No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Amateurism, Scientific Control, and Crime: Historical Fluctuations in Anti-Doping Siscourses in Sport
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to assess the institutional mechanisms for combating doping in high level sport, including the trend towards using legalistic frameworks, and how they contribute to notions of deviance.
Design/methodology/approach
A historical approach informed by recent criminological adaptations of genealogy was utilized, using primary and secondary sources.
Findings
Three time periods involving distinct frameworks for combating doping were identified, each with their own advantages and limitations: pre-1967, post-1967 up until the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, and post-1999.
Originality/value
This study contextualizes the recent legalistic turn towards combating doping in sport, bringing greater understanding to the limitations of present anti-doping practices.
... Nowadays, licensed healthcare professionals and physicians often prescribe dietary supplements of androstenedione to counteract the effects of age-related muscle loss (sarcopenia) to improve lifespan as well as quality of life in older people [16]. However, the use of androstenedione in some individuals, including athletes, can cause an increase in the testosterone to epitestosterone ratio (T/E) above the International Olympic Committee (IOC) cut-off of 6 [17,18], which is likely to occur in men who take testosterone [19]. The reason behind the increase in the T/E ratio is an increase in urinary excretion of testosterone concurrent with a decrease in urinary excretion of epitestosterone [12]. ...
Androstenedione is a steroidal hormone produced in male and female gonads, as well as in the adrenal glands, and it is known for its key role in the production of estrogen and testosterone. Androstenedione is also sold as an oral supplement, that is being utilized to increase testosterone levels. Simply known as “andro” by athletes, it is commonly touted as a natural alternative to anabolic steroids. By boosting testosterone levels, it is thought to be an enhancer for athletic performance, build body muscles, reduce fats, increase energy, maintain healthy RBCs, and increase sexual performance. Nevertheless, several of these effects are not yet scientifically proven. Though commonly used as a supplement for body building, it is listed among performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) which is banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, as well as the International Olympic Committee. This review focuses on the action mechanism behind androstenedione’s health effects, and further side effects including clinical features, populations at risk, pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and toxicokinetics. A review of androstenedione regulation in drug doping is also presented.
Current policies and practices of anti-doping regulators present athletes as an inherent risk population in need of increased surveillance, testing, and punishment. The myriad rules and regulations supporting these policies engender a range of harms not only to athletes but the wider sport community. Unsurprisingly, this environment has strained relations between athletes and anti-doping regulators and engendered suspicion and varying levels of shame and trauma, while being weighted in favour of regulators. Considering the current climate, we explore whether restorative justice principles and practices may offer a useful approach to address the limitations that exist within the anti-doping environment. When applied properly, use of talking circles as described by Pranis, can be a powerful tool to foster and strengthen a more balanced and equitable relationship among not only athletes and regulators, but all members of the sport ecosystem.
Drawing on a close reading of Pierre Bourdieu’s works, I offer five lessons for a science of crime and punishment: (1) always historicize; (2) dissect symbolic categories; (3) produce embodied accounts; (4) avoid state thought; and (5) embrace commitment. I offer illustrative examples and demonstrate the practical implications of Bourdieu’s ideas, and I apply the lessons to a critique of orthodox criminology.
This book queries the concept of rehabilitation to determine how, on a legislative and policy level, the term is defined as a goal of correctional systems. The book explores what rehabilitation is by investigating how, at different moments in time, its conceptualization has shaped, and been shaped by, shifting norms, practices, and institutions of corrections in California. The author calls for a rethinking of theoretical understandings of the corrections system, generally, and parole system, specifically, and calls for an expansion in the questions asked in reintegration studies. The book is designed for scholars seeking to better understand the relationship between correctional systems and rehabilitation and the full scope of rehabilitation as a legislative goal, and is also suitable for use as teaching tool for historical, textual, and interviewing methods.
The US Anti-Doping Agency published its evidence against Lance Armstrong in October 2012 after a lengthy investigation and a series of testimonies from his former US Postal Service teammates. This article aims to understand the development processes – local and global – that led eventually to his ‘confession’ in January 2013 on the Oprah Winfrey show. By taking a chronological approach from the 1980s onwards, the following key themes will be addressed: the doping state of play when Armstrong began his career; the incremental confessions of other cyclists that helped break down cycling's secret doping culture; the broader organisational changes in anti-doping; the reasons why Armstrong became the focal point of anti-doping efforts; and the implications for professional cycling and anti-doping in the near future. Thus, the aim is to synthesise macro- and micro-level developments to explain the outcomes, and to further understand the consequences of this ‘scandal’.
