ArticleLiterature Review

The contribution of predators and scavengers to human well-being

January 2018
Nature Ecology & Evolution 2(2):229-236

DOI:10.1038/s41559-017-0421-2

Authors:

Christopher J. O'Bryan

The University of Queensland

Alexander Braczkowski

Griffith University

Neil Henderson Carter

University of Michigan

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Predators and scavengers are frequently persecuted for their negative effects on property, livestock and human life. Research has shown that these species play important regulatory roles in intact ecosystems including regulating herbivore and mesopredator populations that in turn affect floral, soil and hydrological systems. Yet predators and scavengers receive surprisingly little recognition for their benefits to humans in the landscapes they share. We review these benefits, highlighting the most recent studies that have documented their positive effects across a range of environments. Indeed, the benefits of predators and scavengers can be far reaching, affecting human health and well-being through disease mitigation, agricultural production and waste-disposal services. As many predators and scavengers are in a state of rapid decline, we argue that researchers must work in concert with the media, managers and policymakers to highlight benefits of these species and the need to ensure their long-term conservation. Furthermore, instead of assessing the costs of predators and scavengers only in economic terms, it is critical to recognize their beneficial contributions to human health and well-being. Given the ever-expanding human footprint, it is essential that we construct conservation solutions that allow a wide variety of species to persist in shared landscapes. Identifying, evaluating and communicating the benefits provided by species that are often considered problem animals is an important step for establishing tolerance in these shared spaces.

Ecosystem services provided by striped hyenas in the human-dominated landscape of Rajasthan, India

Article

Aug 2023
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

In human-dominated landscapes, quantifying ecosystem services in terms of economic benefits could contribute to establishing peaceful coexistence between humans and large carnivores. In this study, we estimated the monetary value of scavenging benefits provided by striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) in an anthropogenic landscape in the semi-arid region of Rajasthan, India. We converted the value of domestic livestock carcasses consumed by striped hyenas from opportunity costs to quantify the value of this important ecosystem service to local people. We determined the monetary value of carcass disposals using two methods, including (1) electric cremation, and (2) pyre burning of animal carcasses. To determine the minimum number of striped hyenas, present in the study area, we employed a photo-capture approach, and we used scat analysis to determine the livestock consumed by striped hyenas. We estimated that striped hyenas removed 23.13 tons (4.4 %) of livestock carcass waste from the total of 525.68 tons of waste generated per year in the Intensive Study Area (ISA). The annual monetary value of livestock carcass waste removal by striped hyenas in the ISA was estimated to be ~US$ 7095 for electric cremation and US$ 49,665 for pyre burning. Our study demonstrates the economic benefit of scavenging services provided by striped hyenas in areas where anthropogenic food is abundant. In such areas, as hyenas scavenge anthropogenic food, local communities benefit from waste management. Using alternative carcass disposal methods without striped hyenas would be expensive and likely environmentally damaging.

Different strategies adopted by birds to sustain ecosystem: A review

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Different types of ecosystem and ecological resources related to them signify their preponderance to mankind. Ecosystem maintains the balance between mankind and other organisms by exerting direct or indirect influence on environment. Birds are most crucial and inseparable components of the earth's ecosystem and play several roles like pollinators, seed dispersers, predators, scavengers etc. and contribute to all the four ecosystem services viz. provisioning, regulation, cultural and supporting services as defined by the United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. The global loss of avian population implies reduction in ecosystem services and hence affecting the human life. The contribution of birds in our economy and maintenance of sustainable ecosystem remains unaccountable due to lack of information on their ecological value and tangible benefits. The complete evaluation of all the services rendered by avian fauna helps us to understand their significance in ecosystem sustainability and crucial role they play in human's life. The outcomes of scientific study on crucial role of birds to sustain different types of ecosystem will help the public and policy makers to understand the consequences of diminution in bird's population and spreading awareness about their conservation.

The distribution and status of large carnivores within the Panthera Intensive Protection Zone, Luengue-Luiana National Park, Angola

Technical Report

Aug 2022

The distribution and status of large carnivores within the Panthera Intensive Protection Zone, Luengue-Luiana National Park, Angola

Black-and-chestnut eagle (Spizaetus isidori) in socio-ecological systems: conservation implications / El Águila Poma (Spizaetus isidori) en sistemas socio-ecológicos: implicancias para su conservación

Thesis

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Santiago Zuluaga

Humans benefit from processes/services provided by predators and scavengers in ecosystems while at the same time they may suffer conflicts/disservices from them. Therefore, the conservation of predators and scavengers can benefit from applying interdisciplinary approaches that consider and connect the processes/services and conflicts/disservices that humans may receive from these animals. Although that approach has already been used quite a bit with terrestrial predators and scavengers, there is very little interdisciplinary research on flying predators and scavengers such as raptors. This thesis seeks to explore the socio-ecological factors that affect human-raptor relationships, evaluating the particular case of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) throughout its distribution, in order to propose specific conservation measures. The first specific goal (Chapter 1) was to assess viewpoints of the experts in raptor conservation about the main ecosystem processes/services and conflicts/disservices that raptors provide to humans and to know the main strategies that experts consider effective for management these species in the wild. For this, we conducted an online survey among raptor conservation experts from which we obtained 87 responses from six continents (i.e. North America, South America, Africa, Asia, Europe and Australia). We found that the viewpoints of the experts in raptor conservation around the world are biased towards the acceptance of processes/services rather than the acceptance of conflicts/disservices that raptors provide to humans. Nocturnal raptors (i.e. owls) were considered the species that provide most ecosystem processes/services (73%, 8 of 11), followed by vultures and condors (55%, 6 of 11), finally hawks and eagles and falcons (45%, 5 of 11 each one). According to experts, hawks and eagles were involved in the highest number of conflicts/disservices (37.5%, 3 of 8), vultures and condors and owls were involved in only one (12.5%, 1 de 8), respectively, while falcons were not involved in conflicts/disservices. Additionally, experts agreed on five management strategies that they believe are effective for promoting the conservation of raptors in the wild: two of these consider the participation of several social actors (i.e. bottom-up governance) and the rest are measures taken by governments (i.e. top-down governance). The second specific goal (Chapter 2) was to assess the home range, mortality and habitat selection of the Black-and-chestnut-Eagle during natal dispersal in fragmented landscapes of tropical and subtropical Andean Montane Forests. We captured six fledglings in four nests (three in Colombia and one in Argentina) of three populations of the species, which were equipped with GPS transmitters with data download via GSM cell phone network (i.e. GPS/GSM loggers). From 20 months of age, mortality was very high (67%, 4 of 6), so we restricted the analyses to the first year of natal dispersal (i.e. between 8 and 20 months of age). We found that the home range of juveniles in the first year of natal dispersal is large (media ~996 km2; DE ± 606; rango = 294-2130 km2). During the process of natal dispersal, juveniles move through fragmented landscapes where, they consistently selected areas with a higher percentage of forest cover, higher slopes and medium altitudes with respect to availability. Although juveniles show some level of tolerance for moving through fragmented habitat, the mortality rate was very high. It is therefore suggested that in order to maintain viable populations and the key ecosystem processes/services provided by this top predator in the tropical and subtropical Andean forests of South America, we need to mitigate the causes of non-natural mortality. The third specific goal (Chapter 3) was to examine the socio-ecological context that exacerbates the human-eagle conflict in rural communities of the eastern Andes of Colombia. We conducted 172 surveys in 20 rural communities and estimated the proportion of forest cover on each rural community (i.e. amount of remaining native forest), human density, and annual losses of domestic birds due to the Black-and-chestnut Eagle, among other socio-demographic parameters (i.e. economic activity, domestic fowl ownership, age, education, gender, etc.). We found that tolerance decreases when forest cover, human density, and annual losses of domestic birds are greater. This can make the Black-and-chestnut Eagle more vulnerable to extirpation in rural communities where forest remnants are larger. The integration of socio-ecological information allowed us to identify the rural communities with higher human-eagle conflict and thus where the conservation measures should be implemented. The fourth specific goal (Chapter 4) was to analyze how the contributions of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle to people (perceived and real) and governance (national and local) affect the human-top predator conflict with this species in the Neotropics. The ultimate goal of governance is to manage individual behaviors and collective actions for the sustainable use of natural resources through environmental management. For this reason, this is a factor of great importance to managing human-predator conflicts. We conducted 282 surveys in rural communities around 27 nesting sites of the species in Colombia and Ecuador. We found that people's tolerance towards the eagle was negatively related to detriments (perceived and real) and disapproval of governance at the local level, but there was no influence of governance at the country level. Less than a half (40%) of interviewees disapproved of governance management at the local level. A high percentage of people showed high tolerance towards the eagle (41.13%), followed by people with a neutral position (35.46%) and finally those who indicated a low tolerance (23.41%). However, we documented human persecution of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle in most of the sampled nests (59%, 16 of 27) and in all of the assessed geographic jurisdictions. Our results suggest that systems with poor governance in other Neotropical countries, could also be negatively affecting human-predator conflicts there. In general, each thesis chapter sought to address different socio-ecological factors that affect human-raptor relationships. These factors have historically been best known to terrestrial predators but are very little known in raptors. Therefore, the main contribution of this thesis is to provide new evidence on the importance of implementing interdisciplinary approaches to address conflicts involving raptors as the main aerial predators and scavengers in terrestrial systems. These approaches, considering the multiplicity of socio-ecological factors that interact in human-raptor relationships, increase our ability to inform decision-making and implementation of management measures, therefore, they are essential if we are to develop and implement effective conservation policies for these species in the Anthropocene.

Necrophagy and Marine Megafauna Predation By Sharks in a Hotspot in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Records concerning marine megafauna (e.g., cetaceans, pinnipeds, seabirds, and sea turtles) predation and scavenging events by sharks are scarce along the Brazilian coast. Although Brazil is noteworthy as one of the main global hotspots regarding elasmobranch functional diversity, endemism and diversity, studies on the food biology of this group have been carried out for less than a third of this taxonomic group, even though biology and feeding ecology assessments for shark species from the Brazilian coast are extremely valuable from a global perspective and should be encouraged. In this context, this study records unprecedented ecological predation and necrophagy interactions between sharks and different zoological vertebrate groups through the analysis of several marine megafauna carcasses found stranded on the beaches of the southern coast of Bahia, in northeastern Brazil, between 2005 and 2020. The implications of these records in furthering knowledge concerning the life history of the species involved in each interaction are discussed in a context of scarcity of scientific marine ecology data for this Brazilian coast area.

