Assessing nature's contributions to people

Abstract

A major challenge today and into the future is to maintain or enhance beneficial contributions of nature to a good quality of life for all people. This is among the key motivations of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), a joint global effort by governments, academia, and civil society to assess and promote knowledge of Earth's biodiversity and ecosystems and their contribution to human societies in order to inform policy formulation. One of the more recent key elements of the IPBES conceptual framework (1) is the notion of nature's contributions to people (NCP), which builds on the ecosystem service concept popularized by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2). But as we detail below, NCP as defined and put into practice in IPBES differs from earlier work in several important ways. First, the NCP approach recognizes the central and pervasive role that culture plays in defining all links between people and nature. Second, use of NCP elevates, emphasizes, and operationalizes the role of indigenous and local knowledge in understanding nature's contribution to people.

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sciencemag.org SCIENCE
PHOTO: DINODIA PHOTO/GETTY IMAGES
A major challenge today and into the fu-
ture is to maintain or enhance benefi-
cial contributions of nature to a good
quality of life for all people. This is
among the key motivations of the In-
tergovernmental Science-Policy Plat-
form on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES), a joint global effort by governments,
academia, and civil society to assess and pro-
mote knowledge of Earth’s biodiversity and
ecosystems and their contribution to human
societies in order to inform policy formula-
tion. One of the more recent key elements of
the IPBES conceptual framework (1) is the
notion of nature’s contributions to people
(NCP), which builds on the ecosystem ser-
vice concept popularized by the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2). But as we
detail below, NCP as defined and put into
practice in IPBES differs from earlier work
in several important ways. First, the NCP ap-
proach recognizes the central and pervasive
role that culture plays in defining all links be-
tween people and nature. Second, use of NCP
elevates, emphasizes, and operationalizes the
role of indigenous and local knowledge in un-
derstanding nature’s contribution to people.
The broad remit of IPBES requires it to
engage a wide range of stakeholders, span-
ning from natural, social, humanistic, and
engineering sciences to indigenous peoples
and local communities in whose territories
lie much of the world’s biodiversity. Being an
intergovernmental body, such inclusiveness
is essential not only for advancing knowledge
but also for the political legitimacy of assess-
ment findings (3).
FROM SERVICES TO CONTRIBUTIONS
NCP are all the contributions, both positive
and negative, of living nature (diversity of
organisms, ecosystems, and their associated
ecological and evolutionary processes) to
people’s quality of life (4). Beneficial contri-
butions include, for example, food provision,
water purification, and artistic inspiration,
whereas detrimental contributions include
disease transmission and predation that
damage people or their assets. Many NCP
may be perceived as benefits or detriments
depending on the cultural, socioeconomic,
BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEMS
Assessing nature’s contributions to people
Recognizing culture, and diverse sources of knowledge, can improve assessments
By Sandra Díaz, Unai Pascual, Marie Stenseke, Berta Martín-López, Robert T. Watson, Zsolt Molnár, Rosemary Hill, Kai M. A. Chan,
Ivar A. Baste, Kate A. Brauman, Stephen Polasky, Andrew Church, Mark Lonsdale, Anne Larigauderie, Paul W. Leadley, Alexander P. E.
van Oudenhoven, Felice van der Plaat, Matthias Schröter, Sandra Lavorel, Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Elena Bukvareva, Kirsten Davies,
Sebsebe Demissew, Gunay Erpul, Pierre Failler, Carlos A. Guerra, Chad L. Hewitt, Hans Keune, Sarah Lindley, Yoshihisa Shirayama
INSIGHTS
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SCIENCE sciencemag.org
temporal, or spatial context. For example,
some carnivores are recognized—even by the
same people—as beneficial for control of wild
ungulates but as harmful because they may
attack livestock.
At first inspection, the notion of NCP does
not appear to differ much from the original
MA definition of ecosystem services (2),
which was broad and contemplated links
to many facets of well-being. However, the
detailed conceptualization and the practical
work on ecosystem services following on the
MA were dominated by knowledge from the
natural sciences and economics. The natu-
ral sciences, and ecology in particular, were
used to define “ecological production func-
tions” to determine the supply of services,
conceptualized as flows stemming from
ecosystems (stocks of natural capital) (5).
Economics was used to estimate the mone-
tary value of those ecosystem services flows
so as to identify trade-offs among them and
their impacts on well-being. Aided by ecol-
ogy and economics having readily available
tools, the ecosystem services approach de-
veloped into a vibrant research field, influ-
enced policy discourse, and advanced the
sustainability agenda.
However, this predominantly stock-and-
flow framing of people-nature relationships
largely failed to engage a range of perspec-
tives from the social sciences (6), or those
of local practitioners, including indigenous
peoples. This reinforced a mutual alienation
process in which MA-inspired studies and
policies became increasingly narrow, which
in turn led to voluntary self-exclusion of dis-
ciplines, stakeholders, and worldviews. As a
consequence, the ecosystem services research
program proceeded largely without benefit-
ing from insights and tools in social sciences
and humanities. For example, the unpacking
and valuation of some “cultural ecosystem
services” not readily amenable to biophysical
