored by ICP-MS over a 168-h period. Kinetic data were subsequently fitted using pseudo-first-order and parabolic diffusion models in order to derive rate constants for the release of hazardous elements during avian digestion of microplastics. Rate constants were variable and dependent on the nature and origin of plastic, type of residue or additive, extractant solution employed and model applied. Resulting estimates of bioaccessibility, defined as the equilibrium or maximum concentration of an element mobilised over the time course relative to its total concentration, were variable but considerable in many cases. Specifically, maximum values of about 65% of Cd and 100% of Pb were observed in consumer polycarbonate-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene exposed to the avian PBET and beached polyurethane exposed to the DA-PBET, respectively. The potential health risks of hazardous elements in microplastics are addressed and criteria for classification based on the European Toy Safety Directive migration (mobilisation) limits are proposed.

Contamination by eleven harmful elements in children’s jewelry and toys from Central Asian market

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020
ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R

Contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in children’s toys and jewelry is an ongoing problem, and there is evidence in the literature that the issue is shifting towards developing countries and small markets. The present research aims (1) to characterize total concentrations of eleven PTEs (As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn) in children’s jewelry and toys purchased from the Central Asian market (n = 65), and (2) to investigate the relationship between the extent of contamination and sample categories/properties. The laboratory analyses showed that the majority of the samples had PTEs above the total and soluble limits for PTEs stated in the USA, Canadian, and the EU legislation. Particularly for metallic toys and jewelry (n = 46), the total concentrations in 45 samples exceeded the EU migration limits for one or more PTEs. In particular, Cu and Zn concentrations were extremely high (up to 100%) in many samples and highly toxic Cd and Pb were present in elevated quantities in several articles. Contamination was also present, albeit to a much lesser extent, in other toy categories: brittle/pliable toys for Co and Cr, plastic toys and jewelry for Pb, and other toys for Co. Although average values and visual observations suggested evidence, no statistically significant relationship between PTE concentrations and sample properties (color, price, and degree of appeal) could be found. The findings supported the evidence that the contamination issue in children’s jewelry and toys by PTEs is an ongoing issue in developing countries. Very high total concentrations of PTEs particularly found in several metallic samples warrant further investigation of migratable concentrations. Thus, conducting bioaccessibility tests and a subsequent human health risk characterization is recommended. Overall, there is a potential risk for children in the case of exposure to PTEs from children’s jewelry and toys sold on the Central Asian market. More effective enforcement of legislation for consumer goods in the region and raising public awareness regarding chemicals in children’s products are recommended.

Bromierte Flammschutzmittel in Elektroaltgeräten: Untersuchung der Brom-Konzentration nach Kunststofftypen und Gerätekategorien mittels Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2019

Zusammenfassung Kunststoffe in Elektroaltgeräten (EAG) enthalten häufig bromierte Flammschutzmittel (BFR), die unbeabsichtigt freigesetzt und somit zu negativen Umwelt- und Gesundheitsauswirkungen führen können. Zusätzlich vermindern BFR die Qualität von Rezyklaten, wobei Grenzwerte gemäß RoHS-Richtlinie (1000 ppm je BRF-Typ) und Abfallbehandlungspflichtenverordnung (AbfBPV) (2000 ppm Gesamtbromgehalt) eingehalten werden müssen. Für diese Studie wurden aus 11 unterschiedlichen EAG-Kategorien 467 Geräte untersucht, aus welchen wiederum insgesamt 1008 Kunststoffproben entnommen wurden. Die Kunststofftypen wurden mittels visuellem Screening des Recycling Codes sowie mittels FTIR-Spektroskopie bestimmt. Die portable Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse (RFA) diente zur Bestimmung des Gesamtbromgehalts. In den untersuchten EAGs wurden insgesamt 27 verschiedene Kunststofftypen identifiziert, wobei Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol-Copolymer (ABS) der häufigste Typ ist. Die Messungen mittels RFA haben ergeben, dass in 33 % aller Proben Brom nachgewiesen werden konnte. Der durchschnittliche Bromgehalt betrug ca. 240 ppm. Der RoHS-Grenzwert wurde in 18 % aller Proben aus Netzteilen von Druckern, 10 % aus PC-Gehäusen und 9 % aus Flatscreen-Monitoren überschritten. Elektrische Zahnbürsten, Mobiltelefone (ohne Touchscreens), Smartphones und diverse Kleingeräten überschritten weder den RoHS-, noch den AbfBPV-Grenzwert. Kunststoffbauteile aus diesen brom-freien EAG würden sich somit besser für ihre Rezyklierung eignen. Da die RFA eine kostengünstige und sehr schnelle Analysemethode ist, würde sie sich dazu eignen, Kunststoffe mit hohem Bromgehalt direkt am Anfallort auszuschließen.