Human impacts on the world’s raptors

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Raptors are emblematic of the global biodiversity crisis because one out of five species are threatened with extinction and over half have declining populations due to human threats. Yet our understanding of where these “threats” impact raptor species is limited across terrestrial Earth. This is concerning because raptors, as apex predators, are critically positioned in ecological food webs, and their declining populations can undermine important ecosystem services ranging from pest control to disease regulation. Here, we map the distribution of 15 threats within the known ranges of 172 threatened and near threatened raptor species globally as declared by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. We analyze the proportion of each raptor range that is exposed to threats, identify global hotspots of impacted raptor richness, and investigate how human impacts on raptors vary based on several intrinsic (species traits) and extrinsic factors. We find that humans are potentially negatively affecting at least one threatened raptor species across three quarters of Earth’s terrestrial area (78%; 113 million km ² ). Our results also show that raptors have 66% of their range potentially impacted by threats on average (range 2.7–100%). Alarmingly, critically endangered species have 90% of their range impacted by threats on average. We also highlight 57 species (33%) of particular concern that have > 90% of their ranges potentially impacted. Without immediate conservation intervention, these 57 species, including the most heavily impacted Forest Owlet ( Athene blewitti ), the Madagascar Serpent-eagle ( Eutriorchis astur ), and the Rufous Fishing-owl ( Scotopelia ussheri ), will likely face extinction in the near future. Global “hotspots” of impacted raptor richness are ubiquitous, with core areas of threat in parts of the Sahel and East Africa where 92% of the assessed raptors are potentially impacted per grid cell (10 species on average), and in Northern India where nearly 100% of raptors are potentially impacted per grid cell (11 species). Additionally, “coolspots” of unimpacted richness that represent refuges from threats occur in Greenland and Canada, where 98 and 58% of raptors are potentially unimpacted per grid cell, respectively (nearly one species on average), Saharan Africa, where 21% of raptors are potentially unimpacted per grid cell (one species on average), and parts of the Amazon, where 12% of raptors are potentially unimpacted per grid cell (0.6 species on average). The results provide essential information to guide conservation planning and action for the world’s imperiled raptors.

Do anthropogenic sources of food increase livestock predation in the area surrounding Ruaha National Park?

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

Wild carnivores are threatened by human activities, particularly by lethal responses to livestock predation. As natural prey populations decline, predation of livestock and consumption of discarded livestock ‘waste’ (carcasses and body parts) should increase. We investigated whether parameters linked to the production of livestock waste affected the likelihood of livestock predation. We interviewed 160 households near Ruaha National Park in Tanzania to obtain information on households, livestock ownership, predation and parameters linked to livestock waste production. Our analysis identified parameters that affected the likelihood of predation on cattle, sheep and goats. When these parameters were controlled for, we found an increased likelihood of cattle predation as waste from diseased and slaughtered cattle increased. Sheep predation was more likely and cattle predation was less likely as sheep deaths from starvation increased. Goat predation was more likely in medium-sized than smaller or larger villages, suggesting a trade-off to predators between the increasing benefit of more livestock waste and the costs of higher human disturbance and diminishing natural prey abundance as village size category increased. Our findings suggest that improved disposal of livestock waste from slaughtered cattle and measures to decrease cattle deaths from disease should reduce predation of highly prized cattle.

Contextualizing carnivores illegal hunting and opportunities for livestock-predator coexistence from nonlethal practices and ranchers' attitudes

Article

Sep 2023
BIOL CONSERV

The World's Most Imperiled Raptors Present Substantial Conservation Challenges

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

Potential extinction of raptor species is especially important given their outsized roles in ecosystems and human cultures. We examined Red List data for raptor species listed as critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Our goal was to highlight the plight of these critically endangered raptor species while identifying the reasons for their imperiled status, the most important countries for their conservation, and the actions needed for their persistence. We categorized the 17 critically endangered raptor species into two groups—Accipitrid vultures and species with small populations. Accipitrid vultures had relatively large populations and ranges, and were listed under Criterion A due to precipitous population declines. The threat listed for the most Accipitrid vultures was “pollution,” reflecting poisoning as the principal cause of declines. Conversely, the small population species were listed under Criteria C and D and were most threatened by “agriculture and aquaculture.” Countries in Africa and south Asia were hotspots of critically endangered raptors. The conservation action listed for the most species was “education and awareness” followed by “land protection” and “law and policy.” The most-listed monitoring category was “population trends.” The Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures should be implemented to prevent extinction of Accipitrid vultures. Conversely, species with small populations are generally isolated and must be managed individually. Conservation of the world's most imperiled raptor species is an important facet of assuaging the sixth mass extinction.

Using the centre-periphery framework to explore human-carnivore relations

Article

Jul 2023

Living alongside carnivores can incur both costs and benefits on people's lifeways. While positive outcomes of carnivore presence can foster coexistence, negative relations with carnivores can trigger carnivores' killing and undermine their conservation. In response to this, conservation efforts increasingly focus on promoting positive human-carnivore relations, most often through improvements in the flow of economic benefits from carnivores to local communities. However, there is a question mark over the effectiveness and potential consequences of market-based instruments for carnivore conservation. To understand the opportunities and pitfalls of market-based instruments for carnivore conservation, we use a centre-periphery framework to compare human-carnivore relations in two pastoral systems with uneven market-based conservation efforts across Kenya. We conducted 230 semi-structured interviews on costs and benefits, mitigation strategies and self-reported propensity to kill carnivores. Our study shows how different human-carnivore relations are enacted in areas with uneven market-based conservation efforts. We found that the extent to which benefits are attributed to alive carnivores is largely shaped by the existence of market-based conservation efforts in the area. Our results also document an openly self-reported propensity to kill carnivores in places where market-based conservation efforts are meagre at best. A more robust understanding of the effectiveness of market-based instruments for carnivore conservation is essential to sustain positive human-carnivore relations into the future.

Spatial and seasonal variation of livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Pamir Mountains of northern Pakistan

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

Abstract The livestock depredation by large carnivores is a main cause for increasing human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) and is one of the prime challenges for carnivore's conservation and a major economic concern to livestock‐dependent communities around wildlife habitats. Thus, understanding the patterns and trends of livestock depredation may contribute to better understanding of the mechanisms underlying HWCs and to mitigating HWCs. HWCs characterized by livestock depredation by large carnivores are prevalent in northern Pakistan, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly investigated. This study was conducted in 2018 in the Khunjerab Valley and Shimshal Valley of the Pamir region to evaluate the spatial and seasonal variation and impact of livestock depredation by carnivores. Data were collected on livestock depredation and its associated economic impact through semi‐structured interviews of randomly selected households in the two valleys. The livestock in Shimshal Valley was more susceptible to large carnivores’ depredation (233 heads per year) than in Khunjerab Valley (125 heads per year). This spatial variation in livestock depredation was reflective of the difference in the socio‐economic conditions and physical locations between the two valleys. More livestock depredation took place in winter in Khunjerab Valley, while more livestock depredation occurred in summer in Shimshal Valley, mainly because of different grazing systems in the two valleys. The total economic loss incurred due to large carnivores’ depredation was US$ 76,063 in Shimshal Valley, as compared to US$ 34,175 in Khunjerab Valley in 2018. The average economic loss per household was US$ 950.8, accounting for nearly 30% of the household annual income in Shimshal Valley in 2018. A higher proportion of participants in Shimshal Valley (83%) in comparison to Khunjerab Valley (69%) expressed a negative attitude towards wild carnivores. The study concludes that Shimshal Valley, remotely located and having comparatively marginal income opportunities, was more reliant on agro‐pastoralism and thus more vulnerable to the economic repercussions of livestock depredation by wild carnivores. Thus, such measures as improvement in road transportation and livestock management are in urgent need to better manage HWCs in Shimshal Valley.

Responses of ground-dwelling birds and mammals to local environmental variables and human pressure in an Amazonian protected area

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023
EUR J WILDLIFE RES

Vertebrates play key roles as seed dispersers, herbivores, and top predators in tropical ecosystems. Therefore, obtaining population estimates for these species and understanding the factors that affect them are essential for wildlife management since changes in their populations have consequences for entire ecosystems. Vertebrate abundances in tropical forest may be related to habitat characteristics, resource seasonality, and human pressure. However, how ecological variables and human pressure concurrently influence animal abundances is not well understood. We investigated the associations between the number of records of vertebrates (ground-dwelling birds and medium- and large-sized mammals) and habitat features, food availability, and human pressure in a sustainable protected area in the Brazilian Amazon of western Pará, Brazil. Our study design included the recording of animals at 38 camera trap stations, sampling of environmental variables (canopy cover, leaf area index, tree height, and local altitude) and food resources (fruit or prey biomass), and measurement of a hunting pressure proxy (distance from human settlements). Our results indicated that groups responded in different ways: omnivorous mammals were affected positively by local altitude, canopy openness, and leaf area index; game birds were affected positively by local altitude and leaf area index; ungulates were affected negatively by local altitude and positively by food resources; and large rodents were affected only by food resources (positively). In contrast, insectivorous mammals and mesopredators were not affected by any variable we tested. Surprisingly, no groups responded to distance from human access, although the low number of records of large species, such Tapirus terrestris and Dicotyles tajacu, suggests that the sampled area may suffer from significant hunting pressure.

Modeling global habitat suitability and environmental predictor of distribution of a Near Threatened avian scavenger at a high spatial resolution

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2023

Vultures are among the most vulnerable birds in the world. The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) is among the threatened species of vultures and listed as Near Threatened. The species is widely distributed across the Palearctic, Afrotropical, and Indomalayan regions. The species faces several threats such as poisoning, direct persecution, habitat degradation, and collisions with powerlines and wind power farms. Thus, knowing the global habitat suitability of the species and environmental predictors of the species distribution can facilitate the species conservation. In this study, we applied a maximum entropy approach, 10,585 distribution records, and 10 environmental variables to model the bearded vulture's global habitat suitability at high spatial resolution [30-arc-second (1 km)]. We also estimated protected area coverage for the species' suitable habitats. We identified 8,117,231 km2 of suitable habitat for the species across its global range in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The results showed that topographic diversity is the most important predictor of the species distribution across its distribution range. Results of estimating the area of suitable habitats of the bearded vulture within protected areas revealed that only 16.26% of the species' suitable habitats are protected. The areas that were identified to have the highest suitability for the species have high priority for the conservation of this iconic species thus these areas should be included in the network of protected areas.

Seroprevalence of canine distemper virus (CDV) in the free-roaming dog (Canis familiaris) population surrounding Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Article

Mar 2023

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a global multi-host pathogen that is capable of causing considerable mortality in a range of species and is important in the field of conservation medicine. Nepal’s Chitwan National Park is a protected area providing habitat for 32% of the country’s mammal species including endangered carnivores such as the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) that are susceptible to CDV. The presence of free-roaming dogs around protected areas could represent a source of infectious disease for transmission to local wildlife. A cross-sectional demographic and canine distemper virus seroprevalence study of 100 freeroaming dogs from the Chitwan National Park buffer zone and surrounding area was conducted in November 2019. The overall seroprevalence indicating past exposure to canine distemper virus was 80.0% (95% CI: 70.8–87.3). Of the host variables assessed, sex and age were positively associated with seroprevalence at the univariable level, with male dogs demonstrating lower seroprevalence than females (OR = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.11–0.91) and adult dogs demonstrating higher seroprevalence than juveniles (OR = 13.94, 95% CI: 1.37– 142.29). The effect of sex was no longer significant at the multivariable level, but the direction of the effect remained the same. The effect of age remained significant after multivariable analysis (OR = 9.00, 95% CI: 1.03–192.75). No spatial associations were demonstrated in relation to the buffer zone area or boundary of Chitwan National Park. Free-roaming dog neutering and vaccination programmes can provide a useful baseline for future CDV studies in the region, and a proxy to monitor disease threats to susceptible wildlife.

