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Earthquake damage orientation to infer seismic parameters in archaeological sites and historical earthquakes
Abstract
Studies to provide information concerning seismic parameters and seismic sources of historical and archaeological seismic events are used to better evaluate the seismic hazard of a region. This is of especial interest when no surface rupture is recorded or the seismogenic fault cannot be identified. The orientation pattern of the earthquake damage (ED) (e.g., fallen columns, dropped key stones) that affected architectonic elements of cities after earthquakes has been traditionally used in historical and archaeoseismological studies to infer seismic parameters. However, in the literature depending on the authors, the parameters that can be obtained are contradictory (it has been proposed: the epicenter location, the orientation of the P-waves, the orientation of the compressional strain and the fault kinematics) and authors even question these relations with the earthquake damage. The earthquakes of Lorca in 2011, Christchurch in 2011 and Emilia Romagna in 2012 present an opportunity to measure systematically a large number and wide variety of earthquake damage in historical buildings (the same structures that are used in historical and archaeological studies). The damage pattern orientation has been compared with modern instrumental data, which is not possible in historical and archaeoseismological studies. From measurements and quantification of the orientation patterns in the studied earthquakes, it is observed that there is a systematic pattern of the earthquake damage orientation (EDO) in the proximity of the seismic source (fault trace) (<10 km). The EDO in these earthquakes is normal to the fault trend (±15°). This orientation can be generated by a pulse of motion that in the near fault region has a distinguishable acceleration normal to the fault due to the polarization of the S-waves. Therefore, the earthquake damage orientation could be used to estimate the seismogenic fault trend of historical earthquakes studies where no instrumental data are available.
... These ED are recorded in historical buildings, historical descriptions of the events, and in archaeological sites (e.g. Nur and Cline, 2000;Marco et al., 2003;Ambraseys, 2006;Galadini et al., 2006;Al-Tarazi and Korjenkov, 2007;Marco, 2008;Reicherter et al., 2009;Sintubin et al., 2010;Hinzen et al., 2011;Kyriakides et al., 2016;Mazor 1999, 2013;Martín-González, 2018;Korjenkov et al., 2019). ...
... However, the interest in the completeness of the historical catalogs and the possibility of back-calculate ground motion parameters from the ED has been strongly revived (e.g. Mazor 1999, 2013;Guidoboni et al., 2002;Galadini et al., 2006;Ambraseys, 2006;Al-Tarazi and Korjenkov, 2007;Marco, 2008; Hinzen et al., 2016;Schweppe et al., 2017;Martín-González, 2018;Moiseev et al., 2018;Korjenkov et al., 2019). Specifically, the earthquake damage orientation (EDO) is used to infer seismic parameters because they are elements that can act like structural seismoscopes recording the orientation of the ground motion pulse (e.g., Mallet, 1862;Brune, 1996;Mazor, 1999, 2013;Guidoboni et al., 2002;Hinzen et al., 2016;Hinze, 2011;Schweppe et al., 2017;Martin-González, 2018;Fandi, 2018). ...
... A great variety of earthquake damage and effects have been used in historical earthquakes and archaeological sites to infer seismic parameters (e.g. Mallet, 1862;Stiros, 1996;Galadini et al., 2006;Marco, 2006;Reicherter et al., 2009;Hinzen et al., 2011;Korjenkov and Mazor, 2013;Martín-González, 2018;Korjenkov et al., 2019). Some of this damage has an orientation or could indicate a relationship with the ground motion pulse (e.g. ...
The information and seismic parameters gained from pre-instrumental earthquakes are essential to improve the seismic catalogs and hazard studies. The earthquake damage (ED) that affected architectonic elements during earthquakes (e.g. fallen walls, conjugated fractures in walls, dropped keystones in arches), and when this earthquake damage is orientated (EDO), can be used to infer seismic parameters of pre-instrumental earthquakes such as epicenter location, seismogenic source or ground motion. However, there is not a common methodology to measure this orientation damage. For example, tilting and fallen walls are some of the most used elements to infer the horizontal ground motion in non-instrumental earthquakes. Nevertheless, according to the shape of the architectonic element (a wall in this case), it has only two degrees of freedom to fall, and therefore, its azimuth does not necessarily fit with the ground motion pulse orientation. In this work, a review of the earthquake damage (ED) and effects described in pre-instrumental earthquakes is carried out. A method is also proposed, considering not only the frequency of damage orientations but also considering the uncertainty angle of each element to be damage. The ED has been classified into five groups according to the angle of uncertainty to record the pulse orientation. This method has been checked taking advantage of recent earthquakes with a good instrumental record of the ground motion pulse, and also tested modeling different scenarios with different pulse orientations. This method, that takes into account the uncertainty angles, is a reliable method to calculate the EDO and back-calculate the ground motion pulse orientation in pre-instrumental earthquakes in absence of more accurate modern instrumental records. This method can also be useful for seismic risk assessment and restoration and protection of historical heritage.
... This kind of earthquake damage has been observed in many cases: the 1992 Landers earthquake, USA (Murbach et al., 1999); the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China (Du et al., 2012); and the 2014 Napa Valley earthquake, USA (Fischer, 2014). There are other representative damage patterns, including fallen keystones from arches in Spain, Israel, Italy, and Mexico, particularly at archaeological sites (Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011;Korjenkov and Mazor, 2013;Martín-González, 2018;Pecchioli et al., 2018). Another common example is the fracturing of the walls or pillars of buildings, including single extensional fractures and conjugate shear fractures with diagonal patterns, which have been observed in many cases: the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, Taiwan (Bray et al., 2013); the 1999 Izmit (Kocaeli) earthquake, Turkey (Anastasopoulos and Gazetas, 2007); the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, India (Naseer et al., 2010); the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, China (Zhou et al., 2009); the 2015 Nepal earthquakes (Dizhur et al., 2016); and the 2020 Puerto Rico earthquake (Hain et al., 2023). ...