Toys, Décor, and More: Evidence of Hazardous Electronic Waste Recycled into New Consumer Products

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Hazardous chemicals used in electronic and electrical consumer products can re-enter commerce when these products are recycled. The objectives of this study were to 1) identify the possible sources of unexpected chemicals and elements in consumer products, including the use of recycled E-waste plastics and 2) demonstrate bromine detection with nondestructive spectroscopy as an indicator of brominated flame retardants contaminating new products via recycled waste streams. More than 1500 consumer products of diverse types purchased in 2012-2014 were examined using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy for correlations between bromine and other elements. New electronic products were much more likely than new non-electronics to contain greater than 1000 ppm bromine, consistent with intentionally added flame retardants, while nonelectronic products were more likely to contain between 5 and 100 ppm bromine, suggesting unintentional contamination. A typical suite of elements present in E-waste was found in a majority of plastic products. Two product categories, vinyl floor tiles and beaded necklaces/garlands, were explored in more detail. Specific flame retardant chemicals in bead samples were identified by mass spectrometry and their distribution in beads was studied using scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy. Five brominated chemicals typically used as flame retardants, including BDE-209, were identified in 50 of 50 Mardi Gras beads analyzed.

Total lead content and its bioaccessibility in base materials of low-cost plastic toys bought on the Beijing market

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2013

The neurological hazards of lead are well-known. Few studies have focused on lead content in plastic toys, especially in China. Therefore, this study aimed to determine total lead content in low-cost plastic toys bought in Beijing, based on the bioaccessibility (BA) of lead through an in vitro leaching method. A total of 27 of the 72 items (37.5 %) examined exceeded the American toy safety limit (100 mg/kg), but HCl extraction results showed that all the samples met the Chinese standard (< 90 mg/kg). The BA of lead ranged from 0.80 to 8.86 %, with averages of 1.53 +/- A 0.74, 3.65 +/- A 1.28, 4.09 +/- A 1.83 and 2.62 +/- A 0.82 % for diluted HCl and three other leaching solutions, respectively. Our results indicated that the bioavailability risk of lead in plastic toys might be underestimated, as the HCl extraction was regulated under the standard procedures of toy safety testing. Total Pb content measurement combined with RIVM methods would be helpful in efforts to reduce children's exposure to toxic heavy metals.

Hazardous Metals in Vintage Plastic Toys Measured by a Handheld X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015
J ENVIRON HEALTH

Over 100 plastic toys from the 1970s and 1980s, both polyvinyl chloride ("vinyl") and nonvinyl, were analyzed in the study described here using a handheld X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to quantify hazardous metal content. A sampling of recent vinyl toys was also tested. The majority of nonvinyl samples were Fisher Price brand toys. The vinyl toys consisted largely of Barbie dolls and other dolls. Overall, lead or cadmium was found in 67% of vintage plastic toys, frequently at concentrations exceeding current U.S. and European limits. Arsenic was detected at levels of concern in 16% of the samples. In the nonvinyl toys, heavy metal content was found to correlate with certain colors of plastic. The likely sources of the detected metals are discussed. None of the contemporary vinyl toys contained detectable cadmium, lead, or arsenic. Given that vintage toys remain in widespread use by children in homes and other locations, the results illuminate a potential source of heavy metal exposure for children.