Seroprevalence of canine distemper virus (CDV) in the free-roaming dog (Canis familiaris) population surrounding Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023
PLOS ONE

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a global multi-host pathogen that is capable of causing considerable mortality in a range of species and is important in the field of conservation medicine. Nepal's Chitwan National Park is a protected area providing habitat for 32% of the country's mammal species including endangered carnivores such as the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) that are susceptible to CDV. The presence of free-roaming dogs around protected areas could represent a source of infectious disease for transmission to local wildlife. A cross-sectional demographic and canine distemper virus seroprevalence study of 100 free-roaming dogs from the Chitwan National Park buffer zone and surrounding area was conducted in November 2019. The overall seroprevalence indicating past exposure to canine distemper virus was 80.0% (95% CI: 70.8-87.3). Of the host variables assessed, sex and age were positively associated with seroprevalence at the univariable level, with male dogs demonstrating lower seroprevalence than females (OR = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.11-0.91) and adult dogs demonstrating higher seroprevalence than juveniles (OR = 13.94, 95% CI: 1.37-142.29). The effect of sex was no longer significant at the multivariable level, but the direction of the effect remained the same. The effect of age remained significant after multivariable analysis (OR = 9.00, 95% CI: 1.03-192.75). No spatial associations were demonstrated in relation to the buffer zone area or boundary of Chitwan National Park. Free-roaming dog neutering and vaccination programmes can provide a useful baseline for future CDV studies in the region, and a proxy to monitor disease threats to susceptible wildlife.

The unequal burden of human-wildlife conflict

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

Human-wildlife conflict is one of the most pressing sustainable development challenges globally. This is particularly the case where ecologically and economically important wildlife impact the livelihoods of humans. Large carnivores are one such group and their co-occurrence with low-income rural communities often results in real or perceived livestock losses that place increased costs on already impoverished households. Here we show the disparities associated with the vulnerability to conflict arising from large carnivores on cattle (Bos taurus) globally. Across the distribution of 18 large carnivores, we find that the economic vulnerability to predation losses (as measured by impacts to annual per capita income) is between two and eight times higher for households in transitioning and developing economies when compared to developed ones. This potential burden is exacerbated further in developing economies because cattle keepers in these areas produce on average 31% less cattle meat per animal than in developed economies. In the lowest-income areas, our estimates suggest that the loss of a single cow or bull equates to nearly a year and a half of lost calories consumed by a child. Finally, our results show that 82% of carnivore range falls outside protected areas, and five threatened carnivores have over one third of their range located in the most economically sensitive conflict areas. This unequal burden of human-carnivore conflict sheds light on the importance of grappling with multiple and conflicting sustainable development goals: protecting life on land and eliminating poverty and hunger.

Behavior of Wild Pigs toward Conspecific Carcasses: Implications for Disease Transmission in a Hot, Semiarid Climate

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023
TRANSBOUND EMERG DIS

Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are a prolific, invasive species in the United States of America and act as vectors for many pathogens. An emerging pathogen of concern to the USA is African swine fever (ASF), a deadly viral disease affecting swine that is endemic to Africa and has spread to parts of Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. ASF affects both wild and domesticated pigs and can be transmitted via several avenues, including interactions between and consumption of dead pigs by their live conspecifics. As wild pigs are considered a serious threat in the transmission of ASF, understanding the behavior of wild pigs towards their dead conspecifics is imperative when considering the transmission of ASF and other diseases in the USA. We placed camera traps at a sample of wild pig carcasses dispatched during four aerial shooting events between November, 2020, and June, 2022, at East Foundation’s San Antonio Viejo Ranch, South Texas. We recorded visitation events to carcasses by live wild pigs and recorded their behavior. Furthermore, we assessed daily carcass decomposition rates by visiting carcass sites without cameras. We found no evidence of cannibalism and recorded live wild pig visitations to only 33% of carcasses before advanced stages of decomposition were reached. Carcass decomposition was rapid (2.5 to 3 days), regardless of season, and the time to the first visitation and investigation of carcasses by live conspecifics was quicker than has been recorded in Europe. We posit that active scavenger guilds at our study site, coupled with high temperatures, result in the rapid decomposition of wild pig carcasses, which reduces opportunities for live wild pigs to interact with them when compared to milder climates. We suggest additional research investigating the persistence of ASF in hot, arid climates and the interactions between live pigs and the skeletonized remains of conspecifics.

Selección de sitios de anidación por el águila real Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus, 1758) (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) en Janos, Chihuahua, México

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

El conocimiento sobre la selección de sitios de anidación en aves rapaces es uno de los factores críticos para realizar cualquier manejo de una población para su conservación. El águila real generalmente elige paredes de roca para anidar, y esta selección está influenciada por las características naturales y antrópicas del paisaje. En México el estudio del águila real es importante debido a que tiene un valor cultural por ser un símbolo patrio y biológico por regular las poblaciones de sus presas, además, se encuentra listada en la Norma Oficial Mexicana 059-SEMARNAT-2010 en la categoría de amenazada y existe escasa información científica publicada sobre su ecología y biología en nuestro país. Por ello, se elaboró un estudio que determinó las variables de hábitat que influyen en los patrones de selección de sitios de anidación del águila real en Janos, Chihuahua. Se buscaron sitios de anidación de águila real y sitios semejantes sin presencia de la especie para tomar los datos de dichas variables; con esta información se analizaron los datos a través de modelos lineales generalizados, tomando como variable de respuesta la presencia y ausencia de nidos y las características del hábitat de los sitios como variables predictoras.

Spatially explicit population estimates of African leopards and spotted hyenas in the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area of southwestern Uganda

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

African leopards (Panthera pardus pardus) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are data deficient across much of Africa, and there are only a handful of recent population estimates for these species from Uganda. This has conservation ramifications, as both species are important for wildlife tourism, and leopards are hunted for sport in several regions adjacent to national parks as part of a government-led revenue-sharing scheme to foster increased tolerance of wildlife. We ran a single-season camera-trap survey in each of the northern and southern sections of the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area (2400 km 2), Uganda's second largest national park. We applied spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models to estimate the population density and abundance of leopards and spotted hyenas in the northern Mweya and Kasenyi plains area, and the southern Ishasha sector. Leopard densities were estimated to be 5.03 (95% Highest Posterior Density, HPD = 2.80-7.63) and 4.31 (95% HPD = 1.95-6.88) individuals/100 km 2 for the north and south of the conservation area, respectively, while spotted hyena densities were 13.44 (95% HPD = 9.01-18.81) and 14.07 individuals/100 km 2 (95% HPD = 8.52-18.54) for the north and south, respectively. Leopard densities were in the middle range of those recorded in the literature, while sex ratios were what would be expected for this polygamous felid. Spotted hyena densities were on the higher end of those recorded for the species using spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) methods. Our work provides the first robust population estimate of leopards and spotted hyenas in the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area of western Uganda.

The impacts of free‐roaming cats cannot be generalized and their role in rodent management should not be overlooked

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Francisco Rubén Badenes-Pérez

Abstract Cats, Felis catus L. (Carnivora: Felidae), were domesticated because of their role in rodent control around human settlements. Free‐roaming cats (henceforth, referred to as “cats”) can predate on a wide variety of small‐ to medium‐sized animals and affect biodiversity. The impact of cats on biodiversity varies from country to country, region to region, and habitat to habitat. Depending on the location and context, the overall impact of cats on biodiversity can be negative, neutral, or positive. Management of cats should take into account the complex interactions that occur between cats, rodents, and the species they prey upon.

‘I know the tiger by his paw’: A non-invasive footprint identification technique for monitoring individual Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in snow

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022
ECOL INFORM

Apex predator populations are in decline around the world. Many exist at low density and are elusive, making the acquisition of reliable data on their numbers and distribution a considerable challenge. The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is the largest of the five extant sub-species of tiger. The single most significant, contiguous population, an estimated 550 animals, exists in the Russian Far East, with smaller populations on the far eastern Sino-Russian border. For the last few decades, active efforts on the part of Chinese authorities have encouraged the recolonization of these populations back to their former ranges in Northeast China. Reliable data on Amur tiger numbers and distribution are required to assess population recovery at the landscape scale. Footprints, ubiquitous in the snow over range areas, could inform on these baseline data. This paper describes a statistically robust, cost-effective and non-invasive footprint identification technique (FIT) to identify individual tigers from footprints in snow. It is based on a rigorous data collection and data-processing protocol, combined with a cross-validated discriminant analysis method. A Ward's clustering technique provides a visual output of individual classification. The analytical tools are packaged in a user-friendly analytical interface. Between December 2011 and December 2012, we collected a series of 605 footprint images from 44 captive individual Amur tigers for a reference database from which to derive a classification algorithm. The 23 females and 21 males ranged in age from 3 to 13 years (female mean age 7.95 +/− 0.18; male mean age 8.08 +/− 0.19). 128 measurements (areas, lengths and angles) were taken from each print and analyzed with the FIT add-in to JMP software. The derived classification algorithm was then applied to 21 footprint trails collected from an unknown number of free-ranging Amur tigers during 2012 and 2015/2016. The algorithm predicted 7 Amur tigers at the site surveyed in 2012, and 4 tigers surveyed at two sites in 2015/16. We demonstrate that the footprint identification technique translates traditional tracking methodologies into a statistically robust and objective analytical tool that can be deployed by both scientists and local communities to monitor the recovery of big cat populations.

Dogs suppress a pivotal function in the food webs of sandy beaches

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

Domestic dogs are the most abundant carnivore globally and have demonstrable negative impacts to wildlife; yet, little evidence regarding their functional roles in natural food webs exists. Adding dogs to food webs may result in a net loss (via suppression of naturally occurring species), net gain (via mesopredator release), or no change (via functional replacement) to ecosystem function. Scavenging is a pivotal function in ecosystems, particularly those that are energetically supported by carrion. Dogs also scavenge on animal carcasses, but whether scavenging by dogs influences the structural and functional properties of food webs remains unclear. Here we used camera traps baited with carrion to test the effect of dogs on the composition and diversity of the vertebrate scavenger guild, as well as carrion detection and consumption rates. We conducted this work in sandy beach ecosystems, which rely on the import of marine organic matter (i.e. stranding of dead marine animals). Diversity of the scavenger community was similar on beaches without dogs. Dogs increased the time it took for carcasses to be detected and decreased the proportion of carrion consumed. This ‘dog suppression effect’ on scavenging was stronger for nocturnal mammalian scavengers, presumably being driven by indirect trait-mediated effects, which raises further questions about the broader ecological consequences of domestic dogs in natural systems.

Raptor conservation experts' viewpoints about raptors' contribution to people: a "broken phone game"?

Preprint

Full-text available

Aug 2022

Conservation of predators and scavengers should take advantage of the application of interdisciplinary approaches that connect both ecosystem processes/services and con icts/disservices. Despite this, there is an overall lack of interdisciplinary research on ecosystem processes/services and con icts/disservices provided by aerial predators and scavengers like raptors. Our speci c goals here are: i) to assess the experts' viewpoints on ecosystem processes/services and con icts/disservices provided by raptors to people and ii) to know the main intervention strategies that experts consider effective for managing raptor populations. Through an online survey we obtained 87 surveys for four raptor groups: hawks and eagles (40%), vultures (29%), owls (16%), and falcons (15%). Experts agreed that many ecosystem processes/services and only a few con icts/disservices are provided by raptors to society. Experts indicated that four ecosystem processes/services were provided by all raptor groups (i.e., vultures, falcons, hawks and eagles, and owls), and another one was provided by all the predator groups (i.e., all but vultures). In contrast, no con ict/disservice was considered to be produced by all groups of raptors. According to experts, hawks and eagles were involved in only three con icts/disservices, vultures and owls in one, and falcons in none. Experts agreed that ve strategies are effective for raptor management. Raptor conservation experts' viewpoints were mismatched with evidence from raptor literature and, as we expected, this mismatch was higher when considering con icts/disservices produced than ecosystem processes/services provided by raptors to people. To successfully promote policies and practices for raptors conservation, experts need to base their viewpoints on raptor literature.