or monetary metrics have lagged behind (7),
and so has their mainstreaming into policy.
In addition, as diverse disciplines and stake-
holders remained at the margins, the initial
skepticism toward the ecosystem services
framework turned into active opposition, of-
ten based on the perceived risks of commodi-
fication of nature (8) and associated social
equity concerns (9).
The need to be inclusive, both in terms of
the strands of knowledge incorporated and
representation of worldviews, interests and
values (10), required IPBES to move to using
NCP. Although still rooted in the MA ecosys-
tem services framework (fig. S1), this new ap-
proach has the potential to firmly embed and
welcome a wider set of viewpoints and stake-
holders. It should also be less likely to be
subsumed within a narrow economic (such
as market-based) approach as the mediating
factor between people and nature.
AN INCLUSIVE SYSTEM
The NCP approach explicitly recognizes
that a range of views exist. At one extreme,
humans and nature are viewed as distinct
(2); at the other, humans and nonhuman
entities are interwoven in deep relation-
ships of kinship and reciprocal obligations
(11, 12). In addition, the way NCP are copro-
duced by nature and people is understood
through different cultural lenses. For in-
stance, coproduction of food in high-diver-
sity agriculture can be framed as a process
that combines a set of biological and tech-
nological inputs aimed at maximizing coex-
istence between useful plants and animals
in order to achieve higher yields.
Alternatively, coproduction of food can be
seen as a “practice of care” (12, 13) through
social relationships and connection with
spiritual entities. Therefore, we propose two
lenses through which to view NCP: a gen-
eralizing perspective and a context-specific
perspective. Although presented here as
extremes, these two perspectives are often
blended and interwoven (14), enabling co-
construction of knowledge among disciplines
and knowledge systems (fig. S2).
Generalizing perspective
Typical of the natural sciences and econom-
ics, this perspective (represented in green
at the bottom of fig. S2) is fundamentally
analytical in purpose; it seeks a universally
applicable set of categories of flows from
nature to people. Distinction between them
is often sharp, and agency is acknowledged
only in the case of people. NCP categories
can be seen at finer or coarser resolution
but can still be organized into a single, self-
consistent system.
We identify 18 such categories for report-
ing NCP within the generalizing perspec-
tive, organized in three partially overlapping
groups: regulating, material, and nonmate-
rial NCP (fig. S3 and table S1), defined ac-
cording to the type of contribution they make
to people’s quality of life.
Material contributions are substances, ob-
jects, or other material elements from nature
that directly sustain people’s physical exis-
tence and material assets. They are typically
physically consumed in the process of being
experienced—for example, when organisms
are transformed into food, energy, or materi-
als for ornamental purposes.
Nonmaterial contributions are nature’s ef-
fects on subjective or psychological aspects
underpinning people’s quality of life, both in-
dividually and collectively. Examples include
forests and coral reefs providing opportuni-
ties for recreation and inspiration, or par-
ticular animals and plants being the basis of
spiritual or social-cohesion experiences.
Regulating contributions are functional
and structural aspects of organisms and eco-
systems that modify environmental condi-
tions experienced by people and/or regulate
the generation of material and nonmaterial
contributions. Regulating contributions fre-
quently affect quality of life in indirect ways.
For example, people directly enjoy useful or
beautiful plants but only indirectly benefit
from the soil organisms that are essential for
the supply of nutrients to such plants.
Culture permeates through and across all
three broad NCP groups (fig. S1) rather than
being confined to an isolated category (the
“cultural ecosystem services” category in the
MA framework). In addition, the three broad
groups—rather than being independent
compartments, as typically framed within
the ecosystem services approach—explicitly
overlap. We distinguish them for practical
reporting reasons, acknowledging that many
of the 18 NCP categories do not fit squarely
into a single group (fig. S3). For example,
food is primarily a material NCP because
calories and nutrients are essential for physi-
A complete listing of affiliations is provided in the supplemen-
tary materials. Email: sandra.diaz@unc.edu.ar;
unai.pascual@bc3research.org
19 JANUARY 2018 • VOL 359 ISSUE 6373 271
Nature in the form of a living root bridge
in Meghalaya, India, contributes to people
by connecting both sides of the river.
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INSIGHTS |
POLICY FORUM
cal sustenance. However, food is full of sym-
bolic meaning well beyond physical survival.
Indeed, nonmaterial and material contribu-
tions are often interlinked in most, if not all,
cultural contexts (7).
Context-specif c perspective
This is the perspective typical, but not ex-
clusive, of local and indigenous knowledge
systems (represented in blue at the top of
fig. S2). In local and indigenous knowledge
systems, the production of knowledge typi-
cally does not explicitly seek to extend or vali-
date itself beyond specific geographical and
cultural contexts (14). Indeed, the context-
specific perspective on NCP often tends to
resist the scientific goal of attaining a univer-
sally applicable schema.
Although subdivision into internally con-
sistent systems of categories is common in
many local knowledge systems, a universally
applicable classification—such as the one
proposed in the generalizing perspective on
NCP (table S1)—is not currently available and
may be inappropriate because of cultural in-
commensurability and resistance to univer-
sal perspectives on human-nature relations.