Toxic Chemicals in Toys and Children's Products: Limitations of Current Responses and Recommendations for Government and Industry

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2010
ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL

Hazardous substances in consumer products are a constant worry. Because children have less body mass and are developing rapidly, toxic chemicals in toys are of particular concern. Recent studies have revealed alarming levels of cadmium and lead in products intended for children and compounds in plastics, such as phthalates and bisphenol A, that are suspected of harmful effects. As Europe has introduced REACH and the U.S. is reviewing TSCA, regulators are confronting the issue, but an increasing global market poses problems of jurisdictional reach and supply chain management. In this Feature, Becker et al. review the situation and make recommendations on ways forward.

Field-portable-XRF reveals the ubiquity of antimony in plastic consumer products

Article

Feb 2017
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

Very little systematic information exists on the occurrence and concentrations of antimony (Sb) in consumer products. In this study, a Niton XL3t field-portable-X-ray fluorescence (FP-XRF) spectrometer was deployed in situ and in the laboratory to provide quantitative information on Sb dissipated in plastic items and fixtures (including rubber, textile and foamed materials) from the domestic, school, vehicular and office settings. The metalloid was detected in 18% of over 800 measurements performed, with concentrations ranging from about 60 to 60,000μgg(-1). The highest concentrations were encountered in white, electronic casings and in association with similar concentrations of Br, consistent with the use of antimony oxides (e.g. Sb2O3) as synergistic flame retardants. Concentrations above 1000μgg(-1), and with or without Br, were also encountered in paints, piping and hosing, adhesives, whiteboards, Christmas decorations, Lego blocks, document carriers, garden furniture, upholstered products and interior panels of private motor vehicles. Lower concentrations of Sb were encountered in a wide variety of items but its presence (without Br) in food tray packaging, single-use drinks bottles, straws and small toys were of greatest concern from a human health perspective. While the latter observations are consistent with the use of antimony compounds as catalysts in the production of polyethylene terephthalate, co-association of Sb and Br in many products not requiring flame retardancy suggests that electronic casings are widely recycled. Further research is required into the mobility of Sb when dissipated in new, recycled and aged polymeric materials.

Analysis of the elemental composition of marine litter by field-portable-XRF

Article

Jun 2016

Marine litter represents a pervasive environmental problem that poses direct threats to wildlife and habitats. Indirectly, litter can also act as a vehicle for the exposure and bioaccumulation of chemicals that are associated with manufactured or processed solids. In this study, we describe the use of a Niton field-portable-x-ray fluorescence (FP-XRF) spectrometer to determine the content of 17 elements in beached plastics, foams, ropes and painted items. The instrument was used in a ‘plastics’ mode configured for complex, low density materials, and employed a thickness correction algorithm to account for varying sample depth. Accuracy was evaluated by analysing two reference polyethylene discs and was better than 15% for all elements that had been artificially impregnated into the polymerr. Regarding the litter samples, limits of detection for a 120 second counting time varied between the different material categories and among the elements but were generally lowest for plastics and painted items with median concentrations of less than 10 μg g−1 for As, Bi, Br, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn. Concentrations returned by the XRF were highly sensitive to the thickness correction applied for certain elements (Ba, Cl, Cr, Cu, Fe, Sb, Ti, Zn) in all matrices tested, indicating that accurate measurement and application of the correct thickness is critical for acquiring reliable results. An independent measure of the elemental content of selected samples by ICP spectrometry following acid digestion returned concentrations that were significantly correlated with those returned by the XRF, and with an overall slope of [XRF]/[ICP] = 0.85. Within the FP-XRF operating conditions, Cl, Cr, Fe, Ti and Zn were detected in more than 50% and Hg and Se in less than 1% of the 367 litter samples analysed. Significant from an environmental perspective were concentrations of the hazardous elements, Cd, Br and Pb, that exceeded several thousand μg g−1 in many cases.

