Strength and Conditioning Considerations for Youth Swimmers

Abstract

Youth swimmers, aged 7 – 13 years, are an athletic population that can benefit from a strength and conditioning (S&C) program which caters for their developmental and sports specific needs. This column provides considerations for S&C programs for youth swimmers. Practical examples of exercises, movement screens and programs are provided.

Full text

Strength and
Conditioning
Considerations for Youth
Swimmers
Frank J. Nugent, BSc, Thomas M. Comyns, PhD, and Giles D. Warrington, PhD
Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Supplemental digital content is available for this article. Direct URL citations appear in the printed text and are provided
in the HTML and PDF versions of this article on the journal’s Web site (http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj).
ABSTRACT
YOUTH SWIMMERS, AGED 7–13
YEARS, ARE AN ATHLETIC POPU-
LATION THAT CAN BENEFIT FROM
A STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING
(S&C) PROGRAM WHICH CATERS
FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENTAL AND
SPORTS-SPECIFIC NEEDS. THIS
ARTICLE PROVIDES CONSIDERA-
TIONS FOR S&C PROGRAMS FOR
YOUTH SWIMMERS. PRACTICAL
EXAMPLES OF EXERCISES, MOVE-
MENT SCREENS, AND PROGRAMS
ARE PROVIDED.
INTRODUCTION
Swimming is one of the largest
Olympic sports with 35 pool
events and 2 open water events.
Pool events range in distance from 50
to 1,500 m, whereas open water events
are competed over a distance of 10 km.
The demands of swimming are unique
because of the large variety of racing
distances spread across multiple swim-
ming stroke techniques—freestyle,
backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke.
Most swimming races can be broken
down into 3 components—the start,
the turn(s), and the swim itself with
each component having specific techni-
cal requirements depending on the indi-
vidual stroke technique. The variety of
race distances, stroke events, and race
components makes swimming a complex
and demanding sport from a physical,
technical, and tactical standpoint.
Swimming is widely known as a sport
that demands a high level of training
commitment from a young age. It is
common practice for youth swimmers
to complete 6–8 sessions, or 11–15 hours
of training per week for an entire season
(21). Consequently, youth swimmers are
an athlete population that has been
found to be at greater risk of early spe-
cialization, where a bias is placed toward
intensive year round training in 1 sport at
theexpenseofamoreglobalmovement
skill development across a range of
sports (18). The risks surrounding early
specialization in youth athletes are
heavily debated in the literature with
a greater incidence of psychological
burnout, injury, and early dropout evi-
dent in sports that tend to specialize from
an early age (17–19). An age-appropriate
strength and conditioning (S&C) pro-
gram has been suggested as a valuable
tool in helping to decrease likelihood of
injury while providing opportunities to
develop a wide and varied array of
movement skills which are seen as vital
to long-term engagement in physical
activity and sport (8,16).
In addition to developing a wide variety
of movement skills, S&C programs for
youth swimmers should aim to lay
long-term foundations for enhancing
performance in sports-specific skills.
Swimming performance depends on a bal-
ance between the propulsive power gen-
erated by the arm and leg actions during
the swimming stroke and the resistance
created by the drag, or water resistance,
encountered by the body during swim-
ming (23). A swimmer will reach his/
her maximum velocity when he/she fails
to produce propulsive power that exceeds
the resistance acting on him/her (3).
Therefore, S&C programs for swimmers
should aim to increase propulsion
through the water by enhancing muscular
force and power production while at the
same time decreasing resistance through
the water by improving body position
(23). Optimizing the moments, a swimmer
has access to ground reaction forces
(GRFs) during a race, namely the start
(0–15m)andtheturn(s)(5–10m),isalso
an area that has potential to enhance
swimming performance (4,5,24).
Address correspondence to Frank J. Nugent,
frank.nugent@ul.ie.