This article focuses on the early work of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Medical Commission's anti-doping policies as a unique form of moral entrepreneurship. As the concept suggests, the Medical Commission's rule-making power relied, in part, on members' expertise and their status as elites. It also came to depend upon technopreneurialism, that is, entrepreneurial scientific innovation, particularly in relation to methods of detecting evidence of doping. Attending to these distinctions, this article argues that these early efforts reveal the emergence of ‘moral technopreneurialism’. By this, I refer to how technological developments serve and, in turn, shape anti-doping goals. Through an analysis of primary IOC documents and archival materials housed in Lausanne, Switzerland, this article considers how the Medical Commission implemented testing to detect evidence of doping from the mid-1960s through the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal. These Games mark the introduction of anabolic steroids testing, which is noteworthy because the events leading up to it illustrate how policy-makers pushed for urgent scientific development, now an accepted trope in the fight against doping. This article concludes with a reflection on how technopreneurialism has culturally impacted the institutionalisation of the moral crusade against doping in sport.
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) spearheads the international campaign against doping in sport, working within and across nongovernmental and legal spheres. This article examines WADA's organizational structure as a hybrid entity that operates between formal law and informal regulation. It analyzes the events that led to WADA's establishment, the rhetoric in which policy makers have lobbied for more legalistic measures, and the unforeseen side effects of pursuing these aims. The rhetoric deployed characterizes events in terms of a contextually specific framing of time, space, and social orientation (kairos) designed to reach and shape a particular audience. In this case, images of imminent danger pervade an antidoping rhetoric that envisions criminal law as a necessary antidote. Ironically, the success of WADA's rhetorical reframing could well undermine its stated goals, demonstrating the double bind created for hybrid NGOs that operate between formal and informal sectors in global arenas.
The debate over the Open Method of Co-ordination has reopened discussion of the role of ‘soft law’ in the process of European integration. This paper outlines the debate over the relative value of hard and soft law in EU social policy, explores the operation of non-binding objectives and guidelines in the European Employment Strategy, suggests a number of reasons why ‘soft law’ might be effective in this area, and explores the possibility for productive combination of hard and soft law measures.
Following, or perhaps even being swept away by the propositions and suppositions of science, criminologists have written a
rather sanitized, carefree history of the origins of their discipline. This discipline has much to hide, however, and criminologists'
strict adherence to principles and claims of ‘objectivity’ and ‘neutrality’ have helped hide the unspoken task that is criminology
from view. There is a need to excavate the hidden history of criminology from the basement of scientific criminology. This
excavation requires the use of tools sensitive to oppression and conflict. Using such tools to recover, rewrite and explain
the history of criminology, I have argued that criminology should be (a) interpreted as one of the many ‘sciences of oppression’
that (b) emerged following the Enlightenment (c) whose purpose was to help legitimize and place into practice principles that
justified the oppression of the dangerous classes, (d) which had emerged as the primary threat to the ‘rational’ societies
based upon capitalist social, economic and political relations. I suspect that this will not be a popular conclusion.
The forms of government and social relations that increasingly characterize contemporary society are giving rise to new ways of thinking about crime and crime control. In particular it is argued that although the discipline of criminology is currently well established in institutional terms, the intellectual tools of the discipline are of diminishing relevance to the social world that is now emerging.
The article describes the major developmental trends in government policy as involving a shift from a welfare state, governed by Keynesian techniques of demand management to a new form of regulatory state, premised upon a neo-liberal combination of market competition, privatized institutions, and decentred, at-a-distance forms of state regulation. These new styles of governance are premised upon a recognition of new social forces and mentalities, particularly of the globalizing logic of risk management, and they will increasingly reconfigure the social and political fields in ways that have consequences for the policing and control of crime.