Lead and cadmium in soft plastic toys

Article

Sep 2007
CURR SCI INDIA

It is widely accepted that no level of lead or cadmium in the blood should be considered safe for children and hence every effort should be made to ensure that their environment remains free from any such toxic metals. Toys made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are potentially toxic to children as PVC contains both lead and cadmium. Lead or cadmium compounds act as stabilizers but they readily leach out. Moreover, they can also be used in pigments to impart bright colours to toys in order to attract children. Chewing and swallowing behaviour of children is a common source of lead and cadmium exposure. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the levels of total lead and cadmium in soft plastic toys. A total of 111 non-branded toy samples, purchased randomly from three metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai, were analysed for levels of lead and cadmium. Lead and cadmium were found to be present in all tested samples in varying concentrations.

Assessment of toxic metals in waste personal computers

Article

May 2014

Considering the enormous production of waste personal computers nowadays, it is obvious that the study of their composition is necessary in order to regulate their management and prevent any environmental contamination caused by their inappropriate disposal. This study aimed at determining the toxic metals content of motherboards (printed circuit boards), monitor glass and monitor plastic housing of two Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors, three Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors, one LCD touch screen monitor and six motherboards, all of which were discarded. In addition, concentrations of chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) were compared with the respective limits set by the RoHS 2002/95/EC Directive, that was recently renewed by the 2012/19/EU recast, in order to verify manufacturers' compliance with the regulation. The research included disassembly, pulverization, digestion and chemical analyses of all the aforementioned devices. The toxic metals content of all samples was determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). The results demonstrated that concentrations of Pb in motherboards and funnel glass of devices with release dates before 2006, that is when the RoHS Directive came into force, exceeded the permissible limit. In general, except from Pb, higher metal concentrations were detected in motherboards in comparison with plastic housing and glass samples. Finally, the results of this work were encouraging, since concentrations of metals referred in the RoHS Directive were found in lower levels than the legislative limits.

Multi-technique quantitative analysis and socioeconomic considerations of lead, cadmium, and arsenic in children’s toys and toy jewelry

Article

Feb 2014

A wide spectrum and large number of children's toys and toy jewelry items were purchased from both bargain and retail vendors and analyzed for arsenic, cadmium, and lead metal content using multiple analytical techniques, including flame and furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy as well as X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Particularly dangerous for young children, metal concentrations in toys/toy jewelry were assessed for compliance with current Consumer Safety Product Commission (CPSC) regulations (F963-11). A conservative metric involving multiple analytical techniques was used to categorize compliance: one technique confirmation of metal in excess of CPSC limits indicated a "suspect" item while confirmation on two different techniques warranted a non-compliant designation. Sample matrix-based standard addition provided additional confirmation of non-compliant and suspect products. Results suggest that origin of purchase, rather than cost, is a significant factor in the risk assessment of these materials with 57% of toys/toy jewelry items from bargain stores non-compliant or suspect compared to only 15% from retail outlets and 13% if only low cost items from the retail stores are compared. While jewelry was found to be the most problematic product (73% of non-compliant/suspect samples), lead (45%) and arsenic (76%) were the most dominant toxins found in non-compliant/suspect samples. Using the greater Richmond area as a model, the discrepancy between bargain and retail children's products, along with growing numbers of bargain stores in low-income and urban areas, exemplifies an emerging socioeconomic public health issue.

Towards development of a rapid and effective non-destructive testing strategy to identify brominated flame retardants in the plastics of consumer products

Article

Feb 2014

Toxic metals contained in cosmetics: A status report

Article

Apr 2014
REGUL TOXICOL PHARM

The persistence of metals in the environment and their natural occurrence in rocks, soil and water cause them to be present in the manufacture of pigments and other raw materials used in the cosmetic industry. Thus, people can be exposed to metals as trace contaminants in cosmetic products they daily use. Cosmetics may have multiple forms, uses and exposure scenarios, and metals contained in them can cause skin local problems but also systemic effects after their absorption via the skin or ingestion. Even this, cosmetics companies are not obliged to report on this kind of impurities and so consumers have no way of knowing about their own risk. This paper reviewed both the concentration of metals in different types of cosmetics manufactured and sold worldwide and the data on metals' dermal penetration and systemic toxicology. The eight metals of concern for this review were antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). This was because they are banned as intentional ingredients in cosmetics, have draft limits as potential impurities in cosmetics and are known as toxic.