... Several studies have reported the primary effects of faulting on historical buildings (Stiros, 1996;Monaco and Tortorici, 2004;Barreca et al., 2010;Kázmér and Major, 2010;Yönlü et al., 2010;Kyriakides et al., 2017). The type of damage on tilted, folded and displaced walls is dependent mainly on the orientation of the wall with respect to the horizontal component of seismic waves (Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011;Korjenkov et al., 2013), and the longitudinal orientation of fallen columns depends on the propagation direction of seismic waves (Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011Martín-González, 2018). In particular, fractured walls could be the consequence of repeated shear movements due to intense shaking during an earthquake: diagonal fractures may indicate vertical shear, whereas en-echelon shear failures and horizontal cracks may indicate horizontal shear through the mat foundation (Kim and Kim, 2002). ...
Two recent moderate earthquakes in South Korea, the 2016 MW 5.5 Gyeongju earthquake and 2017 MW 5.4 Pohang earthquake, caused damages to modern residential buildings. These events occurred with almost the same magnitude and duration in the same seismotectonic environment but exhibited remarkably different focal depths, faulting types, surface deformation, and especially structural damage features, but the reasons for these contrasts remain unknown. Furthermore, the building damage patterns are different from the natural damages, which have typical patterns depending on the fault types. It is important to understand the key reasons of these different phenomena to prevent destructive hazards from future earthquakes, particularly in densely populated intraplate regions. Here, we reveal the relationships between the geological-seismic parameters and earthquake damage features based on the patterns of building damage associated with these two events. During post-event urgent field surveys, we systematically observed en-echelon (or Riedel-type) sub-horizontal fractures in building walls associated with strike-slip motion and high-angle conjugate X-shaped fractures in building walls associated with predominantly reverse oblique-slip motion. We attribute the different patterns of earthquake damage to variations in faulting types and associated ground motions; strike-slip faulting resulting in horizontal shear and oblique-slip faulting yielding vertical ground motion. We argue that these interesting characteristics of building damage are mainly caused by stress conditions depending on the environmental change from the underground crust to the ground surface of free face. Our study highlights the importance of post-event investigations of earthquake damage to improve the level of seismic hazard assessment. Our findings from this study could serve as a reference for establishing proper anti-earthquake design and reinforcement for seismic protection.
... Studies related to the influence of the physical environment on human evolution usually focus on climate as the main external driving force of evolution and cultural changes. However, recently, the attention of archaeologists has increasingly focused on the effects of tectonic factors, including theoretical works [33][34][35][36] and research on the impacts of those factors on individual sites, e.g., in the European Bosporus (Crimea Peninsula) [37], Greece [38][39][40][41][42], Turkey [43], Jordan [44], and many other parts of the globe [45][46][47][48][49]. However, no similar investigation in northwest Colchis has yet been conducted. ...
In Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, both coastal and sub-mountainous parts of Colchis underwent rapid urbanization. In the 12th century, the processes of decline began: Large settlements were replaced by small farmsteads with light wooden buildings, and the economy transformed from commodity-based to subsistence-based. What caused this decline? Was it the social and political events linked to the decline of the Byzantine Empire and changes to world trade routes, or were there other reasons? This article provides the answer. The synergy of archaeological, folk-loristic, historical cartographic, climatological, seismological, and hydrological data depicts a strong link between these processes and climate change, which occurred at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. The beginning of cooling led to a crisis in agriculture. A decline in both farming and cattle breeding could not fail to affect demography. Seismic activity, noted in the same period, led to the destruction of many buildings, including temples, and fortresses, and changes in hydrological networks , which were directly linked to climate change and caused water logging, led to a loss of the functions of coastal areas and their disappearance.
... лишь несколько наиболее важных работ, опубликованных за последнее десятилетие: [Kázmér, 2014;Kázmér, Major, 2015;Завадская, 2016;Горбатов и др., 2017;Hinzen, Montabert, 2017;Stewart, Piccardi, 2017;Martín-González, 2018;Roumane, Ayadi, 2019;Al-Tawalbeh et al., 2020;Hinojosa-Prieto, 2020] и др. Нами археосейсмологические исследования проводились на Ближнем Востоке и в Германии, в Центральной Азии и на Кавказе, в Крыму и в Болгарии [Korjenkov et al., 2003[Korjenkov et al., , 2006[Korjenkov et al., , 2008Korjenkov, Schmidt, 2009;Korzhenkov, Mazor, 2014;Корженков и др., 2015, 2016и др.]. ...
The results obtained by additional archaeological and archeoseismological studies within the
Balandtepa settlement and the Kirkhujra fortress prove once again that the ancient city of Eilatan perished in
the I century BC due to a strong earthquake. The city of Pop (Bob) was built no later than the end of the 6th –
beginning of the 5th century BC. on the site of the settlement of Kyrkhujra, which is located 2 km south of
А.А. Анарбаев, А.М. 24 Корженков, М.Т. Усманова и др.
ГЕОФИЗИЧЕСКИЕ ПРОЦЕССЫ И БИОСФЕРА 2022 Т. 21 № 3
the modern city of Pop, on the right bank of the Syr Darya and existed until the 5th century AD. During this
time, it occurred several times by fl oods and massifs under mudfl ow deposits. After each fl ood, the city was
almost completely rebuilt. The city on Kirkhujra was destroyed by the strongest earthquakeat the end of the
IV – beginning of the V century BC. After this seismic event, people left the territory of the destroyed city and
built a new city for themselves on the Balandtepa monument, located 1 km west of Kirkhujra. Additionally,
the information obtained about the unusual location of the debris horizons in the talus – the plume of the
destruction of the northern fortress wall of Balandtepa indicates that the wall was destroyed by not one,
but three strong earthquakes, which apparently occurred in the late VI – early VII century AD. With each
subsequent earthquake, fragments of bricks fl ew away for longer distances with decreasing height of the wall
at each subsequent event. It turns out that each subsequent seismic event was stronger than the previous one.