La ecología de los parásitos zoonóticos en Carnivora

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

El orden Carnivora incluye más de 300 especies que varían en tamaño en muchos órdenes de magnitud y habitan en todos los biomas principales, desde las selvas tropicales hasta los mares polares. La gran diversidad de parásitos carnívoros representa una fuente de posibles enfermedades emergentes en humanos. El riesgo zoonótico de este grupo puede deberse en parte, a una diversidad funcional excepcionalmente alta de las especies hospedantes en cuanto a características conductuales, fisiológicas y ecológicas. Revisamos los patrones macroecológicos globales de los parásitos zoonóticos dentro de los carnívoros y exploramos las características de las especies que sirven como anfitriones de los parásitos zoonóticos. Sintetizamos la investigación teórica y empírica y sugerimos trabajos futuros sobre el papel de los carnívoros como multiplicadores bióticos, reguladores y centinelas de enfermedades zoonóticas como fronteras de investigación oportunas.

Mitigating GHG emissions: A global ecosystem service provided by obligate scavenging birds

Article

Jul 2022

Dead animals release greenhouse gases to the atmosphere through natural decomposition or because they have to be processed by disposal methods such as composting or rendering. Obligate scavenging birds (vultures) consume dead animals and are among the most efficient terrestrial scavengers. They may therefore contribute to a considerable reduction in sources of greenhouse gases. Here, we quantify the global contribution of vultures in reducing greenhouse gas emissions by consuming organic material. First, we evaluated a scenario where all the dead animals that can be consumed by vultures every year have to be disposed of by composting, anaerobic decomposition (e.g., burial), anaerobic digestion or rendering. Second, we assessed a scenario in which dead animals are left to decompose in the environment. Current vulture populations (~134-140 million individuals) may reduce emissions of 3.03-60.70 Tg CO 2 eq. per year, depending on the disposal method implemented, without considering carcass transport to disposal plants. Alternatively, they may reduce emissions of 13.02 Tg CO 2 per year if dead animals remain in the environment. Over recent years a decline in vulture populations worldwide has led to a decrease of a 30 % in their capacity to mitigate greenhouse gases emissions. A few abundant vulture species reduce almost 98 % of the maximum emissions potentially removed worldwide by all extant vulture species over one year. This ecosystem service contributed by vultures to humans and nature cannot easily be replaced by other species, including humans. Moreover, supplanting this contribution with alternative carcass disposal methods is expensive and harmful to the environment due to emissions generated in the process. Our results highlight an important service that vultures provide worldwide, which is relevant in the current context of global warming.

Ecosystem services and disservices associated with vultures: A systematic review and evidence assessment

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

Nature’s contribution to people (i.e. ecosystem services) is becoming integral to conservation science and policy, yet our knowledge is restricted to only a few services and taxa. Vultures (family: Accipitridae and Cathartidae), most of which are threatened with extinction, have been touted for delivering regulation and maintenance services via their capacity to rapidly consume organic matter. As such, their appellation as “nature’s clean-up crew” has become very popular. However, a comprehensive evaluation of the supporting evidence for such appellation was absent from the published literature. We performed a systematic review and evidence assessment to quantify the global contribution of vultures towards over 20 ecosystem services and disservices. Our analysis determined a critical imbalance in the scope and focus of published research. In contrast to the birds’ popularised image as cleaners of the environment, we found only weak evidence to support any regulation and maintenance services for vultures. Moreover, studies on regulation and maintenance disservices were prominent. The only ecosystem services supported by strong evidence were cultural, although even these were evidenced by a limited number of studies. Finally, we unveil major knowledge gaps in the ecosystem service and disservice literature on a taxonomic and spatial scale related to vultures. Our analysis highlights the urgent need to quantify the net contribution of vultures to people.

Zoogeomorphology of Botswana

Chapter

May 2022

Jeremy Perkins

ZoogeomorphologyZoogeomorphology is a relatively new discipline and is set for changes this century in BotswanaBotswana that have not been seen for millennia. The co-evolution of landscapes and wildlife amidst a changing climate means that the precise role of each is difficult to determine. As southern Africa becomes hotter and drier due to anthropogenic climate change this century, past adaptation strategies such as wildlife movements along (Balinsky’s 1962) ‘drought corridor’ will no longer be possible due to land use/land cover change and agriculture and human-related expansion. As the Sixth Great Extinction unfolds, it offers a unique opportunity to study just how significant different biota are in determining geomorphology, albeit as our climate changes. FaunaFauna that has remained intact since the Miocene will largely disappear from African shores and the palaeo-duneDune fields of the Kalahari may well become reactivated. The real significance of micro-organisms and invertebrates will then be realised as the bioturbators remain to shape the landscapes around them without the distraction posed by humans and the unique mega-fauna that surrounded them.

Completely caught off guard: a new record of Jaguar, Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mammalia, Felidae), from an urban park

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Jaguar, Panthera onca (Linnaeus, 1758), is a paramount predator that contributes to ecosystem balance but rarely inhabits small conserved areas. We report a new record of a Jaguar in Brasilia National Park that was photographed while monitoring the Giant Anteater ( Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758) population using camera traps. This Jaguar record is critical in documenting the presence of this species in highly human-inhabited and urbanized areas. Our new record also contributes to the understanding of the current distribution of remaining individuals and confirms the importance of large-scale protected areas in providing habitat for species, such as jaguars, that have large ranges.

High striped hyena density suggests coexistence with humans in an agricultural landscape, Rajasthan

Article

Full-text available

May 2022
PLOS ONE

Understanding the mechanism of coexistence, where carnivores adapt to humans and vice versa in the shared landscape, is a key determinant of long-term carnivore conservation but is yet to be comprehensively examined. We explored the coexistence mechanism of striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and humans in the shared landscape of Sawai Mansingh Wildlife Sanctuary (SMS WLS), Rajasthan, from November 2019 to March 2021. We used data derived from motion sensors-based surveys, satellite remote sensing images, and household questionnaires to understand socio-ecological, environmental and anthropogenic factors facilitating hyena persistence in the shared landscape. The high density (12 individuals/ 100 km 2) striped hyena in the landscape revealed the coexistence with humans. Being scavengers , they get subsidised food sources and are perceived as low-risk species by humans. Striped hyena minimised temporal activity during the daytime when human activity peaked. However, the highest activity overlap was observed in the agricultural area (Δ1 = 0.39), and likely depicts the high activity due to agricultural practices. While the human settlement was positively associated with the detection of hyenas, the probability of striped hyena captures increased with decreasing distance from human settlement, possibly influenced by high carcass availability, providing the easiest food resources to striped hyena, and allowing them to coexist with humans. This study demonstrates the coexistence of hyenas and humans in the shared landscape supported by mutual benefits, where hyenas benefit from anthropo-genic food from scavenging, while humans benefit from waste removal and the non-lethal nature hyenas.

PhD_Thesis_Jon_Morant_Etxebarria

Thesis

Full-text available

May 2022

Jon morant etxebarria

Human activities transformed virtually all landscapes worldwide to fulfil their basic needs (e.g., resource extraction, agriculture or leisure activities). By doing so, they also affect species inhabiting these human-dominated landscapes. Due to their historical link to human activities, apex predators, especially vultures, are especially vulnerable to human-induced behavioural alterations and have undergone population declines worldwide. Therefore, finding a solution that reconciles vulture conservation and human activities in such landscapes is necessary. By using a set of behavioural indicators (e.g., breeding, occupancy/detectability and space use) from long-term monitoring and movement ecology, this thesis aims to build links between behaviour and conservation of Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus in human-dominated landscapes. The current dissertation shows that the species invests similar effort in parental care and that incubation and hatching are important tipping points during the breeding season (Chapter 1). This information could be, in turn, used to design cost-effective monitoring while accounting for imperfect detection and breeding phenology and other environmental variables that could help to adapt monitoring programs to different available budgets (Chapter 2). Similarly, the knowledge of breeding behaviour of the species could be used to infer the impact of habitat alterations on species nest occupancy and reproduction patterns and to improve conservation programs (Chapter 3), and test whether management programs and collaboration networks resulted effective in reducing the synergistic effect of various human disturbances (Chapter 4). Finally, it poses an advance in the understanding of how certain human activities that provide continuous and predictable food pulses, such as farming, could alter species space use and favour residency in partial migratory species (Chapter 5), and that human-driven changes in migratory behaviour could even have consequences on fitness and energy use of different migratory phenotypes (Chapter 6). Overall, this work demonstrates the utility of increasing vulture behaviour knowledge to ascertain the effects of human activities on the species and find coherent conservation solutions that favour its persistence and promote vulture-human coexistence in anthropogenic landscapes.

Potential Futures for Coastal Wolves and Their Ecosystem Services in Alaska, With Implications for Management of a Social-Ecological System

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Carnivores across much of the world are declining, leading to loss of biodiversity as well as the ecosystem services carnivores provide. In 2020, the Alexander Archipelago (AA) wolf was petitioned for protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) for the third time in 30 years. Concerns included habitat alteration from industrial timber harvest and subsequent declines in prey (deer), human-caused mortality, climate change, and genetic inbreeding. However, the underlying biogeography and ecology of these wolves continues to suggest resiliency across the subspecies’ range, even though local populations may go extinct. If local wolf populations go extinct, it will result in loss of their ecosystem services (e.g., interactions of wolves with their prey, which prevents over-browsing and protects carbon sequestration in soils and trees), which will likely have major consequences for the local social-ecological system. Here, we updated a model we constructed for the last ESA listing process (2015) to examine the dynamics of wolf and deer populations on Prince of Wales Island (the primary geographic focus of all three petitions) in response to future environmental and management scenarios developed with stakeholders. Further, we considered how changes in deer abundance impact predation services (prevention of over-browsing by deer). We found that wolf populations generally persisted over 30 years, but dropped below an effective population size of 50 wolves in 10–98% of years simulated. Low wolf abundance resulted in higher deer abundance, which increased hunting opportunity, but also browsing damages (e.g., 19% of areas would be over-browsed if wolf harvest caps are removed, and >30% of areas would be over-browsed if wolves go extinct). Human harvest of wildlife was a key regulator of abundance and ecosystem services within the coastal rainforest social-ecological system; wolf abundance was most affected by wolf harvest regulations; and deer harvest restrictions increased wolf and deer abundances, but also greatly increased browsing impacts (>70% of areas heavily browsed if hunting ceased). Our findings support an integrated approach to management of this social-ecological system, such that social and ecological sciences are both used to monitor important components of the system (e.g., measuring public sentiment and likelihood of poaching, alongside wolf and deer numbers). Integration and adaptive approaches are needed to ensure that the many ecosystem services humans depend on are valued, conserved, and restored, including the cryptic predation services wolves have historically provided to the timber industry via reduced browsing pressure by deer.