Downsides of the recycling process: Harmful organic chemicals in children's toys

Article

Jan 2014

Most of the materials used in consumer goods contain a number of additives which are meant to improve key properties like plasticity or flame resistance. At the end-of-life of the product, many polymeric materials are recycled and the additives they contain, such as flame retardants (FRs) and plasticizers, are transferred to the newly manufactured goods. We have investigated the occurrence and profiles of FRs, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and phosphate FR (PFRs) and of plasticisers, such as phthalate esters, in 106 toys samples. Low levels and detection frequencies of components of the technical Penta-BDE and Deca-BDE mixtures were found, with BDE 209 being the dominant PBDE in all samples (maximum value was 0.14mg/g or 0.014%). The levels of PFRs and phthalates were up to 10,000 times higher than those of the PBDEs, with triphenyl phosphate and diethylhexyl phthalate being the major representatives of these classes. Maximum values were 1.3 and 6.9%, respectively. The detection frequencies were up to 50% for PFRs and 98% for phthalates. All but one of the toys produced after the REACH regulation went into force complied with its provisions. The samples were grouped according to relevant selection criteria to assess the risk for children of different age groups. Using models in the literature, exposure to these chemicals was tentatively assessed. It is clear that at the levels found in the investigated toys, these additives do not contribute to the intended characteristics of the materials, but in some cases may pose a health hazard to the children. Most likely, recycled materials are an important source of these additives in toys and therefore, their (re)use in products for children should be subject to stricter restrictions.

Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in black thermo cups and selected kitchen utensils purchased on the European market

Article

Sep 2013

In order to screen for the presence of a recycled polymer waste stream from waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), a market survey was conducted on black plastic food-contact articles (FCA). An analytical method was applied combining X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) with thermal desorption gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (thermal desorption GC-MS). Firstly, XRF spectrometry was applied to distinguish bromine-positive samples. Secondly, bromine-positive samples were submitted for identification by thermal desorption GC-MS. Generally, the bromine-positive samples contained mainly technical decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE). Newer types of BFRs such as tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2,3-dibromopropyl), ether (TBBPA-BDBPE) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), replacing the polybrominated diphenyleters (PBDEs) and polybrominated diphenyls (PBBs), were also identified. In none of the tested samples were PBBs or hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) found. Polymer identification was carried out using Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy measurement (FTIR) on all samples. The results indicate that polypropylene-polyethylene copolymers (PP-PE) and mainly styrene-based food-contact materials, such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) have the highest risk of containing BFRs.

Review Of Cadmium In Plastic Waste In Sweden

Article

Aug 1993

F Tamaddon

Cadmium containing stabilizers are used only in certain polyvinylchloride (PVC) products for special weather, light or temperature resistance. The total consumption of cadmium used as a chemical stabilizer in Sweden is expected to be about 1.5 tonnes/year in 1991-1992, while the amount in pigments is approximated to be 6 tonnes/year. It is determined that most of the cadmium that enters into the combustible fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) comes from plastics and pigments in various products. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene copolymers (ABS) products are the main source of plastics contained cadmium pigments. These products are usually consumer electronics such as television and telephone sets, computer, radios, etc. In practice, it is very difficult for a country like Sweden to act alone and implement regulations for cadmium due to international trade and heavy import/export of products. There is no doubt that the transition period to adopt other alternatives, as requested by the Swedish Cadmium Ordinance, takes time and a flow of cadmium from plastic wastes into landfills and incinerators is expected during the coming years. This is also due to the long lifetime of some plastic products which contain cadmium. Continuous and consistent monitoring of cadmium in landfills and incineration plants is required in order to be able to evaluate the effect of the Ordinance on cadmium.