Earthquakes of this sequence can only have a swarm or doublet nature, characteristic of a given territory. This
is evidenced by the Pap swarm of 1984 that occurred in this zone, the Gazli earthquakes of 1976 and 1984 that
occurred in the zone of the South Tian Shan seismogenic zone. At the same time, the analysis of archaeological
materials shows that at the beginning or the fi rst quarter of the VIII century some kind of natural cataclysm
occurs. In addition, as a result, the citadel and the residents of Shahristan was relocated to Rabad. Their places
are occupied by artisans who worked here until the last quarter of the VIII century.
... Nevertheless, we should note that such cases are extremely rare in the archeoseismological literature, whereas examples of seismoinertial deformations have been documented in numerous publications on the topic. The following are only the most important works of the past decade (Kázmér andMajor, 2010, 2015;Gorzalczany, 2011;Kázmér et al., 2011;Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011a;Schreiber et al., 2012;Peláez et al., 2013;Kázmér, 2014;Vinokurov et al., 2015;Zavadskaya, 2016;Ovsyuchenko et al., 2016;Al-Houdalieh, 2016;Gorbatov et al., 2018;Martín-González, 2018;Moiseev et al., 2018;Moiseiev et al., 2019;Deev et al., 2019;Erickson-Gini, 2019;Roumane and Ayadi, 2019;and Hinojosa-Prieto, 2020). ...
Archeoseismological studies of the ruins of the Djanavara monastery complex (Varna, Bulgaria) have been carried out. The complicated character of the investigated destruction required different methods of archeoseismological investigation. Their description constitutes the first part of the paper. Different types of seismic deformations in building structures caused by surface ruptures and displacement of building elements along them are considered, as well as secondary deformations, i.e., when destruction and damage in building constructions occurred due to strong seismic motions produced by a distant source. We discuss the possible interpretations of the peculiar destruction types as kinematic indicators in modern buildings and archeological objects. We provide examples of different types of destruction and collapses of constructions, the tilting and rotation of building elements, as well as displacements without rotation. The possibility of locating the earthquake epicenter based on the data on orientations of collapses and methods of dating and seismic event parameterization are also discussed. The results of applying these methods in order to study the ruins of the Djanavara Cloister complex will be given in the second part of the paper.
... Another evidence, for more than one earthquake, is the variation of damage seen within the dropped arch stones. Usually, an arch stone drop occurs when ground motion is parallel to the trend of the arches (Hinzen et al., 2016;Martín-González, 2018) or if it is 45°to their strike (Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011). The arches in the theater have different trends, and the fact that their stones were dropped down along these arches (Fig. 5) suggests that Capitolias was hit by more than one earthquake. ...
A Roman theater is recently being excavated at Beit‐Ras/Capitolias in Jordan, which is one of the Decapolis cities, founded before A.D. 97/98. This is an archaeoseismological study that aims to investigate the temporal and intensity impacts of past earthquakes on the theater’s existing structure. A rich set of earthquake archaeological effects were identified, including deformed arches, tilted and collapsed walls, chipped corners of masonry blocks, and extensional gaps, indicating a seismic intensity of VIII–IX. The study identified at least two significant destruction phases that took part in the damage of the theater, which may have contributed to the abandonment of its major use as a theater at different periods. This is based on field observations of construction stratigraphy and damage features, the assessment of the observed destruction, and literature reports. The date of the first phase is bracketed between the establishment of the city (before A.D. 97/98) and the date of an inscription found in the walled‐up orchestra gate (A.D. 261). The most likely candidate earthquake(s) for this immense destruction are the A.D. 233 and/or 245 events. Other moderate and less damaging events may have also occurred within the region but are not mentioned in available catalogs. After a major restoration, another earthquake phase occurred between A.D. 261 and Late Roman–Early Byzantine times, when the scaena wall tilted and collapsed, rendering the building useless and beyond repair. Subsequently, the theater was then filled with debris and was abandoned. The most probable causative earthquake of the second phase of destruction is an event in A.D. 363. The article provides a rich discussion of potential causative earthquakes, based on archaeoseismological, construction stratigraphy observations, and calibrated intensity of historical earthquake‐based attenuation modeling. It identifies the potential phases and types of destruction and reuse.
... Another evidence, for more than one earthquake, is the variation of damage seen within the dropped arch stones. Usually, an arch stone drop occurs when ground motion is parallel to the trend of the arches (Hinzen et al., 2016;Martín-González, 2018) or if it is 45°to their strike (Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011). The arches in the theater have different trends, and the fact that their stones were dropped down along these arches (Fig. 5) suggests that Capitolias was hit by more than one earthquake. ...
A Roman theater is recently being excavated at Beit-Ras/Capitolias in Jordan, which is
one of the Decapolis cities, founded before A.D. 97/98. This is an archaeoseismological
study that aims to investigate the temporal and intensity impacts of past earthquakes
on the theater’s existing structure. A rich set of earthquake archaeological effects were
identified, including deformed arches, tilted and collapsed walls, chipped corners of
masonry blocks, and extensional gaps, indicating a seismic intensity of VIII–IX. The study
identified at least two significant destruction phases that took part in the damage of
the theater, which may have contributed to the abandonment of its major use as a theater
at different periods. This is based on field observations of construction stratigraphy
and damage features, the assessment of the observed destruction, and literature
reports. The date of the first phase is bracketed between the establishment of the city
(before A.D. 97/98) and the date of an inscription found in the walled-up orchestra gate
(A.D. 261). The most likely candidate earthquake(s) for this immense destruction are the
A.D. 233 and/or 245 events. Other moderate and less damaging events may have also
occurred within the region but are not mentioned in available catalogs. After a major
restoration, another earthquake phase occurred between A.D. 261 and Late Roman–
Early Byzantine times, when the scaena wall tilted and collapsed, rendering the building
useless and beyond repair. Subsequently, the theater was then filled with debris and
was abandoned. The most probable causative earthquake of the second phase of
destruction is an event in A.D. 363. The article provides a rich discussion of potential
causative earthquakes, based on archaeoseismological, construction stratigraphy observations, and calibrated intensity of historical earthquake-based attenuation modeling. It identifies the potential phases and types of destruction and reuse.