KEY WORDS:
fundamental movement skills; long-
term athlete development
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Previous publications in this journal
have discussed S&C programs for senior
swimmers (4,15,20). The aim of this arti-
cle is to provide some important consid-
erations for planning S&C programs for
youth swimmers, aged 7–13 years, with
specific emphasis on the topics
of movement skill development, increas-
ing propulsion, decreasing resistance,
and optimizing GRFs. In addition, prac-
tical examples of exercises, swimming-
specific movement screens, and S&C
programs for youth swimmers are
provided.
PROGRAMMING
CONSIDERATIONS
DEVELOP MOVEMENT SKILLS
Movement skill development encom-
passes the ability to perform fundamen-
tal movement skills (FMS) which
comprise locomotive skills (e.g., running,
Table 1
An example of ground-based movement (GBM) exercises for youth swimmers
Exercise Target mobility areas Target stability areas Progressions Supplemental digital content
Spiderman
crawl
Hips and ankles Shoulders and core Perform backwards
or
place KB on hips
1, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A223
Inchworm
walks
Hips, ankles, shoulders, and
thoracic spine
Shoulders and core Perform with yoga
push-up
2, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A224
Crab walks Shoulders Shoulders and core Perform backwards/
sideways,
place KB on hips,
or perform
with alternating
leg lifts
3, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A225
Gorilla
walks
Hips, ankles, shoulders, and
thoracic spine
Shoulders and core Perform sideways 4, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A226
Duck walks Ankles, shoulders, and thoracic
spine
Ankles — 5, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A227
Bunny hops Hips, ankles, shoulders, and
thoracic spine
Ankles Perform backwards
or
sideways
6, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A228
Lizard crawl Hips and ankles Shoulders and core Perform as low to the
ground as possible
7, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A229
Zombie
crawl
Shoulders Shoulders — 8, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A230
Seal crawl Shoulders Shoulders — 9, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A231
Streamline
rolls
Shoulders and thoracic spine Core — 10, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A232
Plank walks Ankles Shoulders and core Perform sideways or
place KB on hips
11, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A233
KB walks Hips, ankles, shoulders, and
thoracic spine
Shoulders, ankles,
and hips
Perform backwards/
sideways
12, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A234
Bear crawl Hips and ankles Shoulders and core Perform backwards/
sideways
or place KB on hips
13, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A235
Streamline
walks
Ankles, shoulders, and thoracic
spine
Ankles — 14, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A236
Airplane
walks
Hips and ankles Hips and ankles Perform with KB in
hands
15, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A237
KB 5kick board.
S&C Considerations for Youth Swimmers
VOLUME 40 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2018
32
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jumping, hopping, and cutting), manip-
ulative skills (e.g., throwing, catching,
and kicking), and stabilizing skills (e.g.,
balance and core stability) (16). FMS
skills are suggested to be the foundation
for more complex sports-specific skills
(e.g., a tennis serve, a golf swing, and
a swimming start) and acquiring these
skills from a young age is seen as vital to
long-term engagement in physical activ-
ity and sport (8,16). The training re-
quirements of youth swimming, which
commonly involves highly specialized
training, may result in poor FMS levels
because of an over emphasis on partic-
ipation in 1 sport (i.e., swimming), thus
reducing the development of a wide and
varied movement skill portfolio (17,19).
This is a common occurrence not only
in swimming but also in other earlyspe-
cialization sports such as tennis, diving,
and gymnastics where highly special-
ized training is commonly undertaken
at a young age (17,19).
To diversify a youth swimmer’s move-
ment skill portfolio, the inclusion of
short duration games which focus on
developing specific FMS skills can be
a valuable addition to an S&C pro-
gram. This helps to ensure that youth
swimmers have regular exposure to
FMS skills throughout their develop-
ment, particularly for those who do
not participate in additional sports (16).