Unravelling negative interactions between humans, mammalian carnivores and raptors in South America

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Human-wildlife interactions can be negative when the needs and behavior of wildlife negatively influence human goals, or vice-versa, and management of these interactions may lead to conflict. Here, we review information on negative interactions between humans and wildlife in South America contained in 136 scientific publications, focusing on terrestrial mammalian predators and raptors. We found that most studies were conducted in Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. The methodology most commonly used to investigate negative interactions was interviews with rural inhabitants. Studies were performed mainly on interactions involving large felids such as Panthera onca and Puma concolor, and-to a lesser extent-on other mammalian predators and raptors such as eagles or scavenger birds. The main drivers of negative interactions involved perceived or actual impacts on human economy (material) (e.g., livestock or crop losses) or were based on non-material (intangible) aspects (e.g., fear, myths, and religious beliefs). The studies showed that negative attitudes and perceptions toward terrestrial mammalian predators and raptors are widespread in South America. Although non-lethal strategies for mitigation of negative interactions have been proposed, most are not widely used and lethal controls are still very common. A multidisciplinary approach is required, based on multiple actions (e.g., improving livestock practices, running educational programs, increasing stakeholder involvement, providing farmers with solutions), which would minimize negative interactions and promote coexistence between humans and wildlife. This is key to maintaining threatened species, ecological interactions and healthy environments in the anthropized landscapes of biodiverse South America. Desentrañando las interacciones negativas entre humanos, mamíferos carnívoros y rapaces en América del Sur. Las interacciones entre el ser humano y la fauna silvestre pueden ser negativas cuando las necesidades y el comportamiento de la fauna silvestre influyen negativamente en las metas de las personas, o viceversa, y manejar estas interacciones puede generar conflictos. En este artículo revisamos la información científica sobre este tipo de interacciones en 136 publicaciones realizadas en Sudamérica. Nos centramos en los mamíferos depredadores terrestres y en las aves rapaces. Encontramos que la mayoría de los estudios se realizaron en Brasil, Argentina, Chile y Colombia. La metodología más utilizada fueron las entrevistas a habitantes de zonas rurales. Los estudios se realizaron principalmente sobre interacciones con grandes félidos como Panthera onca y Puma concolor, yen menor medida-sobre otros mamíferos depredadores y aves rapaces como las águilas o las aves carroñeras. Los impulsores principales de estas interacciones fueron los impactos-percibidos o reales-sobre la economía (materiales) (e.g., pérdidas de ganado o cultivos) o aspectos no materiales (intangibles) (e.g., miedo, mitos y creencias religiosas). Los estudios mostraron que las actitudes y percepciones negativas hacia los mamíferos depredadores y las aves rapaces están muy extendidas en Sudamérica. Aunque se propusieron estrategias no letales para mitigar las interacciones negativas, la mayoría no se utiliza ampliamente y los controles letales siguen siendo muy comunes. Se requiere un enfoque multidisciplinario, basado en diversas acciones (e.g., mejorar las prácticas ganaderas, realizar programas educativos, aumentar la participación de las partes interesadas, proporcionar soluciones a los agricultores) que minimicen las interacciones negativas y promuevan la coexistencia entre los seres humanos y la fauna silvestre. Esto es clave para conservar las especies amenazadas, fomentar las interacciones ecológicas y mantener entornos saludables en los paisajes antropizados de la biodiversa Sudamérica.

Systematic mapping on the importance of vultures in the Indian public health discourse

Article

Apr 2022

Vultures are of immense ecological significance to forest and urban ecosystems. These birds play a major role in curbing environmental contamination through scavenging on carcasses. Prevention of spread of diseases is pivotal for public health and is an inexorable economic burden for any country. We present the crucial role vultures can play in disease mitigation and public health by regulating or decreasing the spread of zoonotic diseases. We elaborate examples from three zoonotic diseases; rabies, brucellosis and tuberculosis, which spread among dogs and cattle as well as human population. We establish the viable links in the transmission of these diseases from the infected dead and alive animals to humans and their possible exacerbation in the absence of vultures. These indirect links help formulate the case for increased interventions for disease spread and control along with conservation of these scavengers. Their role as natural and effective cleaners of the environment in the Indian health discourse is of importance because they can reduce the expenses of the government in waste management and maintenance of public health.

Raptor Research In India: Inadequate Data and Species' Status Uncertainty For Many Species

Article

Apr 2022

Despite the recent surge in ornithological research in South Asia, raptors remain poorly studied. Inadequate information on the regional status and ecology of birds of prey hinders development of effective conservation measures. Our meta-analysis that focused on trends of scientific research on diurnal raptors in India found 478 published articles on 78 raptor species. We used the online databases of Google Scholar, Scopus, and the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society to develop regional research and conservation priority indices (RCPI) for raptors, using the tool originally developed by Buechley et al. (Diversity and Distributions 25:856–869, 2019) for the raptors of the world. Published literature on raptors in India was highly skewed; most were either anecdotal reports about common species, or studies focused on vultures, whose local extirpations received significant attention. Twenty-one raptor species, of which two are near threatened and three vulnerable, were specifically studied in fewer than five publications. Even many common species are similarly poorly studied. The regional raptor RCPI was highest for the Andaman Serpent-Eagle (Spilornis elgini; 0.71) and lowest for Black Kites (Milvus migrans; 0.11). Several species that received high priority scores are vulnerable to extirpation due to factors such as habitat loss, poisoning, electrocutions, and other threats. We conclude that assessment of the species-bias in published studies will help researchers identify and address the knowledge gaps. This will ultimately help conservationists and managers devise effective regional and country-specific management strategies. We recommend further regional contextualization of the RCPI.

Trophic interactions at avian carcasses: Do scavengers feed on vulture carrion?

Article

Mar 2022

Scavenging is a pervasive foraging strategy among vertebrates, yet researchers have only recently begun to reveal the complex implications of scavenging dynamics. Scavenging studies have predominantly used lower trophic level (i.e., herbivore) species as carrion bait, and the few studies that have used higher trophic level (i.e., carnivore) carrion have found these carcass types are generally avoided by vertebrates or scavenged by fewer species than similarly sized herbivore carcasses. No studies have assessed the fate of carcasses of obligate scavengers. To investigate potential differences in scavenging dynamics among avian carrion representing different guilds and trophic levels, we conducted scavenging trials using 20 replicates of two obligate scavenger species (i.e. black vulture, Coragyps atratus; turkey vulture, Cathartes aura) and two lower trophic level species, chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), and mallard (Anas platyrhynchos). Carcass trials were conducted at the Savannah River Site, SC, USA, and monitored with remote cameras. We hypothesized carcasses of vultures would persist longer and have a distinct scavenging community compared to lower trophic level carcasses (mallard and chicken). As expected, turkey and black vulture carcasses persisted in the environment longer, were less likely to be entirely consumed by vertebrate scavengers, and had a different scavenging community than mallard and chicken carcasses. These results contribute to the growing body of evidence suggesting higher trophic level carrion is exploited differently by vertebrate scavengers. Our findings suggest nutrients derived from vulture carcasses are likely largely reincorporated into lower trophic levels.

Leopard Density in a Farming Landscape of the Western Cape, South Africa

Article

Nov 2023

Home range variability and philopatry in Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) breeding in Iberia

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Large scavengers are strongly dependent on environmental conditions and carrion distribution and abundance, so season and breeding-related factors may influence the spatial ecology of species such as the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), the largest European raptor. Iberia holds one of the biggest populations worldwide, but some aspects of the spatial ecology of the species in this region remain unknown. In this study, 17 adult Cinereous Vultures were GPS-tracked in order to study their spatial ecology during the adult phase. The average monthly home ranges (95% Kernel Density Estimation, KDE) and core areas (50% KDE) were 6543 ± 19,935 km2 and 1174 ± 4004 km2, respectively. The average monthly home range fidelity ranged between 50 and 73%. Differences in movement-related variables between the seasonal periods (incubation, chick-rearing and non-breeding) were found. During the chick-rearing period, the monthly accumulated distance was higher than during the other periods: 3316 ± 1108 (chick-rearing) vs. 1621 ± 622 (incubation) vs. 1726 ± 1159 km per month (non-breeding). Additionally, large home range sizes were more frequent during the chick-rearing period. There are two likely causes for these seasonal differences. Firstly, chick-rearing entails a higher energetic expenditure by the parental individuals in foraging activities, so larger movements and foraging areas are expected during this period. Secondly, the flight is favoured during spring and summer due to environmental conditions. Matching chick-rearing and warm months is a great evolutionary advantage for soaring-gliding raptors, as it allows them to cover larger areas with low energy expenditure. Furthermore, six individuals tagged as nestlings highlights the philopatric behaviour of the species: vultures settle their breeding areas 54 ± 51 km from their natal nest (range = 9–138 km).

Not only seeds: a cultural ecosystem service provided by the Apennine brown bear

Article

Feb 2023
Hum Dimens Wildl

The unequal distribution of the costs and benefits of living with wildlife is one of the causes of human-carnivore conflicts. The existence of large carnivores is valued globally, but the costs of damages and management impacts human residents. The Apennine brown bear is endemic of central Italy and, besides its ecological value, it can attract tourists in search of nature and wilderness. The Advertising Value Equivalent of the bears' appearances in the national newspaper and on television from 2015 to 2020 was used to calculate the economic value of this flagship species as a destination image. The 11 million Euro of Advertising Value Equivalent estimated largely exceeded the amount of reimbursements sustained by the Park to manage this carnivore in the same period. This evaluation of cultural value could be used to highlight the economic benefits provided by the bear and contribute to the discussions with managers and stakeholders.

Building a Resilient Coexistence with Wildlife in a More Crowded World

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

There is an urgent need to sustainably coexist with wildlife. However, realizing this goal is hampered by scant understanding of the processes that facilitate and maintain coexistence. Here, we synthesize human-wildlife interactions into eight archetypal outcomes, from eradication to sustained co-benefits, which collectively serve as a heuristic for forms of coexistence across a wide range of species and systems worldwide. We utilize resilience theory to elucidate how and why human-wildlife systems shift between these archetypes, yielding insights on research and policy priorities. We underscore the importance of governance structures that actively enhance the resilience of coexistence.

Facilitation of a free-roaming apex predator in working lands: evaluating factors that influence leopard spatial dynamics and prey availability in a South African biodiversity hotspot

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Apex predators ideally require vast intact spaces that support sufficient prey abundances to sustain them. In a developing world, however, it is becoming extremely difficult to maintain large enough areas to facilitate apex predators outside of protected regions. Free-roaming leopards ( Panthera pardus ) are the last remaining apex predator in the Greater Cape Floristic Region, South Africa, and face a multitude of threats attributable to competition for space and resources with humans. Using camera-trap data, we investigated the influence of anthropogenic land modification on leopards and the availability of their natural prey species in two contrasting communities—primarily protected (Cederberg) and agriculturally transformed (Piketberg). Potential prey species composition and diversity were determined, to indicate prey availability in each region. Factors influencing spatial utilisation by leopards and their main prey species were also assessed. Estimated potential prey species richness (Cederberg = 27, Piketberg = 26) and diversity indices (Cederberg— H′ = 2.64, Ds = 0.90; Piketberg— H′ = 2.46, Ds = 0.89), supported by both the Jaccard’s Index ( J = 0.73) and Sørensen’s Coefficient ( CC = 0.85), suggested high levels of similarity across the two regions. Main leopard prey species were present in both regions, but their relative abundances differed. Grey rhebok, klipspringer, and rock hyrax were more abundant in the Cederberg, while Cape grysbok, Cape porcupine, chacma baboon, and common duiker were more abundant in Piketberg. Leopards persisted across the agriculturally transformed landscape despite these differences. Occupancy modelling revealed that the spatial dynamics of leopards differed between the two regions, except for both populations preferring areas further away from human habitation. Overall, anthropogenic factors played a greater role in affecting spatial utilisation by leopards and their main prey species in the transformed region, whereas environmental factors had a stronger influence in the protected region. We argue that greater utilisation of alternative main prey species to those preferred in the protected region, including livestock, likely facilitates the persistence of leopards in the transformed region, and believe that this has further implications for human-wildlife conflict. Our study provides a baseline understanding of the potential direct and indirect impacts of agricultural landscape transformation on the behaviour of leopards and shows that heavily modified lands have the potential to facilitate mammalian diversity, including apex predators. We iterate that conservation measures for apex predators should be prioritised where they are present on working lands, and encourage the collaborative development of customised, cost-effective, multi-species conflict management approaches that facilitate coexistence.