Criminology’s traditional focus upon street crimes and the institutions of police, courts and prisons may be decreasingly relevant to the new harms, risks and mechanisms of control that are emerging today. The innovative work of‘regulatory state scholars’ such as Clifford Shearing is identified as pushing criminology in new directions that confound the discipline’s traditional boundaries but which give it more leverage in the attempt to understand and respond to the control problems of the end of the century. The possibilities for restorative justice in the new context are also discussed, as are other methods for combating insecurity, and both are linked to the importance of developing forms of local knowledge that are informed by a sense of the global development context.
It is argued that the Keynesian state has been replaced by a new regulatory state that is a more Hayekian response to a risk society. Clifford Shearing is identified as a criminological theorist who has come to terms with these developments, especially in his collaborations with Phillip Stenning, David Bayley, Tony Doob and his colleagues at the Community Peace Foundation in Cape Town. Shearing et al. are forging a new paradigm (that incorporates the restorative justice paradigm) which might just transcend criminology and become something of general import to the social sciences.
In January 2016, 34 past and present players from the Essendon Football Club were found guilty of being injected with banned peptide, Thymosin Beta 4, while participating in Essendon’s supplements programme in 2011 and 2012. The release of the Court of Arbitration of Sport’s (CAS) summary of findings raised questions about the actions and intent of the participating players. In particular, the CAS highlighted concerns that the players showed a lack of due diligence and curiosity and acted in a secretive nature. This article seeks to provide a means of understanding the actions of the 34 Essendon players who willingly participated in Essendon Football Club’s supplements programme by viewing them as active participants of a community. In doing so it becomes clear that the actions of the Essendon 34 were not unusual, but that a cultural shift within Australian Football League clubs may be needed to ensure a crisis like it never occurs again.
The war on drugs is usually associated with criminal policies aimed at stemming consumption of drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and cannabis, less so with enhancement drugs like those used in sport. As drug use in sport, or doping, has become more visibly widespread, policies aimed at combating the issue have become more restrictive, intrusive, and harsh. In this article we draw new comparisons between the wider war on drugs and recent developments in sports anti-doping. We identify a growing trend towards criminalisation of traffickers and users, and associate that with another growing trend: the testing of amateur athletes. This article reviews the current anti-doping system, including the recent amateur policies, then considers of the results of one such program in amateur cycling. We then shift to consider the possible implications for amateurs of criminal doping laws and the recent debates about allowing medical exemptions for therapeutic use of banned substances. We show that drug use in sport can be understood as a new front in the war on drugs, with some extreme measures and many negative unintended consequences. To remedy this, we argue that amateur athletes require a separate anti-doping policy focused on minimising harms of use.
Based on extensive multi-national and multi-lingual archival research, this book examines the evolution of scientific knowledge within the international anti-doping community that coalesced during the second half of the twentieth century. Two key figures from a group of leading scientific experts serve as the focal points of the investigation, British pharmacologist Arnold Beckett and German biochemist Manfred Donike. After supporting early anti-doping initiatives in the late 1960s and 1970s, they became highly influential in such leading sports organizations as the International Olympic Committee and the International Association of Athletics Federations. From the 1980s onward, the international sport system relied heavily on their network of anti-doping laboratory experts in maintaining and advancing a rigid testing regime. Hence, this book offers a nuanced analysis of the establishment of the structures and initiatives in the global fight against doping in sport.
Background:
This paper explores the understudied phenomenon of performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) markets by examining the structure and formation of the market for PIEDs among bodybuilders in the Netherlands and Belgium. This article specifically seeks to account for individual reasons and motivations for dealing PIEDs within these bodybuilding subcultures. Understanding illicit PIED markets is important for policy decisions as knowledge on the production and distribution of these substances may assist in designing law enforcement efforts, harm reduction initiatives and treatment options.
Methods:
This article draws on two years of fieldwork in various bodybuilding settings, 47 semi-structured interviews with individuals who are directly or indirectly involved in the PIED market and 64 PIED dealing cases initiated by criminal justice agencies in the Netherlands and Belgium.
Findings:
The data indicates that PIED dealing groups and individuals are often driven by motivations stemming from their social and cultural embeddedness in the bodybuilding subculture. Specifically, these PIED dealers are 'over-socialized' into the structure and culture of bodybuilding and follow the cultural scripts that come with their group affiliation and organization. As a result of the cultural context in which these transactions occur, PIED dealing networks among bodybuilders in the Netherlands and Belgium are more likely to consist of friends or 'friends of friends' tied together by threads of collective meaning found within the bodybuilding subculture.