The context-specific perspective may instead
present NCP as bundles that follow from dis-
tinct lived experiences such as fishing, farm-
ing, or hunting or from places, organisms, or
entities of key spiritual significance, such as
sacred trees, animals, or landscapes (11, 13).
Providing space for context-specific per-
spectives recognizes that there are multiple
ways of understanding and categorizing re-
lationships between people and nature and
avoids leaving these perspectives out of the
picture or forcing them into the 18 general-
izing NCP categories. The NCP approach
thus facilitates respectful cooperation across
knowledge systems in the co-construction of
knowledge for sustainability.
NURTURING A PARADIGM SHIFT
The NCP concept extends beyond the
highly influential yet often contested no-
tion of ecosystem services, incorporating
a number of interdisciplinary insights and
tools. Most of them were called for during
the past decade (9, 10, 12, 14) but only now
are enshrined explicitly in an environmen-
tal assessment framework.
The implementation of the NCP approach
and its reporting categories (tables S1 and S2)
is still in its infancy and is expected to be fully
fledged only in the IPBES Global Assessment,
but the NCP approach is already changing as-
sessment procedures and their outcomes. For
example, the ongoing IPBES regional assess-
ments include an unprecedented effort to tap
indigenous and local knowledge, from the
literature and also from dialogues with indig-
enous and local knowledge-holders, to which
they contributed information presented in
their own narratives. In the Europe and Cen-
tral Asia assessment, these narratives (15)
revealed complex interactions between detri-
mental (predation on livestock) and benefi-
cial NCP (carcass removal or protection by
shepherd/guard dogs) that were not consid-
ered in previous national ecosystem assess-
ments. This kind of evidence also enhanced
the confidence about the status and trends
of other NCP in cases in which the evidence
based on published literature was scarce
(such as for NCP “Supporting identities”).
In this regional assessment, it was relatively
easy to fit most narratives into the 18 catego-
ries of the generalizing perspective on NCP.
In assessing pollinators, pollination, and
food production (16), the dialogue with
local and indigenous knowledge-holders
highlighted some NCP that were defined
as practices of care gifted to people, such
as fostering pollinator nesting resources
in forests, totemic relationships requiring
reciprocal obligations between people and
pollinators, and traditional governance
that depends on ongoing presence of bees
and butterflies in the landscape (table S2)
(13). These context-specific NCP do not fit
easily in the 18 generalizing NCP categories.
Nevertheless, these knowledge sources un-
derpinned innovative strategic responses
highlighted in the main messages to pol-
icy-makers that were agreed on among all
the member countries of IPBES (16): to
strengthen traditional governance and ten-
ure systems that support pollinators, which
are critical in many places where these
systems are being eroded through rapid
industrialization.
These examples illustrate how the inter-
weaving of epistemologically diverse lines
of evidence (14) about specific subjects can
result in richer solutions for people and na-
ture, even within the context of large-scale
assessments. But regardless of the outcomes
of the assessments, the consideration of dif-
ferent knowledge systems—and the fact that
generalizing, context-specific, and mixed
perspectives are considered as equally use-
ful—matters in terms of making IPBES pro-
cedures and outcomes more equitable. This
should help overcome existing power asym-
metries between western science and in-
digenous and local knowledge, and among
different disciplines within western science,
in the science-policy interface. The NCP ap-
proach aims at coming up with products
that are better and also more legitimate and
therefore more likely to be incorporated into
policy and practice.
In addition to assessments, environ-
mental governance and associated policies
would likely increase their effectiveness
and social legitimacy by drawing on the
NCP approach. This is because it facilitates
much more than previous framings the
connection with rights-based approaches
to conservation and sustainable use of na-
ture and their implications for quality of
life. The presence of multiple worldviews
and diverse ways of expressing them in the
wording of the Convention on Biological
Diversity’s strategic plan for biodiversity
and specific objectives, such as the Aichi
Targets, further illustrates how important
inclusive framings are to the broad political
legitimacy of these international objectives
and their implementation instruments. j
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the following experts participating in IPBES
assessments: C. Anderson, P. Balvanera, B. Baptiste, N. Bennas, F.
Berkes, M. Carneiro da Cunha, C. Chenu, M.-C. Cornier-Salem, B.
Czúcz, P. Elias, B. Erasmus, S. Fennessy, J. Fisher, C. Fürst, S. Jacobs,
O. Osano, D. Pacheco, M. Potts, S. Preston, A. Purvis, A. Rajwanshi,
J. Rice , M. Rosal es-B enite s, C. S. Sei xas, M. S olan , J. Tassin , W.
Townsend, G. von Maltitz, T. Yahara, C.-Y. Yao, and Y.-C. Youn. We
thank C. Broshi, M. Colloff, H. T. Ngo, and D. Singer for useful input
during the development of this work; V. Falczuk for help with the
bibliography; and Y. Estrada for preparing the figures. S.D. was
partially supported by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, and
Fondo para la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica. U.P. was sup-
ported by the Basque Foundation for Science, IKERBASQUE.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
www.sciencemag.org/content/359/6373/270/suppl/DC1
10.1126/science.aap8826
“The NCP approach aims at
… products that are … more
likely to be incorporated into
policy and practice.”
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on January 18, 2018 http://science.sciencemag.org/Downloaded from