... 지표변형과 관련된 유적들의 파괴는 이스라엘 (Belitzky and Garfinkel, 2005), 요르단 (Klinger et al., 2000;Niemi et al., 2001;Haynes et al., 2006), 이란 (Ambraseys and Jackson, 1998), 시리아 (Meghraoui et al., 2003), 그리스 (Monaco and Tortorici, 2004), 터키 (Hancock and Altunel, 1997), 중국 (Zhang et al., 1986 (Blasi and Foraboschi, 1994;Sinopoli et al., 1997;Boothby et al., 1998;Bicanic et al., 2003; De et al., 2004). 또한 홍예종석의 하강은 지진과 지진에 의해 발생한 수평적 움직임에 의한 확실한 변형증거 중 하나로 사용되고 있다 Mazor, 2003, 2013;Marco, 2008;Rodríguez-Pascua et al., 2011;Hinzen et al., 2016;Martín-González, 2018 (Marco et al., 2006;Marco, 2008 ...
... Preferred failure orientations are observed elsewhere; for example, coseismic landslide studies show that landslides fail predominantly in the fault-normal direction regardless of fault mechanism or rupture propagation direction (Chigira et al., 2010;Hancox et al., 2003). Additionally, study of coseismic building damage from multiple earthquakes indicates that peak building damage is oriented approximately normal to the source fault for reverse, strike slip, and oblique slip earthquakes (Martín-González, 2018). In the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, coseismic sackungen were oriented approximately parallel to the San Andreas fault zone, which mirrors similar observations following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake (Ponti & Wells, 1991). ...
High-resolution lidar reveals newly recognized evidence of strong shaking in the New Madrid seismic zone in the central United States. We mapped concentrations of sackungen (ridgetop spreading features) on bluffs along the eastern Mississippi River valley in northwestern Tennessee that likely form or are reactivated during large earthquakes. These sackungen are concentrated on the hanging wall of the Reelfoot reverse fault and show a preferential orientation indicating ground failure normal to fault strike. These observations suggest that the sackungen record one or more earthquakes on the southern Reelfoot fault since the deposition of the ~30- to 11-ka Peoria Loess and potentially constrain the minimum intensity of near-fault ground motion. This study demonstrates that sackungen can be used to infer fault source and mechanism and, in combination with field-based techniques, improve paleoseismic records and seismic hazard models. Published 2018. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
... ej. Mallet, 1862;Martínez Solares & Mezcua, 2002;Michetti et al., 2007;Rajendran et al., 2013;Korjenkov & Mazor, 2013;Mackey & Quigley, 2014;González, 2017;Martín-González, 2018). La investigación de terremotos con datos históricos permite ampliar el periodo temporal del catálogo instrumental y es especialmente necesaria para complementar la información geológica, sobre todo en regiones donde existen importantes dificultades para estudiar las fuentes sísmicas o los periodos de recurrencia son muy grandes. ...
La base de los estudios de peligrosidad sísmica es disponer de catálogos sísmicos lo más completos posible. En regiones intraplaca, caracterizadas por largos periodos de recurrencia entre terremotos, es esencial obtener un catálogo sísmico con un extenso intervalo temporal. El noroeste de la Península Ibérica (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Castilla y Leon y norte de Portugal) se ha considerado tradicionalmente una zona intraplaca sísmicamente estable, ya que se encuentra alejada de los bordes de placa sísmicamente activos. Sin embargo, crisis sísmicas como las Sarria-Triacastela-Becerreá (Lugo) (1995 y 1997; con eventos de magnitud hasta 5.3) ponen de manisfiesto en esta región un potencial sismogénico de magnitud moderada. En este trabajo se realiza una revisión y ampliación del catálogo sísmico de esta región previo a 1755 (periodo peor documentado del catálogo sísmico), con el objetivo de caracterizar esta sismicidad intraplaca y mejorar la completitud con un nuevo catálogo para el NO peninsular y así poder reconocer si la sismicidad reciente y posterior a 1755 es anómala o si, por el contrario, es característica de esta región. Para ello, se tomó como base el catálogo sísmico oficial español del Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN), que es la agencia responsable de la red y alerta sísmica. Se han buscado las fuentes documentales primarias de los terremotos descritos en dicho catálogo, para el margen espacial y temporal considerado, y se han revisado parámetros como la localización, fecha y zonas geográficas afectadas por el terremoto. En este catálogo a los 13 terremotos incluidos por el IGN, se han añadido 10 del catálogo de Ces Fernández (2015) y 4 nuevos, ampliando así el catálogo hasta los 27 terremotos. Tras revisar las fuentes se han modificado: 6 parámetros de fechas, 8 localizaciones y 10 zonas geográficas donde se sintió el sismo. Posteriormente ha sido posible calcular la intensidad de 18 de estos terremotos con dos escalas macrosísmicas (EMS-98 y ESI-07). En este nuevo catálogo las intensidades calculadas se encuentran entre IV y X en EMS-98 y entre VII y XI en la ESI- 07, es decir incluyen eventos de mayor o igual intensidad que los ocurridos después de 1755, que no han sobrepasado la intensidad VI o VII como ocurrió en la crisis de Sarria-Triacastela-Becerreá (Lugo) de 1997. Además, la distribución geográfica de los eventos anteriores a 1755 es similar a los ocurridos posteriormente. Todo ello indicaría que la sismicidad actual y posterior a 1755 no sería una anomalía de la tendencia de la región. En el futuro, para seguir ampliando el catálogo sísmico de esta región, sería necesario integrar estudios multidisciplinares de sismicidad histórica e instrumental y paleosismología, prestando atención a fallas que puedan ser activas, bajo el régimen tectónico actual.