For example, the game Olympic hand-
ball develops locomotive (e.g., running,
Table 2
An example of a possible model for progressing key S&C movement patterns for youth swimmers
Movement pattern Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6
BL and UL jumping BL box
landing
and lunge
drop
CMJ and lunge
jump
Continuous
CMJ and
continuous
lunge jump
Broad jump and 1 leg
box landing
Drop jump and
1 leg jump
Continuous drop/
broad jump
and 1 leg broad
jump
UB vertical pull Zombie
crawl
RB lat pull-
down
Thick RB-
assisted
pull/chin
ups
Thin RB-assisted pull/
chin ups
BW pull/chin
ups
Weighted pull/
chin ups
UB horizontal pull Half
kneeling
RB row
BW knees bent
inverted row
BW inverted
row
Weighted inverted
row
DB row BB bench pull
UB vertical push Kick board
overhead
press
BH overhead
press
RB overhead
press
Half kneeling DB
overhead press
DB overhead
press
BB overhead
press
UB horizontal push Kneeling
push-ups
RB-assisted
push-ups
BW push-ups Weighted push-ups DB bench press BB bench press
BL squat BW squat Kick board BW
squat
BH overhead
squat
RB overhead squat DB goblet
squat
BB front, back, or
overhead squat
UL squat BW split
squat
Kick board BW
split squat or
lateral split
squat
BW forward,
backward,
and lateral
lunge
BW Bulgarian split
squat
DB split squats/
lunges or
assisted 1
leg squat
BB split squats/
lunges or BW 1
leg squat
Hip hinge Wall-
assisted 1
leg RDL
BW 1 leg RDL DB 1 leg RDL DB deadlift BB RDL BB deadlift
Prone hold Front plank Front plank leg
lifts
Front plank
shoulder
touches
Front plank hand
walk outs
Front plank
weighted
Barbell roll outs
Lateral hold Side plank Side plank feet
on bench
Side plank leg
lifts
Side plank clamp (1
foot over bench
and 1 foot under
bench)
Side plank
weighted
Side plank hold
(legs on bench
and body off
bench)
BB 5barbell; BH 5broom handle; BL 5bilateral; BW 5body weight; CMJ 5countermovement jump; DB 5dumbbell; RB 5resistance band;
RDL 5Romanian deadlift; UB 5upper body; UL 5unilateral.
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jumping, and cutting) and manipulative
(e.g., throwing and catching) FMS skills in
a fun and interactive manner. In addition,
Olympic handball may help to develop
sports-specific skills for swimming such as
the ability to jump, which is a skill used
during the start and turn of a swimming
race, or the ability to throw and catch
a ball, which is a skill used in other aquatic
disciplines such as water polo. More prac-
tical examples of FMS games are pro-
vided later in the column.
Ground-based movement (GBM) ex-
ercises may also be used as a more
swimming-specific method of improv-
ing FMS-stabilizing skills which are
seen as vital to all swimming strokes,
namely the ability to stabilize through
the shoulders, hips, core, and ankles
(25,30). GBM exercises are a fun
and easily implemented method for
developing balance and core stability
as well as coordination, mobility, and
strength for all youth athletes. In addi-
tion, GBM exercises may help to pro-
vide the necessary foundations for
more structured movement pattern
progressions, such as those provided
in Table 1, as a swimmer develops.
INCREASE PROPULSION
To increase propulsion through the water,
an S&C program for youth swimmers
should aim to increase muscular force
and power production with particular
emphasis on developing the upper body
(1,7). Upper-body force and power has
been found to be significantly correlated
(r50.63–90) with swimming perfor-
mance over distances ranging from 25
to 400 m (9,27). Upper-body pulling and
pushing movement patterns are the dom-
inant arm actions seen in all 4 swimming
strokesandGBMexercisessuchasthe
zombie crawl and the seal crawl (Table 1;
see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 8
and 9, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A230,
http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A231, respec-
tively) adequately represent these move-
ment patterns for very young swimmers.
As a swimmer develops, more structured
upper-body pulling and pushing move-
ment pattern progressions can be imple-
mented, such as those provided in Table 2.
Progression from level 1 to 6 is subjective
and based on the S&C coaches’ intuition
of the physical, psychological, and techni-
cal competency of the swimmer(s). An
S&C coach must ensure that a swimmer
has mastered the selected skill (e.g., upper-
body horizontal pull) at an initial level (i.e.,
level 1) through regular practice before
progressing to a higher level. This ensures
that the appropriate movement pattern
foundations are in place before a more
advanced progression is used.