Playing outside the box - On LEGO toys and the changing world of construction play

Article

Sep 2008

Maaike Lauwaert

This article deals with three major instances in the history of the LEGO Company. First, it investigates the transference from wood to plastics as the main material used in creating LEGO toys, and also the innovations in plastic molding machines that influenced the interlocking mechanism of the LEGO bricks. Second, this article deals with a rather unfortunate episode from the LEGO history, namely, the period between the late 1990s and the early twenty‐first century when the LEGO Company felt the need to extend its brand image through diversifying its product range. Unfortunately, this led to a confusing, rather than a strong brand image and resulted in heavy financial losses in 2003 and 2004. Third, this article looks into recent attempts by the LEGO Company to bring the fans into the company in order to revive the LEGO brand and its products. This part focuses on Mindstorms 2.0 and Mindstorms NXT, especially, in order to illustrate the increase in user involvement in LEGO product development.

Contamination by Ten Harmful Elements in Toys and Children's Jewelry Bought on the North American Market

Article

Apr 2013
ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL

Toys and children's jewelry may contain metals, to which children can be orally exposed. The objectives of this research were (1) to determine total concentrations (TC's) of As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se in toys and jewelry (n=72) bought on the North American market and compare TC's to regulatory limits, and, (2) to estimate oral metal bioavailability in selected items (n=4) via bioaccessibility testing. For metallic toys and children's jewelry (n=24) 20 items had TC's exceeding migratable concentration limits (European Union). Seven of 17 jewelry items did not comply with TC limits in the U.S. and Canadian regulations. Samples included articles with very high Cd (37% [w/w]), Pb (65%) and Cu (71%) concentrations. For plastic toys (n=18), toys with paint or coating (n=12) and brittle or pliable toys (n=18), TC's were below the EU migration limits (except in one toy for each category). Bioaccessibility tests showed that a tested jewelry item strongly leached Pb (gastric: 698 µg, intestinal: 705 µg) and some Cd (1.38 and 1.42 µg). Especially in metallic toys and jewelry, contamination by Pb and Cd, and to a lesser extent by Cu, Ni, As and Sb still poses an acute problem in North America.

Organic Colorants

Chapter

Jan 2005

Peter A. Lewis

Definition of a PigmentInternational Nomenclature: The CI SystemPigment SelectionClassification of Pigments by ColorDispersion of Organic PigmentsThe Heat Stability Parameter

Inorganic Colored Pigments

Chapter

Jan 2005

George Rangos

IntroductionIron OxidesComplex Inorganic Colored PigmentsCadmium PigmentsLead Chromate/Lead Molybdate PigmentsBismuth VanadateUltramarine PigmentsChromium III PigmentsIron BluesChrome GreensRare Earth PigmentsFDA StatusSummary of Federal Regulation of Heavy Metal UsageSummary of Pigment Performance

Heavy Metals in Toys and Low-Cost Jewelry: Critical Review of U.S. and Canadian Legislations and Recommendations for Testing

Article

Mar 2012
ENVIRON SCI TECHNOL

High metal contamination in toys and low-cost jewelry is a widespread problem, and metals can become bioavailable, especially via oral pathway due to common child-specific behaviors of mouthing and pica. In this review, the U.S., Canadian, and European Union (EU) legislations on metals in toys and jewelry are evaluated. A literature review on content, bioavailability, children's exposure, and testing of metals in toys and low-cost jewelry is provided. A list of priority metals is presented, and research needs and legislative recommendations are addressed. While the U.S. and Canadian legislations put emphasis on lead exposure prevention, other toxic elements like arsenic and cadmium in toy materials are not regulated except in paint and coatings. The EU legislation is more comprehensive in terms of contaminants and scientific approach. Current toy testing procedures do not fully consider metal bioavailability. In vitro bioaccessibility tests developed and validated for toys and corresponding metal bioaccessibility data in different toy matrices are lacking. The U.S. and Canadian legislations should put more emphasis on metal bioavailability and on other metals in addition to lead. A two-step management approach with mandatory testing of toys for total metal concentrations followed by voluntary bioaccessibility testing could be implemented.