... En regiones alejadas de los bordes de placa, con mayores periodos intersismicos, catalogar terremotos históricos resulta imprescindible. Por ello es necesario actualizar los catálogos sísmicos históricos con nueva documentación accesible y/o con informaciones arqueológicas o geológicas sobre los efectos de estos terremotos (Martínez Solares y Mezcua Rodríguez, 2002;Silva Barroso y Rodríguez-Pascua., 2014;González, 2017;Martín-González, 2018;Crespo et al., en prensa). ...
Resumen: El noroeste de la Península Ibérica es una región intraplaca con largos periodos intersísmicos. Por ello es especialmente importante la completitud de su catálogo sísmico histórico, para entender la sismicidad pasada y poder evaluar el riesgo sísmico para esta región. Tomando como base el catálogo nacional español de terremotos, recopilado por el Instituto Geográfico Nacional, en este trabajo se ha actualizado el catalogo previo a 1755. Para ello se utilizaron los buscadores y repositorios digitales que han permitido acceder a fuentes primarias de información. Se han recopilado un total de 26 terremotos históricos desde el 217 a.C. hasta 1752, donde se incluyen 14 terremotos nuevos que no habían sido catalogados previamente por el Instituto Geográfico Nacional. Además se han revisado 130 parámetros de terremotos ya catalogados y en 22 de ellos se ha modificado la fecha, el epicentro y/o la localización geográfica. En último lugar se ha añadido información a 62 parámetros, incluyendo el cálculo de la intensidad EMS-98 y ESI-07 de 13 y 6 terremotos históricos, respectivamente. Esta actualización del catálogo indica que el noroeste peninsular históricamente ha sufrido terremotos más importantes y con mayores intensidades que los registrados en el catálogo instrumental reciente. Palabras clave: Sismología histórica, terremotos intraplaca, noroeste de la Península Ibérica, catalogo sísmico Abstract: The NW Iberian Peninsula is an intraplate region with long return periods. For that reason, it is especially important to complete the historical seismic catalogue, in order to understand past seismicity and to assess the regional seismic risk. Starting with Spanish National Earthquake Catalogue compiled by the Instituto Geográfico Nacional, in this work we have updated the catalog previous to 1755. For this purpose, we employed search engines and digital archives that have allowed us access to primary sources of information. We compiled 26 historical earthquakes from 217 BC to 1752, including 14 new events not catalogued before by the National Geographic Institute. In addition, we have reviewed 130 parameters of earthquakes already catalogued, and for 22 of these we have changed the date, epicenter and/or geographic location. Finally, we have added information to 62 parameters, including the intensities EMS-98 and ESI-07 of 13 and 6 historical earthquakes, respectively. This catalogue indicate that the NW Iberian Peninsula has historically experienced more significant earthquakes and with greater intensities than those recorded in the recent instrumental catalogue.
This archeoseismologic study focuses on the Leukos settlement that thrived on the west coast of the forearc island of Karpathos in the 4th−6th centuries CE. The onshore site occupies the eastern rim of the offshore Karpathos Basin, the deepest Aegean basin, in a sector of the Hellenic forearc typically regarded as seismically insignificant. Investiga- tions of faulting, sedimentary processes, and secondary earthquake effects (hydraulic fracturing, liquefaction, tilting, landslides) are integrated with observations of previously surveyed and newly discovered archeological remains to appraise syn‐ to post‐Early Byzantine seismicity and establish a sequence of faulting. Calibrated radiocarbon dates, the first from Karpathos, indicate intermittent faulting and seismicity spanning the 4th −10th centuries CE, likely contributing to the early 7th‐century CE abandonment of Leukos. The coseismic rupture of competent cobbles whose fractures are filled with fluidized sediment is an established paleoseismologic tool for recognizing earthquakes of magnitude Mw ≥ 6; this study extends that criterion to archeoseismology. This study underscores the need to evaluate land movements, sea‐level fluctuations, and shoreline migration for coastal archeological sites. A plausible Late Roman paleogeography emerges in which Leukos occupied a contiguous peninsula rather than surrounding three modern harbors. This study encourages re‐evaluation of seismic and tsunami hazards in the sector of the Hellenic forearc surrounding ancient Leukos and the Karpathos Basin.
The results obtained in additional archaeological and archeoseismological research within the limits of the settlement of Balandtepa and the Kirkhujra fortress once again prove that the ancient city of Eilatan perished in the 1st century BC. The city of Pap (Bab) was built no later than the end of the 6th-beginning of the 5th century BC on the site of the settlement of Kyrkhujra, which is located 2 km south of the modern city of Pap, on the right bank of the Syr Darya River. During this time, it was destroyed several times by floods and remained under mudflow deposits. After each flood, the city was almost completely rebuilt. The city on Kirkhujra was destroyed at the end of the 4th-beginning of the 5th century AD due to a very strong earthquake. After this seismic event, people left the territory of the destroyed city and built a new city on the Bal-andtepa monument located 1 km west of Kirkhujr. Additional information obtained about the unusual arrangement of detrital horizons in the talus (the tail of the destruction of the northern fortress wall of Bal-andtep) indicates that the wall was destroyed not by one, but by three strong earthquakes, which apparently occurred at the end of the 6th-beginning of the 7th centuries AD. During each subsequent earthquake, fragments of bricks flew off to ever greater distances with a decreasing height of the wall. It turns out that each subsequent seismic event was stronger than the previous one. Earthquakes of this sequence can only have a swarm or doublet nature, which is typical for a given territory. The Pap swarm of 1984, which occurred in this zone, and the Gazli earthquakes of 1976 and 1984 in the zone of the South Tien Shan seismogenic zone evidence this. At the same time, an analysis of archaeological materials shows that, at the beginning or the first quarter of the 8th century, there was some kind of natural cataclysm, as a result of which the owner of the cit-adel and the inhabitants of the shahristan (inner city) moved to the rabad (outer city). Their places were taken over by artisans, who worked there until the last quarter of the 8th century.