Lower-body strength and power should
also be developed to improve leg kick pro-
pulsion (1,7) using movement patterns
such as squatting, hip hinging, and jumping
which are adequately represented by
GBM exercises such as bunny hops and
airplane walks for very young swimmers
(Table 1; see Video, Supplemental Digital
Content 6 and 15, http://links.lww.com/
SCJ/A228, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/
A237, respectively). These can then later
be progressed using the more structured
lower-body movement pattern progres-
sionsprovidedinTable2.
Although increasing propulsion through
enhancing muscular force and power
production is important, optimizing
a swimmer’s range of motion in ankle
plantarflexion may also be vital to increas-
ing propulsion during the leg kick in
swimming (11). Swimming coaches and
sports scientists commonly suggest that
high levels of ankle plantarflexion increase
propulsion during the leg kick by provid-
ing a greater propulsive foot surface area
(i.e., the feet propel more water in
a lengthened position) and by allowing
Figure 1. The “ankle plantarflexion test” for swimmers. The swimmer begins the test in
a supine position. The swimmer then simultaneously plantar flexes the
ankles to maximum range, ensuring the knees remain extended and no hip
internal rotation occurs. Figure 1A displays a swimmer with full ankle
plantarflexion. Figure 1B displays a swimmer with poor ankle plantarflexion.
S&C Considerations for Youth Swimmers
VOLUME 40 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2018
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a swimmer to maintain a more effective
angle during the downbeat of the kick
(11,13,31). Anecdotal evidence suggests
that high levels of ankle plantarflexion is
a common finding in elite swimmers;
however, only significant moderate cor-
relations (r50.51) between ankle
plantarflexion and leg kick speed over
22.9 m have been found so far (13).
Figure 1 displays a swimming-specific
movement screen for increasing propul-
sion—“ankle plantarflexion test.”
Figure 1A displays a high-level youth
swimmer with full range ankle plantarflex-
ion (toes touching the ground), whereas
Figure 1B displays a youth swimmer with
poor ankle plantarflexion. GBM exercises
such as plank walks and streamline walks
(Table 1; see Video, Supplemental Dig-
ital Content 11 and 14, http://links.
lww.com/SCJ/A233, http://links.lww.
com/SCJ/A236, respectively) can help
to develop the necessary mobility and
stability needed to improve ankle
plantarflexion from an early age.
DECREASE RESISTANCE
There are 3 main components of drag
or resistance, which act on a swimmer
as they move through the water: fric-
tional drag (i.e., the resistance created
between the water and the swimmer’s
skin), form drag (i.e., the resistance cre-
ated by the profile of the swimmer in
the water), and wave drag (i.e., the
resistance created by waves when
swimming at or near the surface)
(12,28). To decrease resistance through
the water, an S&C program for youth
swimmers should aim to optimize
body position in the water, thus reduc-
ing the negative impact of form drag
during swimming (12,15,23,25). Two
primary areas of focus for decreasing
resistance across all swimming strokes
are the ability to hold a tight streamline
under the water and the ability to
maintain a high hip position in the
water during swimming (15,25).
Streamlining is a vital swimming skill
and occurs during the start (0–15 m)
and turn (5–10 m) of a swimming race.
A swimmer with a tight streamline will
experience less water resistance
because of a smaller frontal plane area,
therefore “punching” a smaller hole
through the water and thus reducing
form drag (12). In addition, the under-
water phases of a swimming race (i.e.,
when a swimmer is streamlining) have
been shown to be the second fastest
section of a race, after the dive itself,
because of the reduced wave drag asso-
ciated with swimming at or near the
surface (6). Therefore, optimizing the
underwater phase of a race and thus
streamlining ability is crucial to overall
performance.