Conclusion:
We argue that efforts seeking to explain the structure, formation and motivations of illicit PIED dealing must learn to appreciate how culture mediates structural forces and thereby influences individual and collective action. Policy makers, health care professionals and other relevant parties should consider a plurality of factors (social, economic and cultural) when designing and evaluating PIED-related interventions such as law enforcement efforts, harm reduction initiatives and treatment options.
Based on historical sources from the archive of the International Olympic Committee Library and Archives and the Carl and Liselott Diem-Archive of the German Sport University Cologne, this article explores the role of the International Olympic Committee Medical Subcomission on Doping. It therewith aims to address the relative omission on the role of scientists in the history of anti-doping. The paper argues that the IOC MSD is a much-underrated anti-doping body because the activities of its members, who were all heads of anti-doping laboratories with professional competencies in the field of doping analysis, shaped the International Olympic Committeés (IOC) anti-doping policy considerably in the 1980s.
Due to a growing awareness of the consumption of performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs), and the perceived associated adverse health effects, PIEDs have increasingly come to be viewed as a serious public health problem. However, there seems to be a tendency amongst policymakers to frame recreational PIED use as an issue within sport, and to call for the same types of policies that are being used in anti-doping. This paper explores the ways in which national PIED policies in The Netherlands and Belgium and anti-doping measures are intertwined, and how the different approaches adopted in each nation are impacting on the illicit PIED market.
This book is an innovative and compelling work that develops a modified moral panic model illustrated by the drugs in sport debate. Drawing on Max Webers work on moral authority and legitimacy, McDermott argues that doping scandals create a crisis of legitimacy for sport governing bodies and other elite groups. This crisis leads to a moral panic, where the issue at stake for elite groups is perceptions of their organizational legitimacy. The book highlights the role of the media as a site where claims to legitimacy are made, and contested, contributing to the social construction of a moral panic. The book explores the way regulatory responses, in this case anti-doping policies in sport, reflect the interests of elite groups and the impact of those responses on individuals, or “folk devils.” The War on Drugs in Sport makes a key contribution to moral panic theory by adapting Goode and Ben-Yehudas moral panic model to capture the diversity of interests and complex relationships between elite groups. The difference between this book and others in the field is its application of a new theoretical perspective, supported by well-researched empirical evidence.
In August of 1983 at the Pan-American Games in Caracas, Venezuela, a multi-faceted doping crisis occurred that overshadowed all other aspects of the games. This essay marks the first attempt to historicize the events surrounding this watershed moment in the fight against drug use in sport. Doping was revealed in three ways in Caracas: by the large number of positive tests that resulted in the first loss to doping of medals in the history of the Pan-American Games, by the exodus of the 12 American track and field athletes who flew home rather than be subject to testing in the sophisticated lab run by Dr Manfred Donike, and by a rash of ‘injuries’ and unexpectedly poor performances that kept athletes out of the medals and thus out of Donike’s lab. In the aftermath of the games, the United States Olympic Committee implemented new policies to ensure that Americans competing in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games would not run the risk of similar public embarrassment.
Incidents of doping in sports are common in news headlines, despite regulatory efforts. How did doping become a crisis? What does a doping violation actually entail? Who gets punished for breaking the rules of fair play? In Testing for Athlete Citizenship, Kathryn E. Henne, a former competitive athlete and an expert in the law and science of anti-doping regulation, examines the development of rules aimed at controlling performance enhancement in international sports.
As international and celebrated figures, athletes are powerful symbols, yet few spectators realize that a global regulatory network is in place in an attempt to ensure ideals of fair play. The athletes caught and punished for doping are not always the ones using performance-enhancing drugs to cheat. In the case of female athletes, violations of fair play can stem from their inherent biological traits.
Testing for Athlete Citizenship combines historical and ethnographic approaches to offer a compelling account of the origins and expansion of anti-doping regulation and gender-verification rules. Drawing on research conducted in Australasia, Europe, and North America, Henne details how race, gender, class, and postcolonial formations of power shape these ideas and regulatory practices. Testing for Athlete Citizenship makes a convincing case to rethink the power of regulation in sports and how it separates athletes as a distinct class of citizens subject to a unique set of rules because of their physical attributes and abilities.