www.sciencemag.org/content/359/6373/270/suppl/DC1
Supplementary Material for
Assessing nature’s contributions to people
Sandra Díaz,* Unai Pascual,* Marie Stenseke, Berta Martín-López, Robert T. Watson,
Zsolt Molnár, Rosemary Hill, Kai M. A. Chan, Ivar A. Baste, Kate A. Brauman, Stephen
Polasky, Andrew Church, Mark Lonsdale, Anne Larigauderie, Paul W. Leadley,
Alexander P. E. van Oudenhoven, Felice van der Plaat, Matthias Schröter, Sandra
Lavorel, Yildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Elena Bukvareva, Kirsten Davies, Sebsebe
Demissew, Gunay Erpul, Pierre Failler, Carlos A. Guerra, Chad L. Hewitt, Hans Keune,
Sarah Lindley, Yoshihisa Shirayama
*Corresponding author. Email: sandra.diaz@unc.edu.ar (S.D.); unai.pascual@bc3research.org (U.P.)
Published 19 January 2018, Science 359, 270 (2017)
DOI: 10.1126/science.aap8826
This PDF file includes:
Supplementary Text
Figs. S1 to S3
Tables S1 and S2
References

Supplementary Materials for
Assessing nature’s contributions to people
Supplementary Text
Sandra Díaz1,2*, Unai Pascual3,4,5*, Marie Stenseke6, Berta Martín-López7, Robert T. Watson8,
Zsolt Molnár9, Rosemary Hill10, Kai M. A. Chan11, Ivar A. Baste12, Kate A. Brauman13, Stephen
Polasky14, Andrew Church15, Mark Lonsdale16, Anne Larigauderie17, Paul W. Leadley18, Alexander
P. E. van Oudenhoven19, Felice van der Plaat17, Matthias Schröter20,21, Sandra Lavorel22, Yildiz
Aumeeruddy-Thomas23, Elena Bukvareva24, Kirsten Davies25, Sebsebe Demissew26, Gunay
Erpul27, Pierre Failler28, Carlos A. Guerra21,29, Chad L. Hewitt30, Hans Keune31,32, Sarah Lindley33,
Yoshihisa Shirayama34
1 Consejo Nacional de investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto Multidisciplinario de
Biología Vegetal (IMBIV), Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Casilla de Correo 495, 5000,
Córdoba, Argentina.
2 Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales,
Departamento de Diversidad Biológica y Ecología, Córdoba, Argentina.
3 Basque Centre for Climate Change, Sede Building 1, 1st floor, Scientific Campus of the
University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Leioa 48940, Bilbao, Spain.
4 Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, María Díaz Haro, 3, 48013 Bilbao, Spain.
5 University of Cambridge, Department of Land Economy, 16-21 Silver St., Cambridge CB3 9EP,
UK.
6 Unit for Human Geography, Department of Economy and Society, School of Economics Business
and Law, University of Gothenburg, P.O. Box 625, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden.
7 Leuphana University, Faculty of Sustainability, Institute for Ethics and Transdisciplinary
Sustainability Research, Lüneburg, Scharnhorststr. 1, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany.
8 Tyndall Center Department of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, UK.
9 MTA Centre for Ecological Research Institute of Ecology and Botany, H-2163 Vácrátót,
Hungary.
10 CSIRO Land and Water and James Cook University Division of Tropical Environments &
Societies, Box 12139 Earlville BC, Cairns, Queensland, 4870 Australia.
11 Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, 2202
Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
12 The Folgefonn-Centre, Skålafjøro 17, 5470 Rosendal, Norway.
13 Institute on the Environment, University of Minnesota. 1954 Buford Ave, Suite 325, St Paul, MN
55108, USA.
14 Department of Applied Economics/Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University
of Minnesota, 1994 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108 USA.
15 School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton.
16 Monash University and Charles Darwin University.
17 IPBES Secretariat, UN Campus, Platz der Vereinten Nationen 1, D-53113 Bonn, Germany.