Coexistencia entre Fauna Silvestre y Seres Humanos: análisis de experiencias en el contexto latinoamericano

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Coexistencia fauna-seres humanos (final web)

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Diet of the grey wolf Canis lupus in Roztocze and Solska Forest, south-east Poland

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

The diet composition and prey selection of grey wolves (Canis lupus) inhabiting the Roztocze and Solska Forest (south-east Poland) was studied based on an analysis of scats collected in 2001-2002 (n = 84) and 2017-2020 (n = 302). In both periods, wolves preyed mainly on wild ungulates (96.5-96.7% of consumed biomass). Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was the most critical wolf prey accounting for 57.8% of consumed biomass in 2001-2002 and 49.2% and 2017-2020, but wolves positively select only wild boar (Jacob’s selectivity index D = 0.213 in 2001-2002 and 0.710 in 2017-2020) and fallow deer (D = 0.588 only in 2017-2020). The largest species – moose Alces alces and red deer Cervus elaphus – were consumed less than expected from their share in the ungulate community. Predation on medium-sized wild mammals and domestic animals was low, 0.8-2.2% and 1.1-2.7% of the biomass consumed, respectively. The breadth of the wolf diet was very narrow and identical in both study periods (B = 1.07), while the similarity of diet composition was high (α = 0.999). This study indicated the stability of the wolf diet over two decades and the importance of wild boar as a food source for this carnivore.

Conservation status of the world’s carnivorous mammals (order Carnivora)

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

The conservation of carnivores (order Carnivora) can lead to the conservation of other species as well as entire ecosystems since they play an important ecosystemic role. However, their predatory behaviour has caused many of these species to experience marked population declines worldwide and they may therefore face greater anthropogenic threats than other animal groups. To examine the conservation status, population trends, distribution patterns, habitats and threats of all extant species belonging to this order ( N = 290), we collected data from the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List. In addition, we calculated the Red List Index (RLI) to measure the change in extinction risk of species over time. Carnivores are more threatened than mammals in general (26.9% of endangered species vs. 22.7%) and have a significantly higher proportion of species with declining populations (48.3% vs. 31.9%). Eupleridae, Ursidae and Felidae families have the worst conservation status. Between the 1990s and 2000s, most families suffered a considerable decline in their RLI value, the most notable being Felidae. The greatest numbers of threatened carnivore species are found in forest, shrubland and grassland habitats. East and South Asia hold great numbers of carnivore species as well as the highest proportion of threatened and declining species. Hunting and trapping of terrestrial animals, along with habitat loss (caused by deforestation and agricultural expansion), pose the main threats to the Carnivora order. Our findings indicate that, within mammals, the conservation of carnivores should be a priority, and conservation measures directed at this group should be undertaken or increased as a matter of urgency.

The decline of large carnivores in Africa and opportunities for change

Article

Oct 2022
BIOL CONSERV

Tarik Bodasing

Large carnivore populations are in decline across the globe due to the destruction of their natural habitat and targeted persecution by the human species. Africa is home to one of the last remaining intact guilds of terrestrial mega-carnivore taxa and includes species that occupy a unique role in ecosystem function and in human evolutionary history. The rapid disappearance of large carnivores from the African landscape is therefore particularly alarming and several species are predicted to soon be extirpated outside of protected areas. Developing solutions addressing the drivers of decline are complex due to Africa's rapid human population growth and land use patterns, cultural and traditional values among rural communities, and regulations governing lethal control programs and the trophy hunting industry. There is also a critical need to consider the intrinsic value of the carnivore guild in the discourse as having a value beyond that which benefits humans. Lessons can be learned from a few programs that combine good governance and regulation, effective law enforcement, strong community participation and sustainable funding mechanisms to conserve carnivores at landscape scales. Integrating these criteria into a workable model and employing an evidence-based and adaptive approach is central to implementing long-term solutions for carnivore-human coexistence. Africa can become a global leader in the conservation of biodiversity by demonstrating resilience, collaboration and ingenuity to reverse the current trend, and restore and protect these charismatic carnivore species for the benefit of the planet as a whole.

Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Activity of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesised by Beetroot Containing Betalains Pigment on Clinical Bacterial Isolates

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

Introduction: Artificial colours have been used in foods for many years with adverse side-effects. As a result, many studies have focused on natural dyes, and interest in natural dyes is increasing every day due to the lack of side-effects. The betalains are pigments, which are present in the Beta vulgaris L (red beet) roots; these are exploited for native colouring and additive agents in food. These compounds possess many desirable properties such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activity etc., Nanotechnology is currently being used to enhance plant medicinal applications. It is an environmentally non toxic and low cost method. Aim: To examine the role of beetroot containing betalain on synthesising Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) and to determine the antibacterial activity. Materials and Methods: This in-vitro study was carried out in Department of Botany, KK College in Namakkal, Tamil Nadu during the period of December 2018 to December 2020. The 2mM of AgNPs was utilised for the preparation of nanoparticles with beetroot containing betalains. The characterisation of synthesised AgNPs was done by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). In addition, the antibacterial activity of AgNPs were evaluated by the agar well-diffusion method. Results: In this study, the highest concentration of betalains observed at pH 5 in both solvents [ethanol (154.4 mg/100 mg) and water (131.2±0.15/100 mg)] was recorded. The acetone recorded a maximum of 143.8 mg/100 mg at pH 4. Bio sourced AgNPs had antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus sp, Salmonella sp and Acinetobacter baumannii. Furthermore, synthesised AgNPs inhibited the biofilm formation in all isolates. Conclusion: This study reveals that AgNPs exhibit strong antimicrobial activity so that they can be developed as new types of antimicrobial agents to treat bacterial infections, including biofilm bacterial infections, and are attractive and environmentally friendly.

The roles of humans and apex predators in sustaining ecosystem structure and function: Contrast, complementarity and coexistence

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

In nearly every ecosystem, human predators (hunters and fishers) exploit animals at extraordinarily high rates, as well as target different age classes and phenotypes, compared to other apex predators. Demographically decoupled from prey populations and technologically advanced, humans now impose widespread and significant ecological and evolutionary change. In this paper, we investigate whether there is evidence that humans provide complementary services and whether ecosystem services of predators can be maintained by humans where wild predators are lost. Our objective is to contribute to two key ecological themes: the compatibility of human harvesting within ecosystems and management approaches in consideration of the intentional or unintentional loss of predators. We reviewed evidence for five key effects of predators: natural selection of prey, disease dynamics, landscape effects, carbon cycling and human well‐being. Without carefully designed management strategies, such changes can impose harm to ecosystems and their constituents, including humankind. Ultimately, we applied this information to consider management paradigms in which humans could better support the role of, and potentially behave more like, apex predators and discuss the challenges to such coexistence. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Main aerial top predator of the Andean Montane Forest copes with fragmentation, but may be paying a high cost

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Large raptors are the most mobile top predators in fragmented landscapes and, consequently, they are key components of ecosystems. However, large raptors (e.g. eagles), requiring large areas of forested habitat, are also among the most threatened groups of raptors in the world and are directly and indirectly affected by habitat loss and fragmentation. The Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) is a forest dependent species with a long period of natal dispersal. Here, we aim to assess home range size, mortality, and habitat selection of juvenile Black-and-chestnut Eagles during their natal dispersal in three populations within fragmented landscapes of the Tropical and Subtropical Andean Montane Forests of South America. During the first year of natal dispersal, juveniles occupied large home ranges (mean = 996.3 km2; SD± 606; range = 294-2130 km2). While juvenile eagles made their natal dispersal through fragmented landscapes, they consistently selected areas with higher remaining forest cover, medium elevations, and higher slopes than the mean available in the landscape. Our study showed that juvenile eagles can tolerate a certain level of fragmentation during the natal dispersal period, although they also face high mortality during this same period. Four of the six (67%) tagged juvenile eagles died during the study period. The high mobility of juvenile eagles may keep key ecosystem functions within fragmented landscapes of South America. In order to maintain viable populations of this top predator, it is urgent to mitigate non-natural mortality, mainly from direct human persecution, in fragmented landscapes.

Individual Identification of Large Felids in Field Studies: Common Methods, Challenges, and Implications for Conservation Science

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Large felids represent some of the most threatened large mammals on Earth, critical for both tourism economies and ecosystem function. Most populations are in a state of decline, and their monitoring and enumeration is therefore critical for conservation. This typically rests on the accurate identification of individuals within their populations. We review the most common and current survey methods used in individual identification studies of large felid ecology (body mass > 25 kg). Remote camera trap photography is the most extensively used method to identify leopards, snow leopards, jaguars, tigers, and cheetahs which feature conspicuous and easily identifiable coat patterning. Direct photographic surveys and genetic sampling are commonly used for species that do not feature easily identifiable coat patterning such as lions. We also discuss the accompanying challenges encountered in several field studies, best practices that can help increase the precision and accuracy of identification and provide generalised ratings for the common survey methods used for individual identification.

Declines in scavenging by endangered vultures in the Horn of Africa

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022

Scavenging is an important ecological process. By quickly locating and consuming carrion, vertebrate scavengers cycle nutrients, stabilize food webs, and may help mitigate disease transmission to humans. Across Africa, many scavengers feed at abattoirs (i.e. slaughterhouses), thereby aiding in waste removal. Little information exists on the scavenger community composition and dynamics at abattoirs, and, to our knowledge, the carrion removal that scavengers provide at these sites has never been quantified. We studied vertebrate scavenger ecology at 6 abattoirs in Ethiopia with time‐lapse photography and in‐person surveys from 2014–2019. Specifically, we investigated daily, seasonal, and inter‐annual patterns in use of abattoirs by vertebrate scavengers and estimated carrion consumption rates. We demonstrated the importance of abattoirs for supporting a large number and diversity of scavenger species, including 3 critically endangered, 2 endangered, 1 vulnerable, and 2 regionally endemic bird species. At the start of the study, vultures contributed 57% of carrion removal provided by vertebrate scavengers. Detections of critically endangered Rüppell's (Gyps rueppelli) and white‐backed (G. africanus) vultures declined by 73% and critically endangered hooded vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) declined by 15% over the study period. Simultaneously, the detections of dogs more than doubled. Using estimates of species‐specific carrion consumption rates from the literature, coupled with changes in scavenger detections in our study, we estimated a 12% (54 kg/day) reduction in carrion consumption, or nearly 20,000 kg carrion less consumed per year by the end of the study at these 6 abattoirs. Our results indicate that ongoing vulture declines across Africa could significantly reduce carrion removal. We recommend that improving fencing around abattoir facilities could help restrict access by feral dogs, increase foraging by vultures, and, therefore, increase overall carrion removal rates. We studied scavenger ecology over 5 years in Ethiopia and vultures consumed 57% of the carrion at the start of the study, but detections declined substantially while feral dog detections doubled. Overall ecological function (carrion consumption) was reduced and we recommend adaptive fencing around abattoir waste disposal sites.