On August 26, 1960, twenty-three-year-old Danish cyclist Knud Jensen, competing in that year's Rome Olympic Games, suddenly fell from his bike and fractured his skull. His death hours later led to rumors that performance-enhancing drugs were in his system. Though certainly not the first instance of doping in the Olympic Games, Jensen's death serves as the starting point for Thomas M. Hunt's thoroughly researched, chronological history of the modern relationship of doping to the Olympics. Utilizing concepts derived from international relations theory, diplomatic history, and administrative law, this work connects the issue to global political relations. During the Cold War, national governments had little reason to support effective anti-doping controls in the Olympics. Both the United States and the Soviet Union conceptualized power in sport as a means of impressing both friends and rivals abroad. The resulting medals race motivated nations on both sides of the Iron Curtain to allow drug regulatory powers to remain with private sport authorities. Given the costs involved in testing and the repercussions of drug scandals, these authorities tried to avoid the issue whenever possible. But toward the end of the Cold War, governments became more involved in the issue of testing. Having historically been a combined scientific, ethical, and political dilemma, obstacles to the elimination of doping in the Olympics are becoming less restrained by political inertia.
Understandings of anti-doping policy in sport may benefit from utilizing the perspectives of moral panic and moral regulation. The work of Stan Cohen outlined a model of moral panic, which has since been extended and refined. Its tenets are outlined and then illustrated by a case study of the ‘designer drug’ mephedrone, which emerged in 2010. More recent ideas about moral regulation are reviewed, with emphasis on how they help contextualize moral panics in a wide process with identifiable characteristics. As a case study, the issue of recreational drugs in general demonstrates the dynamics behind projects of moral regulation. Both perspectives are evaluated and a series of propositions are derived from them to apply to anti-doping policy. The interpretations in two authoritative accounts by Houlihan and Moller indicate a high degree of compatibility with the frameworks of moral regulation and moral panic, which may thus aid future analysis of anti-doping policy.
At the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, the US cycling team not only won its first Olympic cycling medal since 1912 but also added eight more, marking a triumph for the team and its Polish-born coach, Eddie Borysewicz. Soon, however, news leaked that the seven members of the US cycling team, four of whom won medals, had employed controversial blood transfusions. Though not prohibited by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the news caused a firestorm within the press and led to a significant revision of the IOC Medical Commission's anti-doping rules. Previous historical scholarship has ignored this event, focusing instead on early doping scandals such as Knud Jensen or more recent controversies such as Ben Johnson and Lance Armstrong. However, this event caused a significant shift within the IOC Medical Commission's attitude towards doping. Prior to 1984, the IOC Medical Commission had hesitated to prohibit any substance, including anabolic steroids, if it could not detect the substance through testing. The willingness of the US team to experiment with new medical procedures to improve performance galvanised the Medical Commission and set in motion new anti-doping policies that remain in place today.
The ‘spirit of sport’ clause is the central justification for the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) Code. While debates have arisen regarding the clause's legitimacy since its inclusion in the first 2003 Code, those debates have treated the clause in the abstract, divorced from the specific historical forces that shaped its creation. The aims of this paper are to highlight specific events that influenced the creation of the ‘spirit of sport’ clause and summarise the roles and motivations of those individuals who created it. Based on archival documents, secondary sources, and interviews with people who played important roles in the creation of the clause, specific historical events from 1988 to 2003 shaped the creation of the ‘spirit of sport’. Events in Canada were crucial, including Ben Johnson's famous 1988 victory in the Summer Olympic Games and the ensuing ‘Dubin Inquiry’ into the state of Canadian sport. The Inquiry led to the creation of the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) and the CCES's “spirit of sport” campaign. While the campaign itself lived a relatively short life, the language from it was transferred to WADA's Code as the organization's ‘Code Project Team’ prepared the Code between 2000 and 2003. Grappling with problems and inconsistencies in existing anti-doping policies, the ‘spirit of sport’ language provided a way of dealing with those issues while simultaneously promoting a ‘values-based’ image of sport. This paper presents this history and draws implications regarding the ‘spirit of sport's’ legitimacy as the foundation for anti-doping policy.