18 ESE Laboratory, Univ. Paris-Saclay / CNRS / AgroParisTech, 91400 Orsay, France.
19 Institute of Environmental Sciences CML, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC, Leiden,
The Netherlands.
20 UFZ – Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Department of Ecosystem Services,
Permoserstr. 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany.
21German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz
5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
22 Laboratoire d'Ecologie Alpine, CNRS - Université Grenoble Alpes, CS 40700, 38058 Grenoble
Cedex 9, France.
23 CNRS, Centre for Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, UMR5175, Biocultural Interactions
(IBC) team, 1919, route de Mende, F-34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France.
24 Biodiversity Conservation Center, ul. Vavilova, 41, office 2, Moscow, 117312, Russia.
25 Macquarie Law School, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
26 Department of Plant Biology & Biodiversity Management, College of Natural Sciences, Addis
Ababa University, P.O. Box 3434, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
27 Ankara University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 06110
Diskapi-Ankara, Turkey.
28 Blue Governance Research Group, Portsmouth business School, Universtiy of Portsmouth,
Portsmouth, PO3 1DE, UK.
29 Institute of Biology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Am Kirchtor 1, 06108, Halle
(Saale), Germany.
30 School of Science and Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240
New Zealand.
31 Belgian Biodiversity Platform - Research Institute Nature & Forest (INBO), Kliniekstraat 25,
1070 Brussels, Belgium.
32 Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610
Wilrijk, Belgium.
33 Department of Geography, School of Environment, Education and Development, University of
Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK.
34 Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima Cho,
Yokosuka City, Kanagawa 237-0061, Japan.

Supplementary figures
Fig. S1. Evolution of nature’s contributions to people (NCP) and other major categories in the
IPBES conceptual framework (1) with respect to the concepts of ecosystem services and human
wellbeing as defined in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2). Categories in grey are part of
the frameworks but not the main focus of this paper. The element “nature’s benefit to people” was
adopted by IPBES Second Plenary, and further developed into NCP by IPBES Fifth Plenary in order
to fully capture the fact that the concept includes all contributions to people, both positive (benefits)
and negative (detriments). Concepts pointed by arrow heads replace or include concepts near arrow
tails. Concepts in dotted-line boxes are no longer used: following the present view of the MA
community (3, 4), supporting ecosystem services are now components of nature or (to a lesser extent)
regulating NCP. Cultural ecosystem services was defined as a separate ecosystem service category
in the MA; IPBES instead recognizes that culture mediates the relationship between people and all
NCP. For more details of NCP according to the generalizing and conceptual perspectives, see
Figure S2 and Figure S3.
Ecosystems
Supporting
Regulating
Provisioning
Material NCP
Non-material NCP
Regulating NCP
Nature’s gifts
Nature’s contributions
to people (NCP)
Regulating
ES
Provisioning
ES
Ecosystem
services (ES)
Nature’s benets
to people
Cultural
Human wellbeing
Cultural
ES
Cultural context
Nature
MA (2005) IPBES (2013) IPBES (2017)
Context-specic
perspective
Generalizing
perspective
Biodiversity and
ecosystems
Mother Earth…
Nature
Biodiversity and
ecosystems
Mother Earth…
Good quality of life
Human
wellbeing
Living in harmony
with nature…
Good quality of life
Human
wellbeing
Living in harmony
with nature…

Generalizing perspective
Context-specic perspective
Nature
Direct drivers
Natural drivers
Good quality of life
Anthropogenic
assets
Nature’s
contributions
to people
(NCP) Institutions and
governance and other
indirect drivers
Anthropogenic
drivers
Fig. S2: Two perspectives on nature’s contributions to people (NCP). NCP is a key element of
the IPBES conceptual framework (1) (shown in simplified version on the right). NCP can be seen
through the generalizing (green, bottom), or through the context-specific perspectives (blue, top). In
the generalizing perspective, 18 NCP are distinguished and organized in three broad groups –
material, non-material and regulating– of general applicability (represented by the white-line figure
overlapping the landscape at the bottom, shown in full in Figure S3). In the context-specific
perspective such universally applicable categories are largely not meaningful; the white-line figure
overlapping the landscape at the top (a simplification of the Warlpiri perspective on nature-human
relationships) represents only one of very many possible framings of NCP; see Table S2 for
explanation and examples. Note that between the generalizing and context-specific perspectives
there are gradual transitions, rather than sharp distinctions. Depending on the context, a stakeholder
can report a specific NCP as part of any of the 18 NCP in the generalizing perspective, as part of a
bundle of context-specific NCP (see examples in Table S2) or as transitional between the two.

Fig. S3. Mapping of the 18 NCP reporting categories used in IPBES assessments onto three
broad groups distinguished within the generalizing perspective (see main text and Figure S1
and Figure S2). Most NCP straddle across groups to some degree. To indicate this, the NCP in the
material and non-material groups extend into their respective columns. The non-material dimension
of regulating NCP is not as widely recognized across cultures; therefore they are represented
as encroaching only slightly beyond their column in the Figure. Maintenance of options (NCP
18), conveys the various dimensions of the potential opportunities offered by nature, and thus
spans all three NCP groups. NCP 18 includes things such as the maintenance into the future of
all current and future NCP, embodying the capacity of nature for supporting the resilience of
ecosystems and their ability to transform to novel states and derived NCP (5-7). Explanation and
examples of all NCP are given in Table S1.
1. Habitat creation and maintenance
2. Pollination and dispersal of seeds and
other propagules
3. Regulation of air quality
4. Regulation of climate
5. Regulation of ocean acidification
6. Regulation of freshwater quantity,
location and timing
7. Regulation of freshwater and coastal water quality
8. Formation, protection and decontamination
of soils and sediments
9. Regulation of hazards and extreme events
10. Regulation of detrimental organisms
and biological processes
11. Energy
12. Food and feed
13. Materials, companionship and labor
14. Medicinal, biochemical and genetic resources
15. Learning and inspiration
16. Physical and psychological experiences
17. Supporting identities
18. Maintenance of options
Material NCP Non-material NCP Regulating NCP