The numbers of the beast: Valuation of jaguar ( Panthera onca ) tourism and cattle depredation in the Brazilian Pantanal

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2017

Large carnivores fascinate people because of their beauty and potential as human predators and have therefore become focal species for the ecotourism industry. Wildlife tourism has grown exponentially and has often been used as a financial argument for species conservation. However, carnivores depredate livestock, leading to a direct economic conflict with rural livelihoods, often resulting in lethal retaliation action. Here we show that jaguar ecotourism represents a gross annual income of US$6,827,392 in land-use revenue across a representative portion the Brazilian Pantanal, the world's largest wetland. Considering the aggregate costs of jaguar depredation on livestock within the same area, we estimate that the resident jaguar population would induce a hypothetical damage of only US$121,500 per year in bovine cattle losses. This large discrepancy between economic gains and losses reinforces the importance of wildlife tourism as a conservation tool in boosting tolerance of jaguars in private ranches. We also evaluate the partnership between ecotourism and cattle ranchers, in which cattle losses induced by jaguars could be compensated by a system of voluntary donations from tourists, ensuring that both traditional livestock husbandry and ecotourism can co-exist within the same ranches, thereby promoting landscape-scale jaguar conservation.

Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: Impacts on ecosystems and human well-being

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Consequences of shifting species distributions Climate change is causing geographical redistribution of plant and animal species globally. These distributional shifts are leading to new ecosystems and ecological communities, changes that will affect human society. Pecl et al. review these current and future impacts and assess their implications for sustainable development goals. Science , this issue p. eaai9214

Sixteen years of change in the global terrestrial human footprint and implications for biodiversity conservation

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2016

Human pressures on the environment are changing spatially and temporally, with profound implications for the planet's biodiversity and human economies. Here we use recently available data on infrastructure, land cover and human access into natural areas to construct a globally standardized measure of the cumulative human footprint on the terrestrial environment at 1 km(2) resolution from 1993 to 2009. We note that while the human population has increased by 23% and the world economy has grown 153%, the human footprint has increased by just 9%. Still, 75% the planet's land surface is experiencing measurable human pressures. Moreover, pressures are perversely intense, widespread and rapidly intensifying in places with high biodiversity. Encouragingly, we discover decreases in environmental pressures in the wealthiest countries and those with strong control of corruption. Clearly the human footprint on Earth is changing, yet there are still opportunities for conservation gains.

Socioeconomic Benefits of Large Carnivore Recolonization Through Reduced Wildlife-Vehicle Collisions

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2016

The decline of top carnivores has released large herbivore populations around the world, incurring socioeconomic costs such as increased animal-vehicle collisions. Attempts to control overabundant deer in the Eastern U.S. have largely failed, and deer-vehicle collisions (DVCs) continue to rise at alarming rates. We present the first valuation of an ecosystem service provided by large carnivore recolonization, using DVC reduction by cougars as a case study. Our coupled deer population models and socioeconomic valuations revealed that cougars could reduce deer densities and DVCs by 22% in the Eastern US, preventing 21,400 human injuries, 155 fatalities, and $2.13 billion in avoided costs within 30 years of establishment. Recently established cougars in South Dakota prevent $1.1 million in collision costs annually. Large carnivore restoration could provide valuable ecosystem services through such socio-ecological cascades, and these benefits could offset the societal costs of coexistence. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Co-Adaptation Is Key to Coexisting with Large Carnivores

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016
TRENDS ECOL EVOL

Co-Adaptation Is Key to Coexisting with Large Carnivores

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2016
TRENDS ECOL EVOL

There is a pressing need to integrate large carnivore species into multi-use landscapes outside protected areas. However, an unclear understanding of coexistence hinders the realization of this goal. We provide a comprehensive conceptualization of coexistence in which mutual adaptations by both large carnivores and humans play a central role.

Humans as a Hyperkeystone Species

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2016

Ecologists have identified numerous keystone species, defined as organisms that have outsized ecological impacts relative to their biomass. Here we identify human beings as a higher-order or ‘hyperkeystone’ species that drives complex interaction chains by affecting other keystone actors across different habitats. Strong indirect effects and a global reach further characterize these interactions and amplify the impacts of human activities on diverse ecosystems, from oceans to forests. We require better understanding of hyperkeystone interaction chains most urgently, especially for marine species and terrestrial large carnivores, which experience relatively higher exploitation rates than other species. This requires innovative approaches that integrate the study of human behavior with food-web theory, and which might provide surprising new insights into the complex ecology of our own species. Recent work highlights the unique ecology of our own species relative to other predators. For example, the median exploitation rates we exert on marine or terrestrial species are up to 15-fold higher than for any other predator. We show that human exploitation as well as other impacts commonly affect known keystone species, driving potentially complex interaction chains that often remain unexplored. We propose that such effects make humans a higher-order or ‘hyperkeystone’ species, which we define as a species that affects multiple other keystone species across habitats. While we focus on humans, it is likely that other far-ranging generalist predators, such as killer whales, could also be considered as hyperkeystone species. Understanding our hyperkeystone role may require innovative approaches that merge observations, experiments, and food-web models, and will bring new insights into how our unique ecology is affecting global patterns of ecological change.

Humanity's Dual Response to Dogs and Wolves

Article

Full-text available

May 2016
TRENDS ECOL EVOL

Dogs were first domesticated 31 000-41 000 years ago. Humanity has experienced ecological costs and benefits from interactions with dogs and wolves. We propose that humans inherited a dual response of attraction or aversion that expresses itself independently to domestic and wild canids. The dual response has had far-reaching consequences for the ecology and evolution of all three taxa, including today's global 'ecological paw print' of 1 billion dogs and recent eradications of wolves. The massive 'ecological paw print' of 1 billion dogs worldwide can be illuminated by understanding the evolutionary ecology of human-dog mutualism.We propose a dual-response hypothesis to explain humanity's unusual mutualism with dogs and its competition with wild wolves.Our hypothesis makes testable predictions for the fields of psychology, genetics, and political ecology.

Blood does not buy goodwill: Allowing culling increases poaching of a large carnivore

Article

Full-text available

May 2016
Proc Biol Sci

Quantifying environmental crime and the effectiveness of policy interventions is difficult because perpetrators typically conceal evidence. To prevent illegal uses of natural resources, such as poaching endangered species, governments have advocated granting policy flexibility to local authorities by liberalizing culling or hunting of large carnivores. We present the first quantitative evaluation of the hypothesis that liberalizing culling will reduce poaching and improve population status of an endangered carnivore. We show that allowing wolf (Canis lupus) culling was substantially more likely to increase poaching than reduce it. Replicated, quasi-experimental changes in wolf policies in Wisconsin and Michigan, USA, revealed that a repeated policy signal to allow state culling triggered repeated slowdowns in wolf population growth, irrespective of the policy implementation measured as the number of wolves killed. The most likely explanation for these slowdowns was poaching and alternative explanations found no support. When the government kills a protected species, the perceived value of each individual of that species may decline; so liberalizing wolf culling may have sent a negative message about the value of wolves or acceptability of poaching. Our results suggest that granting management flexibility for endangered species to address illegal behaviour may instead promote such behaviour.

Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range

Article

Full-text available

May 2016

The leopard’s (Panthera pardus) broad geographic range, remarkable adaptability, and secretive nature have contributed to a misconception that this species might not be severely threatened across its range. We find that not only are several subspecies and regional populations critically endangered but also the overall range loss is greater than the average for terrestrial large carnivores. To assess the leopard’s status, we compile 6,000 records at 2,500 locations from over 1,300 sources on its historic (post 1750) and current distribution. We map the species across Africa and Asia, delineating areas where the species is confirmed present, is possibly present, is possibly extinct or is almost certainly extinct. The leopard now occupies 25-37% of its historic range, but this obscures important differences between subspecies. Of the nine recognized subspecies, three (P. p. pardus, fusca, and saxicolor) account for 97% of the leopard’s extant range while another three (P. p. orientalis, nimr, and japonensis) have each lost as much as 98% of their historic range. Isolation, small patch sizes, and few remaining patches further threaten the six subspecies that each have less than 100,000 km2 of extant range. Approximately 17% of extant leopard range is protected, although some endangered subspecies have far less. We found that while leopard research was increasing, research effort was primarily on the subspecies with the most remaining range whereas subspecies that are most in need of urgent attention were neglected.

Global priorities for national carnivore conservation under land use change

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2016

Mammalian carnivores have suffered the biggest range contraction among all biodiversity and are particularly vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation. Therefore, we identified priority areas for the conservation of mammalian carnivores, while accounting for species-specific requirements for connectivity and expected agricultural and urban expansion. While prioritizing for carnivores only, we were also able to test their effectiveness as surrogates for 23,110 species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and 867 terrestrial ecoregions. We then assessed the risks to carnivore conservation within each country that makes a contribution to global carnivore conservation. We found that land use change will potentially lead to important range losses, particularly amongst already threatened carnivore species. In addition, the 17% of land targeted for protection under the Aichi Target 11 was found to be inadequate to conserve carnivores under expected land use change. Our results also highlight that land use change will decrease the effectiveness of carnivores to protect other threatened species, especially threatened amphibians. In addition, the risk of human-carnivore conflict is potentially high in countries where we identified spatial priorities for their conservation. As meeting the global biodiversity target will be inadequate for carnivore protection, innovative interventions are needed to conserve carnivores outside protected areas to compliment any proposed expansion of the protected area network.

Mammalian biogeography and the Ebola virus in Africa

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2016

ABSTRACT 1. Ebola virus is responsible for the fatal Ebola virus disease (EVD). 2. Identifying the distribution area of the Ebola virus is crucial for understand- ing the risk factors conditioning the emergence of new EVD cases. Existing distribution models have underrepresented the potential contribution that res- ervoir species and vulnerable species make in sustaining the presence of the virus. 3. In this paper, we map favourable areas for Ebola virus in Africa according to environmental and zoogeographical descriptors, independent of human-to- human transmissions. We combine two different biogeographical approaches: analysis of mammalian distribution types (chorotypes), and distribution model- ling of the Ebola virus. 4. We first obtain a model defining the distribution of environmentally favourable areas for the presence of Ebola virus. Based on a review of mammal taxa affected by or suspected of exposure to the Ebola virus, we model favourable areas again, this time according to mammalian chorotypes. We then build a combined model in which both the environment and mammalian distributions explain the favourable areas for Ebola virus in the wild. 5. We demonstrate that mammalian biogeography contributes to explaining the distribution of Ebola virus in Africa, although vegetation may also under- score clear limits to the presence of the virus. Our model suggests that the Ebola virus may be even more widespread than previously suspected, given that additional favourable areas are found throughout the coastal areas of West and Central Africa, stretching from Cameroon to Guinea, and extend further East into the East African Lakes region. 6. Our findings show that the most favourable area for the Ebola virus is significantly associated with the presence of the virus in non-human mammals. Core areas are surrounded by regions of intermediate favourability, in which human infections of unknown source were found. The difference in association between humans and other mammals and the virus may offer further insights on how EVD can spread.