Brominated and organophosphate flame retardants in selected consumer products on the Japanese market in 2008

Article

Jun 2011

The concentrations of traditional brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in new consumer products, including electronic equipment, curtains, wallpaper, and building materials, on the Japanese market in 2008 were investigated. Although some components of the electronic equipment contained bromine at concentrations on the order of percent by weight, as indicated by X-ray fluorescence analysis, the bromine content could not be fully accounted for by the BFRs analyzed in this study, which included polybrominated diphenylethers, decabromodiphenyl ethane, tetrabromobisphenol A, polybromophenols, and hexabromocyclododecanes. These results suggest the use of alternative BFRs such as newly developed formulations derived from tribromophenol, tetrabromobisphenol A, or both. Among the 11 OPFRs analyzed, triphenylphosphate was present at the highest concentrations in all the products investigated, which suggests the use of condensed-type OPFRs as alternative flame retardants, because they contain triphenylphosphate as an impurity. Tripropylphosphate was not detected in any samples; and trimethylphosphate, tributyl tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate, and tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate were detected in only some components and at low concentrations. Note that all the consumer products evaluated in this study also contained traditional BFRs in amounts that were inadequate to impart flame retardancy, which implies the incorporation of recycled plastic materials containing BFRs that are of global concern.

An Evaluation of Lead Contamination in Plastic Toys Collected from Day Care Centers in the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, USA

Article

Oct 2010
B ENVIRON CONTAM TOX

Childhood exposure to environmental lead continues to be a major health concern. This study examined lead content within the plastic of children's toys collected from licensed day care centers in the Las Vegas valley, Nevada. It was hypothesized that the use of lead as a plastics stabilizer would result in elevated lead (≥600 ppm) in polyvinyl chloride plastics (PVC) compared to non-PVC plastics. It was also hypothesized that, due to the use of lead chromate as a coloring agent, yellow toys would contain higher concentrations of lead (≥600 ppm) than toys of other colors. Toy samples were limited to those found in day care centers in Las Vegas, Nevada. 10 day care centers were visited and approximately 50 toy samples were taken from each center. Of the 535 toys tested, 29 contained lead in excess of 600 parts per million (ppm). Of those 29 toys, 20 were PVC and 17 were yellow. Both of the two hypotheses were strongly supported by the data.

Amendment to Annex II to Directive 2009/48/EC as regards lead

European Commission

Proposition 65: The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986 California Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment

Council Directive of 3 May 1988 concerning the safety of toys (88/378/EEC)

Jan 1988

Council of the European Communities. Council Directive of 3 May 1988 concerning the safety of toys (88/378/EEC). Official J. Eur. Communities 1988, No. L 187/1.

Directive 2009/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on the safety of toys

Jan 2009

European Parliament and the Council of the European Union

Safety of toys − part 3: Migration of certain elements

Jan 1994

BSI. Safety of toys − part 3: Migration of certain elements; British Standard BS EN 71-3, London, 1994.

European Parliament and the Council of the European Union

Jun 2009

European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Directive 2009/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 June 2009 on the safety of toys. Official J. Eur. Union, 2009, No. L170/1.

Restriction of Hazardous Substances

Mar 2002

Rohs

RoHS. Restriction of Hazardous Substances, EU Directive 2002/ 95/EC http://www.rohsguide.com/rohs-substances.htm (accessed March 2017).

Industrial Inorganic Pigments

Jan 1988
289

G Buxbaum
Ed

Buxbaum, G., Ed.; Industrial Inorganic Pigments; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 1988, 289 pp.

Hazardous substances in plastic materials; COWI and the Danish Technological Institute on behalf of The Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency: Oslo

Sep 2013

E Hansen
N H Nilsson
D Lithner
C Lassen

Hansen, E., Nilsson, N. H., Lithner, D., Lassen, C. Hazardous substances in plastic materials; COWI and the Danish Technological Institute on behalf of The Norwegian Climate and Pollution Agency: Oslo, 2013; 150 pp. (29) U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Toy Hazard Recalls. https://www.cpsc.gov/safety-education/toy-recall-statistics (accessed Sep 2017).

Concentrations and Migratabilities of Hazardous Elements in Second-Hand Children's Plastic toys

Abstract

No full-text available

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PALEOSALINITY FLUCTUATIONS IN MARINE ENVIRONMENTS AS A RESULT OF HYPERPYCNAL FLOWS

Mechanism of acid bromate oxidation of trans mono-substituted cinnamic acids: structure reactivity c...