Supplementary tables
Table S1. Reporting categories of nature’s contributions to people (NCP) used in IPBES
assessments according to the generalizing perspective
The 18 NCP reporting categories recommended for IPBES assessments, according to the
generalizing perspective (see main text and Figure 2). The NCP listed here are in some cases
sharply-defined contributions, and in some others represent bundles of similar contributions.
Beyond IPBES, this list of NCP is meant to be indicative, not exhaustive. The explanations,
examples and references are also illustrative. The order of NCP in the table does not denote
importance or priority. The placing of each of the 18 reporting categories in the broad groups of
material, non-material and/or regulating NCP is shown in Figure S2. The NCP are provided,
depending on the case, by particular organisms, by ecosystems, or by particular mixtures of
organisms, assembled naturally (e.g. the assemblage of pollinators in a landscape) or artificially
(e.g. a planted grove, or a plant mixture on a green roof). Note that these contributions can be
positive or negative according to the cultural and socio-economic context of the stakeholders, or
even perceived as benefits or decrements by same stakeholder group according to the spatial or
temporal context (8-11).
Reporting categories of nature’s
contributions to people
Brief explanation and some examples
1
Habitat creation and maintenance
The formation and continued production, by ecosystems or
organisms within them, of ecological conditions necessary or
favorable for living beings of direct or indirect importance to
humans. E.g. growing sites for plants (12), nesting, feeding,
and mating sites for animals, resting and overwintering areas
for migratory mammals, birds and butterflies (12, 13),
roosting places for agricultural pests and disease vectors (14),
nurseries for juvenile stages of fish (15-18), habitat creation at
different soil depths by invertebrates (19)
2
Pollination and dispersal of seeds and
other propagules
Facilitation by animals of movement of pollen among flowers
(20-22), and dispersal of seeds, larvae or spores of organisms
beneficial or harmful to humans (20, 23-28)
3
Regulation of air quality
Regulation (by impediment or facilitation) by ecosystems, of
CO2/O2 balance, O3, sulphur oxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx),
volatile organic compounds (VOC), particulates, aerosols,
allergens (29-34)
Filtration, fixation, degradation or storage of pollutants that
directly affect human health or infrastructure (35-38)
4
Regulation of climate
Climate regulation by ecosystems (including regulation of
global warming) through:
• Positive or negative effects on emissions of greenhouse
gases (e.g. biological carbon storage and sequestration;
methane emissions from wetlands) (32, 39-41)

• Positive or negative effects on biophysical feedbacks from
vegetation cover to atmosphere, such as those involving
albedo, surface roughness, long-wave radiation,
evapotranspiration (including moisture-recycling) and cloud
formation (42-46)
• Direct and indirect processes involving biogenic volatile
organic compounds (BVOC), and regulation of aerosols and
aerosol precursors by terrestrial plants and phytoplankton (46-
55)
5
Regulation of ocean acidification
Regulation, by photosynthetic organisms (on land or in water),
of atmospheric CO2 concentrations and so seawater pH, which
affects associated calcification processes by many marine
organisms important to humans (such as corals) (56-58)
6
Regulation of freshwater quantity,
location and timing (59)
Regulation, by ecosystems, of the quantity, location and
timing of the flow of surface and groundwater used for
drinking, irrigation, transport, hydropower, and as the support
of non-material contributions (NCP 15, 16, 17) (60-62)
Regulation of flow to water-dependent natural habitats that in
turn positively or negatively affect people downstream,
including via flooding (wetlands including ponds, rivers,
lakes, swamps) (63-67)
Modification of groundwater levels, which can ameliorate
dryland salinization in unirrigated landscapes (68-71)
7
Regulation of freshwater and coastal
water quality
Regulation – through filtration of particles, pathogens, excess
nutrients, and other chemicals – by ecosystems or particular
organisms, of the quality of water used directly (e.g. drinking,
swimming) or indirectly (e.g. aquatic foods, irrigated food and
fiber crops, freshwater and coastal habitats of heritage value)
(60, 72-76)
8
Formation, protection and
decontamination of soils and
sediments
Formation and long-term maintenance of soil structure and
processes by plants and soil organisms. Includes: physical
protection of soil and sediments from erosion (77, 78), and
supply of organic matter and nutrients by vegetation;
processes that underlie the continued fertility of soils
important to humans (e.g. decomposition and nutrient cycling)
(79-81); filtration, fixation, attenuation or storage of chemical
and biological pollutants (pathogens, toxics, excess nutrients)
in soils and sediments (81-85)
9
Regulation of hazards and extreme
events
Amelioration, by ecosystems, of the impacts on humans or
their infrastructure caused by e.g. floods, wind, storms,
hurricanes, heat waves, tsunamis, high noise levels, fires,
seawater intrusion, tidal waves (86-90)
Reduction or increase, by ecosystems or particular organisms,
of hazards like landslides, avalanches (91-94)
10
Regulation of detrimental organisms
and biological processes
Regulation, by organisms, of pests, pathogens, predators or
competitors that affect humans (materially and non-
materially), or plants or animals of importance for humans.
Also the direct detrimental effect of organisms on humans or
their plants, animals or infrastructure. These include e.g.:

• Control by predators or parasites of the population size of
animals important to humans, such as attacks by large
carnivores (95-98), or infestation by liver fluke, on game or
livestock) (99, 100)
• Regulation (by impediment or facilitation) of the abundance
or distribution of potentially harmful organisms (e.g.
venomous, toxic, allergenic, predators, parasites, competitors,
pathogens, agricultural weeds and pests, disease vectors and
reservoirs) over the landscape or seascape (101-107)
• Removal, by scavengers, of animal carcasses and
human corpses (e.g. vultures in Zoroastrian and some
Tibetan Buddhist traditions) (108-111)
• Biological impairment and degradation of infrastructure (e.g.
damage by pigeons, bats, termites, strangling figs to buildings)
(112-114)
• Direct physical damage to crops, forest plantations,
livestock, poultry and fisheries by mammals, birds and reptiles
(96, 97)
• Damage caused by invertebrates as pests of
agriculture, horticulture, forest, and stored products, and
by affecting health of domestic animals (115-117)
• Direct damage caused by organisms to humans by e.g.
frightening, hurting, killing, or transmitting diseases (96)
• Regulation of the human immune system by a diverse
environmental microbiota (118)
11
Energy
Production of biomass-based fuels, such as biofuel crops,
animal waste, fuelwood, agricultural residue pellets, peat
(119-123)
12
Food and feed
Production of food from wild , managed, or domesticated
organisms, such as fish, bushmeat and edible invertebrates,
beef, poultry, game, dairy products, edible crops, wild plants,
mushrooms, honey (22, 124-138)
Production of feed (forage and fodder) for domesticated
animals (e.g. livestock, work and support animals, pets) or for
aquaculture, from the same sources (127, 128, 130, 139, 140)
13
Materials, companionship and labor
Production of materials derived from organisms in cultivated
or wild ecosystems, for construction, clothing, printing,
ornamental purposes (e.g. wood, peat, fibers, waxes, paper,
resins, dyes, pearls, shells, coral branches) (119, 128, 141-
146)
Live organisms being directly used for decoration (i.e.
ornamental plants, birds, fish in households and public
spaces), company (e.g. pets), transport, and labor (including
herding, searching, guidance, guarding) (141, 147-157)
14
Medicinal, biochemical and genetic
resources
Production of materials derived from organisms (plants,
animals, fungi, microbes) used for medicinal, veterinary and
pharmacological (e.g. poisonous, psychoactive) purposes.
Production of genes and genetic information used for plant
and animal breeding and biotechnology (12, 158-164)

15
Learning and inspiration
Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of
opportunities for the development of the capabilities that
allow humans to prosper through education, acquisition of
knowledge and development of skills for well-being,
information, and inspiration for art and technological design
(e.g. biomimicry) (165-174)
16
Physical and psychological
experiences
Provision, by landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms, of
opportunities for physically and psychologically beneficial
activities, healing, relaxation, recreation, leisure, tourism and
aesthetic enjoyment based on the close contact with nature
(e.g. hiking, recreational hunting and fishing, birdwatching,
snorkeling, diving, gardening) (175-187)
17
Supporting identities
Landscapes, seascapes, habitats or organisms being the basis
for religious, spiritual, and social-cohesion experiences:
• Provisioning of opportunities by nature for people to
develop a sense of place, belonging, rootedness or
connectedness, associated with different entities of the living
world (e. g. cultural, sacred and heritage landscapes, sounds,
scents and sights associated with childhood experiences,
iconic animals, trees or flowers) (187-198)
• Basis for narratives, rituals and celebrations provided by
landscapes, seascapes, habitats, species or organisms (13, 21,
169, 188, 189, 191, 199)
• Source of satisfaction derived from knowing that a parti-
cular landscape, seascape, habitat or species exists (200, 201)
18
Maintenance of options (202)
Capacity of ecosystems, habitats, species or genotypes to keep
options open in order to support a good quality of life.
Examples include:
•Benefits (including those of future generations) associated
with the continued existence of a wide variety of species,
populations and genotypes. This includes their contributions
to the resilience and resistance of ecosystem properties in the
face of environmental change and variability (6, 7, 203-206)
•Future benefits (or threats) derived from keeping options
open for yet unknown discoveries and unanticipated uses of
particular organisms or ecosystems that already exist (e.g. new
medicines or materials) (5)
•Future benefits (or threats) that may be anticipated from on-
going biological evolution (e.g. adaptation to a warmer
climate, to emergent diseases, development of resistance to
antibiotics and other control agents by pathogens and weeds)
(5, 207)