Human-wildlife conflict, benefit sharing and the survival of lions in pastoralist community-based conservancies

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2016
J APPL ECOL

Keywords: Community conservation;conservation benefits;livestock;Maasai Mara;mark–recapture;pastoralism;pastoral settlements;protected areas;retaliation;sight–resight Summary 1 Like many wildlife populations across Africa, recent work by Packer et al. (2013) and Bauer et al. (2015) indicates that African lions are declining rapidly outside of small fenced areas. Community conservancies – privately protected areas that engage community members in conservation – may potentially maintain wildlife populations in unfenced pastoralist regions but their effectiveness in conserving large carnivores is unknown. 2.We identify drivers of lion survival in community conservancies within the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, applying mark–recapture analyses to continuous sight–resight surveys. We use the number of livestock and human settlements as proxies for potential human–lion conflict whilst controlling for environmental variables and lion socioecology. 3.Average lion densities within the Mara conservancies between 2008 and 2013 (11.87 lions 100km−2) were 2.6 times higher than those previously reported in 2003. Survival rates varied amongst prides and were highest for lions utilizing central regions of conservancies. 4.The number of livestock settlements (bomas [corrals] and manyattas) that were not members of a conservancy, and that fell within a pride home-range, had a large negative effect on female survival and was the most influential external predictor in models. These non-conservancy settlements accounted for 37.2% of total observed variation in survival whereas conservancy settlements, which benefit financially from wildlife through their membership, had no effect on lion survival. 5.Internal drivers of survival agreed with known ecology and social behaviour including age plus a negative effect of male takeovers on cub survival < 6 months. Vegetation cover, prey availability and the density of grazing livestock within a pride's range did not explain patterns in lion survival. 6 Synthesis and applications. We show that lion densities have increased substantially within the Mara conservancies over the last decade and suggest that the creation of community conservancies has benefitted their survival. This suggests that lions can survive outside of fenced areas within pastoral regions if communities gain benefits from wildlife. We highlight the importance of expanding existing conservancies beyond their current geographic and political scope and forming buffer zones if wildlife ranges outside them. We suggest that changing attitudes to predators should be a key goal of community-based conservancies. Further work is recommended to identify what specific aspects of conservancy membership promote lion survival.

Selective predation on hantavirus-infected voles by owls and confounding effects from landscape properties

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2016
OECOLOGIA

It has been suggested that predators may protect human health through reducing disease-host densities or selectively preying on infected individuals from the population. However, this has not been tested empirically. We hypothesized that Tengmalm's owl (Aegolius funereus) selectively preys on hantavirus-infected individuals of its staple prey, the bank vole (Myodes glareolus). Bank voles are hosts of Puumala hantavirus, which causes a form of hemorrhagic fever in humans. Selective predation by owls on infected voles may reduce human disease risk. We compared the prevalence of anti-Puumala hantavirus antibodies (seroprevalence), in bank voles cached by owls in nest boxes to seroprevalence in voles trapped in closed-canopy forest around each nest box. We found no general difference in seroprevalence. Forest landscape structure could partly account for the observed patterns in seroprevalence. Only in more connected forest patches was seroprevalence in bank voles cached in nest boxes higher than seroprevalence in trapped voles. This effect disappeared with increasing forest patch isolation, as seroprevalence in trapped voles increased with forest patch isolation, but did not in cached voles. Our results suggest a complex relationship between zoonotic disease prevalence in hosts, their predators, and landscape structure. Some mechanisms that may have caused the seroprevalence patterns in our results include higher bank vole density in isolated forest patches. This study offers future research potential to shed further light on the contribution of predators and landscape properties to human health.

Human behaviour can trigger large carnivore attacks in developed countries

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2016

The media and scientific literature are increasingly reporting an escalation of large carnivore attacks on humans in North America and Europe. Although rare compared to human fatalities by other wildlife, the media often overplay large carnivore attacks on humans, causing increased fear and negative attitudes towards coexisting with and conserving these species. Although large carnivore populations are generally increasing in developed countries, increased numbers are not solely responsible for the observed rise in the number of attacks by large carnivores. Here we show that an increasing number of people are involved in outdoor activities and, when doing so, some people engage in risk-enhancing behaviour that can increase the probability of a risky encounter and a potential attack. About half of the well-documented reported attacks have involved risk-enhancing human behaviours, the most common of which is leaving children unattended. Our study provides unique insight into the causes, and as a result the prevention, of large carnivore attacks on people. Prevention and information that can encourage appropriate human behaviour when sharing the landscape with large carnivores are of paramount importance to reduce both potentially fatal human-carnivore encounters and their consequences to large carnivores.

Increased tolerance to humans among disturbed wildlife

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2015

Human disturbance drives the decline of many species, both directly and indirectly. Nonetheless , some species do particularly well around humans. One mechanism that may explain coexistence is the degree to which a species tolerates human disturbance. Here we provide a comprehensive meta-analysis of birds, mammals and lizards to investigate species tolerance of human disturbance and explore the drivers of this tolerance in birds. We find that, overall, disturbed populations of the three major taxa are more tolerant of human disturbance than less disturbed populations. The best predictors of the direction and magnitude of bird tolerance of human disturbance are the type of disturbed area (urbanized birds are more tolerant than rural or suburban populations) and body mass (large birds are more tolerant than small birds). By identifying specific features associated with tolerance, these results guide evidence-based conservation strategies to predict and manage the impacts of increasing human disturbance on birds.

Killing sharks: The media's role in public and political response to fatal human-shark interactions

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2015
MAR POLICY

In 2013-14 the Western Australian Government deployed drum lines to catch and kill sharks perceived to be a threat to public safety. This policy decision sparked considerable controversy and debate which played out in the media. There have been limited studies examining the role of media discourses in the development of shark management policies. This study shows that media reporting reflected the unidirectional correlation between the public and policy makers; while there appeared to be a correlation between public pressure and the decision to deploy drum lines, there was no association between the culling program and public support. The reflective role the media played in the drum line debate was evident in their use of prescriptive and emotive language about human-shark incidents, and the use of two opposing frames; anthropocentric and conservation. Combined, these results suggest that the public policy makers need to rethink their approach to developing shark hazard mitigation programs through ongoing, meaningful engagement with the general public, scientists and stake holders, if they wish to garner public support.

Lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining rapidly across Africa, except in intensively managed areas

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2015
P NATL ACAD SCI USA

Significance At a regional scale, lion populations in West, Central, and East Africa are likely to suffer a projected 50% decline over the next two decades, whereas lion populations are only increasing in southern Africa. Many lion populations are either now gone or expected to disappear within the next few decades to the extent that the intensively managed populations in southern Africa may soon supersede the iconic savannah landscapes in East Africa as the most successful sites for lion conservation. The rapid disappearance of lions suggests a major trophic downgrading of African ecosystems with the lion no longer playing a pivotal role as apex predator.

Bats initiate vital agroecological interactions in corn

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2015
P NATL ACAD SCI USA

Significance Bats are thought to provide valuable services to agriculture by suppressing crop pests, but their ecological role in agricultural systems remains unclear. We implemented a unique field experiment to assess the ecological and economic effect of bats in corn agriculture and found that bats initiated strong and surprising ecological interactions in corn fields. Bats not only suppressed crop pest numbers and crop damage but also indirectly suppressed the presence of pest-associated fungus and a toxic compound produced by the fungus. As nocturnal flying insectivores, bats occupy unique ecological roles and provide valuable services to society, and it is therefore essential that we conserve this often-maligned group.

Survival and Mortality of Pumas (Puma concolor) in a Fragmented, Urbanizing Landscape

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2015
PLOS ONE

Wide-ranging large carnivores pose myriad challenges for conservation, especially in highly fragmented landscapes. Over a 13-year period, we combined monitoring of radio collared pumas (Puma concolor) with complementary multi-generational genetic analyses to inform puma conservation in southern California, USA. Our goals were to generate survivorship estimates, determine causes of mortality, identify barriers to movement, and determine the genetic and demographic challenges to puma persistence among >20,000,000 people and extensive urban, suburban, and exurban development. Despite protection from hunting, annual survival for radio collared pumas was surprisingly low (55.8%), and humans caused the majority of puma deaths. The most common sources of mortality were vehicle collisions (28% of deaths), and mortalities resulting from depredation permits issued after pumas killed domestic animals (17% of deaths). Other human-caused mortalities included illegal shootings, public safety removals, and human-caused wildfire. An interstate highway (I-15) bisecting this study area, and associated development, have created a nearly impermeable barrier to puma movements, resulting in severe genetic restriction and demographic isolation of the small puma population (n ~ 17-27 adults) in the Santa Ana Mountains west of I-15. Highways that bisect habitat or divide remaining "conserved" habitat, and associated ongoing development, threaten to further subdivide this already fragmented puma population and increase threats to survival. This study highlights the importance of combining demographic and genetic analyses, and illustrates that in the absence of effective measures to reduce mortality and enhance safe movement across highways, translocation of pumas, such as was done with the endangered Florida panther (P. c. coryi), may ultimately be necessary to prevent further genetic decline and ensure persistence of the Santa Ana Mountains population.

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) concentrate around urban waste dumps across Tigray, northern Ethiopia

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2015

Context. The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) lives in remarkably close proximity to humans in the degraded and prey-depleted landscapes in Tigray in northern Ethiopia, predominantly feeding on human organic waste. Aims. We sought to provide an estimate of spotted hyena abundance at garbage dumps and open agricultural areas across Tigray. Methods. We used 28 calling stations, including 12 at garbage dumps and 16 in open agricultural areas located in nine randomly selected urban districts across Tigray. We also used 65 randomly placed calling stations in three districts to establish spotted hyena abundance in Tigray. We also collected 610 scat samples during wet (n = 134) and dry season (n = 476) so as to identify diet. Key results. A total of 398 hyenas responded, including 356 hyenas at garbage dumps and 42 hyenas in open agricultural areas. The response at the garbage dumps was significantly higher. Approximately 2525 hyenas were estimated from 65 calling stations in three districts. There was no statistically significant difference in the diet of hyena between wet and dry seasons for any food item. Frequency occurrence of prey remains of donkeys and cattle were dominant, followed by human, goat and sheep, respectively. Key conclusions. Weinfer that a very large hyena population persists in unprotected areas of Tigray in northern Ethiopia, where they concentrate around urban waste dumps at night for scavengeable food resources, mainly originating from slaughterhouse waste of livestock. Implications. We suggest promotion of nature-based ecotourism of this exceptional coexistence of hyenas and humans in Ethiopia. We raise questions about local hyena social structure, movement, home-range, activity pattern and the implications for human–hyena coexistence.

Eight principles of integrated pest management

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Jul 2015
AGRON SUSTAIN DEV

The use of pesticides made it possible to increase yields, simplify cropping systems, and forego more complicated crop protection strategies. Over-reliance on chemical control, however, is associated with contamination of ecosystems and undesirable health effects. The future of crop production is now also threatened by emergence of pest resistance and declining availability of active substances. There is therefore a need to design cropping systems less dependent on synthetic pesticides. Consequently, the European Union requires the application of eight principles (P) of Integrated Pest Management that fit within sustainable farm management. Here, we propose to farmers, advisors, and researchers a dynamic and flexible approach that accounts for the diversity of farming situations and the complexities of agroecosystems and that can improve the resilience of cropping systems and our capacity to adapt crop protection to local realities. For each principle (P), we suggest that (P1) the design of inherently robust cropping systems using a combination of agronomic levers is key to prevention. (P2) Local availability of monitoring, warning, and forecasting systems is a reality to contend with. (P3) The decision-making process can integrate cropping system factors to develop longer-term strategies. (P4) The combination of non-chemical methods that may be individually less efficient than pesticides can generate valuable synergies. (P5) Development of new biological agents and products and the use of existing databases offer options for the selection of products minimizing impact on health, the environment, and biological regulation of pests. (P6) Reduced pesticide use can be effectively combined with other tactics. (P7) Addressing the root causes of pesticide resistance is the best way to find sustainable crop protection solutions. And (P8) integration of multi-season effects and trade-offs in evaluation criteria will help develop sustainable solutions.

Conservation inequality and the charismatic cat: Felis felicis

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The contribution of predators and scavengers to human well-being

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