We study an ancient earthquake that significantly damaged the Hansaray (Khansarai) in Bakhch-ysarai, Crimea, at the end of the 17th century. However, to date, the traces of this catastrophic event can barely be found in the Khansarai walls. Our studies have shown that this is mainly due to the numerous repairs and restorations which have been continuously conducted at the monument. It is only due to the fact that one of the objects of the Hansaray (the "Eastern Building") was plundered in 2013 that we were able to identify the internal structure of its walls and to reveal a clearly expressed seismogenic deformation of the brick arch which underwent a subsequent repair. In order to accurately date the seismic event, we carried out a search for the analogies, which revealed similar damage in the walls of the Eski-Durbe mausoleum, the monuments of the first palace of the Crimean khans in Salachik (Zincirli medrese and Haci Giray durbe mausoleum) and the Great Kenassa of the Chufut-Kale fortress. By comparing the chronology of the Eastern Structure and other monuments and the peculiarities of their seismic deformations, we correlated the damage of these structures to the Salachik earthquake of April 30, 1698, whose epicentral area was located in the West Crimean seis-mogenic zone and which had local intensity in the Bakhchysarai region I l = VIII-IX (on MSK-64 scale).
Настоящая работа посвящена изучению древнего землетрясения, значительно повредившего Ханский дворец в Бахчисарае в конце XVII в. Следы этого катастрофического события, тем не менее, на
сегодняшний день практически невозможно найти в стенах Хансарая. Как показали наши исследования, во многом, это объясняется большим количеством ремонтов и реставраций, которые постоянно проводятся на памятнике. Только благодаря тому, что один из объектов Ханского дворца (“восточное строение”) был разграблен в 2013 г., нам удалось зафиксировать внутренний конструктив
его стен и выявить в нем яркую сейсмогенную деформацию плинфовой арки с последующим ее ремонтом. Для того, чтобы точно датировать сейсмическое событие нами был выполнен поиск аналогий, который зафиксировал подобные повреждения в стенах мавзолея Эски-Дюрбе, памятников
первого дворца крымских ханов в Салачике (Зынджирлы-медресе и мавзолей дюрбе Хаджи-Гирея)
и Большой кенассы крепости Чуфут-Кале. Сопоставление хронологии “восточного строения” и
других памятников, особенности их сейсмодеформаций дало возможность связать их повреждения с салачикским землетрясением 30.04.1698 г., с эпицентральной областью в Западно-Крымской сейсмогенерирующей зоне и местной интенсивностью в районе Бахчисарая Il = VIII–IX баллов (MSK-64).
Archeoseismological studies of the ruins of the Janavara monastery complex (Varna,
Bulgaria) have been completed. Complicated character of accumulated destructions has demanded
different methods of archeoseismological investigations. Their description is a content of the
first part of the paper. There were considered different types of seismic deformations of building
constructions caused by surface ruptures and displacement of building elements along them, as well
as secondary deformations – when destructions and damages in building constructions occurred
in result of the strong seismic oscillations radiated from a distant source. There are discussed
possibilities of interpretation of peculiarities of the destructions as the kinematic indicators in
modern building constructions and archeological objects. There are in the paper the examples
of different types of destructions and collapse of the constructions, tilts and rotations of building
elements, as well as displacements without rotation. There are discussed possibilities of location of
earthquake epicenter according to data of orientations of collapse, methods of dating and seismic
event parameterization. Results of use of considered methods for a study of ruins of Janavara
Closter complex is in the second part of the paper.
This article describes the consequences of one of the strongest earthquakes in ancient times, traces of which have been preserved in the walls of the fortified estate of the chora of Tauric Chersonesos above the Belbek River. Based on archaeological data, it is possible to date the earthquake to the third quarter of the 3rd century BC. The epicentral area of the earthquake was located to the west-northwest of the estate in the West Crimean seismogenic zone. The intensity was I l = VIII-IX on the MSK-64 scale.
The article is about consequences of a
devastating earthquake in the second half of the 18th century
in Ai-Triada church. This disaster is well known in
Crimean historical specialized literature. However, for
the first time it was described by an archaeoseismological
study. It was possible to redefine its chronology, outline
the epicentral zone and determine its intensity by studying
of seismogenic deformations on monuments located
on a vast territory (Chufut-Kale, Mangup and Fort
Menshikoff). The seismic disaster occurred between 1776
– June 1778. Its epicentral zone was located in the South
Crimean seismic generating zone. The intensity of the
earthquake on the territory of Ai-Triada church, Chufut-
Kale and Mangup was Il = VIII –IX points (EMS), and at
Fort Menshikoff – VII –IX points (EMS).
The article describes the consequences of the strongest earthquake of ancient times, traces of
which have been preserved in the walls of the fortifi ed estate of the Chora of Tauric Chersonesos above
the Belbek River. Based on archaeological data, it was possible to date the earthquake to the third quarter
of the 3rd century BC. The epicentral area of the earthquake was located to the West–North-West of the estate,
in the West Crimean Seismogenic Zone. The intensity was IL = VIII–IX on the MSK-64 scale.