Table S2: Two examples of nature’s contributions to people (NCP) reporting categories,
according to the context-specific perspective
In addressing NCP within the context of knowledge systems other than physical, natural and
economic sciences, the 18 generalizing categories of Table S1 are often not applicable. This is
typical, but not exclusive (e.g. (208) of the knowledge systems of indigenous peoples and local
communities. Instead different categories or more holistic relationships through practices are
recognized. In some cases, relationships between nature and people are highly reciprocal, with
NCP arising from practices of mutual care (13, 209-211). The two examples below are illustration
of the diverse ways in which NCP are framed in different cultural contexts. Note that this
perspective and the generalizing perspective are not mutually exclusive; they often blend and
interweave (212-215).
Example 1 - Categories used to recognize context-specific NCP in the IPBES Pollination
Assessment (21)
In the IPBES Pollination Assessment, engagement with ILK-holders led to part of NCP being
framed as “gifts” to both people and biota, through “practices” that link people and pollinators in
ongoing reciprocal relationships. ILK-holders explained how pollination processes are understood,
celebrated and managed holistically through fostering fertility, fecundity, spirituality and diversity;
see (21) for full referencing.
How NCP is
framed to suit
this context
The categories
used for analysis
of NCP in this
context
Examples/description
Practices (for
and with
pollinators)
gifted to
indigenous
peoples and
local
communities
Practices of
valuing diversity
and fostering
biocultural
diversity
Kawaiwete people in the southern Amazon perceive that the
spiritual entity who protects stingless bees will inflict “bee illness”
on those who do not show respect and observe silence when
collecting honey; they identify 37 stingless bee species and protect
28 forest tree species used for nesting as well as 19 other plant
species used for food by these bees.
Landscape
management
practices
Seven practices were identified:
i. Taboos that protect pollinators and pollinator resources;
ii. Kinship relationships that protect pollinators and
pollination resources;
iii. Mental maps and animal behaviour knowledge as
management practices;
iv. Fire management to enhance pollination resources;
v. Manipulation of pollination resources in different seasons
and landscape patches;
vi. Biotemporal indicators for management actions;
vii. Providing pollinator nesting resources.
Diversified
farming systems
Four types of diversified farming systems that influence
agrobiodiversity, pollinators and pollination were identified:
i. Shifting cultivation (e.g. Milpa systems in central
America);
ii. Home gardens (e.g. Mesoamerican home gardens contain
some 811 cultivated species);
iii. Commodity agroforestry (e.g. shade coffee systems
provide habitat for bird pollinators);
iv. Farming of semi-domesticated and domesticated bees.

Example 2 - How Warlpiri understand nature’s contributions to people ((191)
For the Warlpiri people, nature’s contributions to people are understood in terms of Ngurra-kurlu, roughly
translated as “from country” or “country within people”. In Aboriginal English, a person’s land, sea, sky,
rivers, sites, seasons, plants and animals; place of heritage, belonging and spirituality; is called “country”
(216). The term Ngurra-kurlu reflects the fundamental Warlpiri perspective of reciprocity between people
and country. In this context, people and country are one body Palka. The image embedded in the first
column represents Ngurra-kurlu, Warlpiri people's understanding of how country contributes to people and
vice-versa (painting by Daniel Rockman Jupurrurla, from Ref. (191), reproduced under the Creative
Commons license).
How NCP are
framed to suit this
context
The categories
used for analysis
in this context
Examples/description
Ngurra-kurlu
meaning “from
country”. “This
ngurra-kurlu is
palka: he got his
own heart, he’s got
his own kidney, he’s
got his own liver. If
you take one of them
away, his whole
body will drop”
Law
The Law provides the guidelines, the knowledge, beliefs,
practices, rules and regulations. “The law is a serious thing
and it needs to be followed…Wawirri (red kangaroo) is a
symbol of the Law. Men cooking a kangaroo is a serious
thing”
Skin
“Skin” groups connect people with each other and with
nature through obligations and responsibilities; for example
different skin groups have responsibility for Emu
dreaming, Emu song lines, Emu ceremony and thereby the
Emu.
Ceremony
Many types of ceremony are needed for ngurra-kurlu to
function properly – public and secret rituals of women and
men separately; atonement and reconciliation ceremonies;
initiation. Ceremony supports the healthy functioning of
people and country.
Language
Language encodes the unique Warlpiri worldview
“language is like a tree, it makes you stand firm in
country”. There is skin language, land language, ceremony
language, law language. People change their language to
show respect, to show the messages of sacred objects and
designs.
Country
Country is in the middle of the Ngurra-kurlu template and
links everything; it is home.

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DOI: 10.1126/science.aap8826
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