Figure 2 displays a swimming-specific
movement screen for decreasing resis-
tance—“streamline test.” Figure 2A dis-
plays a high-level youth swimmer with
a perfect streamline (i.e., keeping heels,
hips, upper back, head, and arms against
the wall while maintaining a neutral pel-
vic position), whereas Figure 2B dis-
plays a youth swimmer with a poor
streamline. As a result, the swimmer
in Figure 2B will experience greater
resistance through the water while
streamlining and therefore will need to
produce greater propulsive power (3).
GBM exercises such as inchworm
walks, gorilla walks, and streamline
walks (Table 1; see Video, Supplemental
Digital Content 2, 4 and 14, http://
links.lww.com/SCJ/A224, http://links.
lww.com/SCJ/A226, http://links.lww.
com/SCJ/A236, respectively) can help
to develop the necessary mobility and
stability needed to improve streamlining
from an early age.
Figure 2. The “streamline test” for swimmers. The swimmer begins the test with their
feet hip-width apart and heels against a wall. The swimmer then simul-
taneously elevates the arms into a streamline position, ensuring the heels,
hips, upper back, head and arms are against the wall while maintaining
a neutral pelvic position. Figure 2A displays a swimmer with a perfect
streamline. Figure 2B displays a swimmer with a poor streamline.
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A swimmer’s ability to hold a high hip
position in the water is controlled by the
core musculature (12,15,25). A widely
held belief among swimming coaches is
that swimmers must keep their hips high
in the water to minimize water resistance
and thus form drag (12,15,25). During the
early stages of development, S&C pro-
grams for youth swimmers should focus
on developing core stability in a fun and
interactive way using GBM exercises such
as inchworm walks, crab walks, streamline
rolls, and plank walks (Table 1; see Video,
Supplemental Digital Content 2, 3, 10 and
11, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A224,
http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A225,
http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A232, http://
links.lww.com/SCJ/A233, respectively).
Exercises can then be progressed
accordingly at a later stage using
the more structured movement pat-
tern progressions provided in Table 2.
OPTIMIZE GROUND REACTION
FORCES
To optimize GRFs, S&C programs for
youth swimmers should aim to improve
lower-body strength and power to enhance
start performance (0–15 m) (5,24,29) and
turn(s) (5–10 m) performance (4,22) during
a race. Squatting and hip hinging move-
ment patterns are key components of the
startandtheturnseenduringswimming
(4). GBM exercises such as duck walks,
bunny hops, and airplane walks (Table 1;
see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 5,
6 and 15, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A227,
http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A228, http://
links.lww.com/SCJ/A237, respectively)
adequately represent squatting and
hip hinging actions and can be fur-
ther progressed using the more struc-
tured movement pattern progressions
provided in Table 2.
PROGRAM DESIGN
S&C programs for youth swimmers
should aim to develop movement
skills, increase propulsion, decrease
resistance, and optimize GRFs to
enhance swimming performance.
Tables 3 and 4 are examples of S&C
programs for a level 1 and level 3–4
swimmer. The levels are based on the
S&C movement pattern progressions
Table 3
Example S&C session for a level 1 swimmer
Session plan Number Exercise Sets Reps/duration/distance Rest
Warm-up 1a Spiderman crawl 3 10 m —
1b Duck walks 3 10 m 30 s
2a Crab walks 3 10 m —
2b Bunny hops 3 10 m 30 s
3a Seal crawls 3 10 m —
3b Lizard crawls 3 10 m 30 s
4a Streamline rolling 3 10 m —
4b Gorilla walks 3 10 m —
FMS game — Stepping stones
a
— 5 min —
Main session 1a Lunge drop 2 5 30 s
1b BL box landing 2 5 1 min
2a KB squat 2 10 —
2b Kneeling push-up 2 10 —
2c Side plank 2 30 s 30 s
3a Kneeling RB row 2 10 —
3b KB overhead split squat 2 10 each side ——
3c Front plank 2 30 s 30 s
FMS game — Rounder’s
b
— 10 min —
Session aims: To develop movement skills and improve level 1 S&C movement pattern competency.
a
Stepping stones—a jumping and balancing game played between 2 teams that incorporate FMS locomotive and stabilizing skills.
b
Rounder’s—a bat and ball game played between 2 teams that incorporate FMS locomotive and manipulative skills.