Our earliest ideas about seismology developed in discrete steps following the study of major earthquakes. The first such step involved the studies following the Neapolitan earthquake of 1857 by Irish geophysicist, civil engineer, and inventor Robert Mallet (1810–1881), often called “the father of seismology.” Mallet’s interest in earthquakes was drawn following the 1839 Comrie earthquake swarm on the edge of the Scottish highlands (Wood, 1988). Mallet (1848) disagreed with Lyell (1830) over the explanation of a pair of obelisks that had been twisted in opposite directions without being overthrown by the devastating earthquakes that ruined Calabria in southern Italy in 1783. He suggested a simple mechanical explanation in his presentation to the Royal Irish Academy in February 1846 on the nature of earthquake motion. He claimed his paper, entitled “On the dynamics of earthquakes; being an attempt to reduce their observed phenomena to the known laws of wave motion in solids and fluids,” was the first attempt to bring earthquake phenomena within a range of exact science (Mallet, 1848).
Mallet provided a cogent definition of an earthquake as “the transit of a wave of elastic compression in any direction… through the surface and the crust of the earth, from any center of impulse…” (Davidson, 1927). He imagined an earthquake to be produced “either by the sudden flexure and constraint of the elastic materials forming a portion of the earth’s crust, or by the sudden relief of this constraint by the withdrawal of the force, or by their giving way, and becoming fractured” (Davidson, 1927). Mallet’s opportunity to further develop his ideas about earthquakes came following the occurrence of the Great Neapolitan earthquake on 16 December 1857. This earthquake near Padua in southern Italy, with an estimated magnitude of 6.9–7.0, was associated with more than 11,000 deaths. Using photography, which …
p>On May 20, 2012, a Ml 5.9 earthquake (T1) occurred in the Emilia-Romagna Region of northern Italy. This was preceded by a Ml 4.1 foreshock on May 19, 2012, and followed by several aftershocks, including two Ml 5.1 events, both on the same day. On May 29, 2012, a second strong event of Ml 5.8 (T2) hit the same region, with its epicenter ca. 12 km to the WSW of the first mainshock, T1. The epicentral area of the seismic sequence covers an alluvial lowland that is occupied by both agricultural and urbanized areas, and there were 17 casualties and about 14,000 people left homeless. […] In the present study, we provide a preliminary model of the seismogenic source(s) responsible for the two mainshocks, by comparing the seismic reflection profile interpretation with the available seismological and interferometric data. Furthermore, we show the coseismic ground effects that were observed in the epicentral area during two field survey campaigns: the first conducted after the May 20, 2012, event and the second soon after the May 29, 2012, earthquake, when several sites were revisited to observe the occurrence of newly formed or 're-activated' liquefaction features. Hence, we discuss the origin and location of the coseismic features observed in the context of the local geological–geomorphological setting and with respect to the epicentral distance. Finally, we provide our interpretation for the question: "Why did the mainshock ruptures not break the surface?" […]
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Rupture directivity effects cause spatial variations in ground motion amplitude and duration around faults and cause differences
between the strike-normal and strike-parallel components of horizontal ground motion amplitudes, which also have spatial variation
around the fault. These variations become significant at a period of 0.6 second and generally grow in size with increasing
period. We have developed modifications to empirical strong ground motion attenuation relations to account for the effects
of rupture directivity on strong motion amplitudes and durations. The modifications are based on an empirical analysis of
near-fault data. The ground motion parameters that are modified include the average horizontal response spectral acceleration,
the duration of the acceleration time history, and the ratio of strike-normal to strike-parallel spectral acceleration. The
parameters upon which the adjustments to average horizontal amplitude and duration depend are the fraction of the fault rupture
that occurs on the part of the fault that lies between the hypocenter and the site, and the angle between the fault plane
and the path from the hypocenter to the site. Since both of these parameters can be derived from the hypocenter location and
the fault geometry, the model of rupture directivity effects on ground motions that we have developed can be directly included
in probabilistic seismic hazard calculations. The spectral acceleration is larger for periods longer than 0.6 second, and
the duration is smaller, when rupture propagates toward a site. For sites located close to faults, the strike-normal spectral
acceleration is larger than the strike-parallel spectral acceleration at periods longer than 0.6 second in a manner that depends
on magnitude, distance, and angle. To facilitate the selection of time histories that represent near-fault ground motion conditions
in an appropriate manner, we provide a list of near-fault records indicating the rupture directivity parameters that each
contains.
Introduction:
Global Positioning System-based convergence rate between India
and southern Tibet is estimated as 20 �3 mm=yr (Larson
et al., 1999). Despite this fast convergence, the seismicity rate
of the Himalaya has been remarkably low, as only ∼50% of
this plate boundary has ruptured during the last 200 years.
This long-lived deficit in seismic productivity has led many
to believe that the region holds potential for more than one
magnitude ≥8:0 earthquake (Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003).
The Himalaya plate boundary has generated three great earthquakes
during the last century; however, since the 1950 Assam
earthquake (Mw 8.0), there has been quiescence, with the gap
in time and space particularly noted on its central segment.
Khattri (1987) proposed that the region comprising the
Garhwal and Kumaun provinces and the western parts of
Nepal falls in a seismic gap. Referred to as the “Central Gap,”
this region covers ∼600 km length of the Himalayan arc, and
it arguably represents an unruptured segment between the
sources of the 1905 Kangra M 7.8 and 1934 Nepal–Bihar
M8.0 earthquakes (Fig. 1). However, the extent to which older
earthquakes might have filled the gap is contested on various
counts. The uncertainties in locations and magnitudes of pretwentieth
century earthquakes; in particular the 1803 and
1505 events, are also being debated (Ambraseys and Douglas,
2004; Rajendran and Rajendran, 2005, 2011). Considering the
large and densely populated regions that are likely to be affected,
reconstructing the seismic history of the Himalaya is
a key issue in the seismic-hazard assessment.