The historiography of doping has focused primarily on anti-doping efforts that followed in the wake of Knud Enemark Jensen's death in 1960 and culminated in the first Olympic anti-doping tests in 1968. Such focus has often led to the mistaken claim that prior to 1960, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had not banned doping, and, more importantly, ignores the cultural origins of anti-doping that took hold prior to the Second World War and which shaped the IOC's response to doping following Jensen's demise. By tracing early doping practices through turn-of-the-century horse racing and its concerns over gambling and the interwar efforts to ban doping in Olympic sports through the amateurism code, the authors examine the influences behind the IOC's decision to first ban doping in 1938. More importantly, it roots the post-Jensen anti-doping rhetoric and legislation in the early twentieth-century push to defend amateurism against the perceived nefarious forces of gambling, commercialism, professionalism and totalitarianism that were supposedly overrunning amateur sport in the 1930s.
This article compares the efforts to govern performance enhancement technologies in two seemingly different competitive arenas—financial markets and professional cycling—where the pressures to outperform are enormous. In the two decades prior to the 2007 financial crisis, new derivative financial commodities such as collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) were created to “juice up” investment returns for extraordinary profits. Over roughly the same period, the development and use of blood boosting drugs and technologies brought so-called doping by cyclists to new levels of complexity and sophistication with extraordinary race results and new levels of commercialization of the sport. The efforts to “turbocharge” their respective competitive spaces took place within complicated regimes of self-regulation that had strikingly dissimilar narratives about performance enhancement and, consequently, different technologies for control. Looking across these seemingly disparate cases draws our attention to how regulation fits into the assemblage of competition and prospects for reform.
In the wake of Knud Enemark Jensen’s drug-related death in 1960, the sporting world expressed shock that an amateur athlete would dope. For many, such an action directly contradicted amateur ideals. Yet historians heretofore have yet to examine the intellectual development of such anti-doping ideology. Following is an intellectual history of the early development of anti-doping, an ideology that emerged bound to the gospel of amateurism. Indeed, amateurism provided the intellectual soil in which anti-doping attitudes germinated. As the search for performance-enhancing substances increased near the end of the nineteenth century, many amateur athletes showed no moral qualms with doping. Over time, however, advocates of amateurism—consisting of various segments of middle-and upper-class society—used anti-doping to reaffirm middle-class values and [End Page 237] marginalize the accomplishments of working-class professional athletes. Through amateurism, individuals and sporting communities turned doping from a tacitly tolerated practice to one that contradicted the spirit of sport and constituted a serious threat to sport’s moral integrity.
This article about doping and anti-doping measures and policy in West Germany in the context of the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich is part of a research project about ‘Doping and Anti-Doping in West-Germany’, supported by the German Government. The intention of this paper is to describe, analyse and discuss the process of changing relationships between state (including various governing sports bodies) and sport (including the German sport associations and federations) in West Germany in the context of the Munich Olympics, and how doping and anti-doping was dealt with in national and international high-level sports. The paper is based on relevant archives and documents from governmental and sports organizations, as well as on the current German and international state-of-the-art of doping (and anti-doping) research.
The linguistic turn in philosophy has brought the problem of truth to the fore of historiography. This has led to number of writers suggesting that there is no truth in history. This article aims to challenge this view through a study of the death of the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen at the Olympic Games in Rome 1960. Through the literature on the history of doping it is often mentioned that Jensen died from his use of amphetamines and that this fatality prompted a more serious response from politicians and sporting bodies. While evidence suggests that the incident did prove something of a catalyst for firming up anti-doping policy, it will be shown here that the oft-repeated claim that Jensen's death was doping-related is in fact unfounded. The implications for an understanding of truth in contemporary historiography will be discussed.
DESCRIPTION The book explains how the usage of drugs in sport came to be considered in terms of "abuse" contrary to be thought of being ethical and supportive to the athletes in the early days of modern sport. PURPOSE The aim of this book is to question of using and abusing drugs in sport at length from a historical perspective. It proposes to discuss the issue as a dilemma of 'good anti-doping' versus 'evil doping'. FEATURES The issues addressed in this book are as following: 1.Sport, drugs and society; 2.Doping and the rise of modern sport, 1876-1918; 3.The science gets serious, 1920-1945; 4. Amphetamines and post-war sport, 1945-1976; 5.The steroids epidemic, 1945-1976; 6.Dealing with the scandal: anti-doping and the new ethics of sport, 1945-1965; 7. Science, morality and policy: the modernisation of anti-doping, 1965-1976; 8.Doping, anti-doping and the changing values of sport. ASSESSMENT This book will be great interest to the sportsmen as well as students, researchers and practitioners in the sport and exercise disciplines whether they work in the laboratory or in the field since it is about a popular topic in sport. It could also be valued as a reference book, because it targets to avoid easy answers to difficult questions in the controversial subject of drug use in sport
- Krieger J.