BL 5bilateral; FMS 5fundamental movement skills; KB 5kick board; RB 5resistance band.
S&C Considerations for Youth Swimmers
VOLUME 40 | NUMBER 2 | APRIL 2018
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provided in Table 2. Readers should
take note of the inclusion of short dura-
tion FMS games, which focus on
developing FMS skills that youth
swimmers commonly lack because of
the training requirements of the sport.
The implementation of any youth
S&C program requires coaches to
be mindful of the maturation status of
the athletes within their group to iden-
tify prepubescent, pubescent, and post-
pubescent individuals. Growth spurts
that occur around puberty can often
result in poor coordination, increased
likelihood of injury, and reduced range
of motion (10,26). Therefore, monitor-
ing maturation status on a regular basis
using easily implemented methods
such as the Mirwald equation (14)
can help to guide program design to
better cater for the needs of pubescent
individuals. In addition, recent evi-
dence from the various long-term ath-
lete development models suggests that
the training emphasis (i.e., strength,
power, mobility, hypertrophy, etc.)
should shift depending on the matura-
tion status of the athlete(s) (2,10). Prior
knowledge of an individual’s matura-
tion status can help to individualize
the needs of the athlete or group,
therefore providing a better informed
S&C program design.
SUMMARY
A well-structured and age-appropriate
S&C program can be a valuable tool in
helping to decrease likelihood of injury,
improve movement skills, and enhance
swimming performance in youth
swimmers. This is vital to ensuring
long-term engagement in physical
activity and sport. S&C coaches who
work with youth athletes should strive
to provide fun, interactive, and
Table 4
Example S&C session for a level 3 to 4 swimmer
Session plan Number Exercise Sets Reps/duration/distance Rest
Warm-up 1a Bear crawl 3 10 m —
1b Crab walks 3 10 m 30 s
2a Duck walks 3 10 m —
2b Lizard crawls 3 10 m 30 s
3a Zombie crawls 3 10 m —
3b Lizard crawls 3 10 m 30 s
FMS game — Snatch the bacon
a
— 5 min —
Main session 1a 1 leg box landing 3 3 each side 30 s
1b Broad jump 3 3 1 min
2a RB overhead squat 3 8 —
2b RB-assisted pull-up 3 8 —
2c Half kneeling DB overhead press 3 8 each side —
2d Front plank shoulder touches 3 30 s 2 min
3a BW Bulgarian split squat 3 8 each side —
3b BW push-up 3 8 —
3c BW inverted row 3 8 —
3d Side plank leg lifts 3 30 s 2 min
FMS game — Olympic handball
b
— 10 min —
Cool down — Static stretching — 5 min —
Session aims: To develop movement skills and improve level 3 to 4 S&C movement pattern competency.
a
Snatch the bacon—a reactive and evasive game played between 2 teams that incorporate FMS locomotive skills.
b
Olympic handball—a ball game played between 2 teams that incorporate FMS locomotive and manipulative skills.
BW 5body weight; DB 5dumbbell; FMS 5fundamental movement skills; RB 5resistance band.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 37
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challenging S&C programs that suit
the developmental and sports-specific
needs of their athlete(s).
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding:
The authors report no conflicts of interest
and no source of funding.
Frank J.
Nugent is
a strength and
conditioning
coach with the
National
Aquatic Centre
Swimming Club,
Dublin and
a PhD candidate within the Physical
Education and Sport Sciences depart-
ment in the University of Limerick.
Thomas M.
Comyns is
a strength and
conditioning
coach and lec-
turer in the
Physical Educa-
tion and Sport
Sciences depart-
ment in the University of Limerick.
Giles D.
Warrington is
an exercise phys-
iologist and
senior lecturer in
the Physical
Education and
Sport Sciences
department in the
University of
Limerick.
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