Organized crime and drugs in sport: new generation performance and image enhancing drugs and criminal involvement in their use in professional sport
ACC (2013), "Organized crime and drugs in sport: new generation performance and image enhancing drugs
and criminal involvement in their use in professional sport", available at: http://resources.news.com.au/
files/2013/02/07/1226572/544748-acc-reoport.pdf (accessed June 16, 2017).
- A D Henning
- P Dimeo
Henning, A.D. and Dimeo, P. (2018), "The new front in the war on doping: amateur athletes",
International Journal of Drug Policy, Vol. 51, pp. 128-136.
Mortal Engines: The Science of Performance and the Dehumanization of Sport
- J Hoberman
Hoberman, J. (1992), Mortal Engines: The Science of Performance and the Dehumanization of Sport,
The Free Press, New York, NY.
The Social Organization of Sports Medicine: Critical Socio-Cultural Perspectives
- J Hoberman
Hoberman, J. (2012), "Sports physicians and doping: medical ethics and elite performance", in Malcolm, D.
and Safai, P. (Eds), The Social Organization of Sports Medicine: Critical Socio-Cultural Perspectives,
Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 247-64.
International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, available at: https://stillmed. olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Olympic-Studies-Centre/List-of-Resources/Official-Publications/Olympic-Charters/EN-1946-Olympic-Charter-Olympic-Rules
IOC (1946), "Olympic Rules", International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, available at: https://stillmed.
olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Olympic-Studies-Centre/List-of-Resources/Official-Publications/Olympic-Charters/EN-1946-Olympic-Charter-Olympic-Rules.pdf#_ga=2.217511446.12
7835622.1501609686-1152892993.1468954050 (accessed July 31, 2017).
Press release, IOC Medical Commission", archive collection "IOC Medical Commission", Folder "Medical Commission: Alphabetical correspondence 1960-1967
IOC (1967), "Press release, IOC Medical Commission", archive collection "IOC Medical Commission", Folder
"Medical Commission: Alphabetical correspondence 1960-1967", Olympic Study Centre, Lausanne,
September 27.
Minutes of the meetings of the IOC Medical Commission", archive collection "IOC Medical Commission
IOC Medical Commission (1988), "Minutes of the meetings of the IOC Medical Commission", archive
collection "IOC Medical Commission", Folder "IOC Medical Commission: Meeting in Seoul on 14th
September -1st October 1988: Minutes and Working Documents", Olympic Study Centre, Lausanne,
September 14-October 1.
The Male Hormone, Harcourt, Brace and Company
- P Kruif
Kruif, P. (1945), The Male Hormone, Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York, NY.
The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity
- A Rabinbach
Rabinbach, A. (1990), The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity, University of
California Press, Berkeley, CA.
International convention against doping in sport
UNESCO (2005), "International convention against doping in sport", available at: http://portal.unesco.org/en/
ev.php-URL_ID=31037&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html (accessed July 1, 2017).
World Anti-Doping Code
- WADA
WADA (2015), "World Anti-Doping Code", available at: www.wada-ama.org/en/resources/the-code/worldanti-doping-code (accessed July 17, 2017).
In charging Essendon, worksafe puts all sport on notice
- E Windholz
Windholz, E. (2015), "In charging Essendon, worksafe puts all sport on notice", The Conversation,
available at: http://theconversation.com/in-charging-essendon-worksafe-puts-all-sport-on-notice-50396
(accessed July 17, 2017).
ca For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website: www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight
Ian Ritchie can be contacted at: iritchie@brocku.ca
For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
VOL. 4 NO. 1 2018 j JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH, POLICY AND PRACTICE j PAGE 29
Minutes of the 64th IOC session in Rome
IOC (1966), "Minutes of the 64th IOC session in Rome", archive collection "IOC Sessions 1894-2009,"
Olympic Study Centre, Lausanne, April 24-30.