The history and cultural heritage of the regions within the
central gap is much longer than the currently estimated interseismic
interval of ∼500 years for great earthquakes; and, therefore,
it provides opportunity to interrogate these issues. For
example, the state of the Hindu temples built as early as
fifth–sixth century A.D. is suggestive of the events that might
have affected them. Thus, we regard the heritage structures
of the Kumaun–Garhwal Himalaya as archeological seismic
sensors that can be used to assess the history of damaging
earthquakes. We are not aware of any studies on the seismic
performance of the temples in the Garhwal Himalaya, but
models of the performance of similar multistoried structures
in Nepal show a fundamental time period less than 0.6 s (Jaishi
et al., 2003). Because this is within the range of natural period
of a wide variety of soils, there is a high probability for such
structures to approach a state of partial resonance during large
earthquakes. The spatial distribution of damage, response of
specific structures, and models based on their structural elements
could lead to the location and magnitude of pre-twentieth century
earthquakes.
The architectural style showed only minor variations between
different clans and their rulers, and the constructions
generally consist of a common plan, which used large and heavy
rock units arranged on top of each other, without mortar
(Fig. 2). As a society whose social milieu revolved around
the temples for ages (>1000 years), the temple archives carried
through generations serve as an important and often the only
source of information on its history including the impact of
major natural calamities. Interpretation of such records is,
however, challenging due to biases in reporting, inconsistencies
in the calendars, errors in translating scripts, shifting of the
province capitals, and renaming of towns and cities. Further,
the historical structures have often been affected by territorial
wars, vandalism, and other nondocumented reasons. Despite
these interpretational limitations, we believe that the historical
archives provide useful clues for isolating time windows for
potential earthquake-related damage (e.g., Rajendran and
Rajendran, 2002). In this paper we use the historical background
and the present state of some of the heritage structures
to obtain spatial and temporal constraints on three significant
earthquakes: A.D. 1255, 1505, and 1803. The 1803 earthquake
is used as a calibration event because its effects on heritage
structures are well evidenced even in the Gangetic plains.
Observations from the 1991 Uttarkashi (Mw 6.8) and the
1999 Chamoli (Mw 6.6) earthquakes provide additional comparative
constraints (Figs. 1 and 3 for locations).
On May 11th 2011, a rather small earthquake caused nine fatalities in
the city of Lorca, SE-Spain. We analyze seismograms from a dense network
to characterize the source of this earthquake. We estimate an oblique
reverse faulting mechanism, moment magnitude of 5.2 and a shallow
hypocenter (4.6 km), at only 5.5 km epicentral distance from the city
center. Double difference relocations yield a ˜5 km long, NE-SW
trending distribution of aftershocks SW of the mainshock, suggesting a
SW propagating rupture along the Alhama de Murcia fault. We use the Mw
4.6 foreshock and an Mw 3.9 aftershock as empirical Greens functions to
estimate apparent source time functions, observing a clear directivity
effect. We model apparent durations with a unilateral and asymmetric
bilateral rupture, in both cases obtaining rupture directivity of
˜N220°E, towards Lorca. In addition to the near epicenter and
shallow depth, directivity may have contributed to the significant
impact.
During the last decades the ruins of Roman-Byzantine cities in the Negev desert of Israel have been the subject of intensive archeoseismic studies. A set of earthquake damage patterns was determined and several large scale earthquakes were identified as having occurred during the 2nd to 7th centuries AD. The ruins of buildings of the small village of Halssa provided a recent study of earthquake damage patterns that evolved quite recently—during the last 110 years.
The Lorca earthquake of 11 May 2011 in the Betic Cordillera of SE Spain occurred almost exactly on the Alhama de Murcia fault, a marked fault that forms part of a NE-SW trending belt of faults and thrusts. The fault belt is reminiscent of a strike-slip corridor, but recent structural studies have provided clear evidence for reverse motions on these faults. Focal mechanisms of the main earthquake, but also of a foreshock, are strikingly consistent with structural observations on the Alhama de Murcia fault. This strengthens the conclusion that, rather than a strike-slip fault, the fault is at present a contractional fault with an oblique reverse sense of motion, presumably in response to the NW-directed motion of Africa with respect to Europe.
One of the key tasks in archaeoseismolo`gy is to test whether the recorded building damage in ancient cities can be related to ancient earthquakes. Archaeologists often claim abandonment, ruin or war instead of natural causes to explain the recorded damage in archaeological findings. This work proposes a comprehensive classification of Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAE) based on the seismic deformation of buildings and monuments within urban areas of ancient cities. Accordingly, the proposed EAE classification differentiates the seismic deformation on the structure of buildings in two groups: from transient shaking and from permanent ground deformation. The first type of EAE corresponds to fractured walls and fallen key stones in arches, for example. The second type of EAE are tilted walls and shock breakouts of flagstones due to basement failure. To illustrate the proposed EAE classification, examples of earthquake damage on ancient buildings are described: Baelo Claudia and Tolmo de Minateda cities (Roman and Visigothic Periods, 1st–6th century AD, respectively, South of Spain) and Teotihuacán and Tarascan sites (Early Classic ca. IVth century AD, and Upper Post-Classic Period XIIIth century AD, Central Mexico).
We investigate the seismicity occurred in the Po area, in the period July 2011-June 1012, by means of moment tensor and we use our set of revised focal mechanisms - computed for M> 3.7 earthquakes - to evaluate Coulomb elastic stress changes in order to detect potential intermediate-distance faults interaction, and the main features of this complex structural system.
The Northwest and Central-West Iberian Peninsula configure an intraplate area far from the active plate boundaries, where the Variscan basement crops out extensively (Iberian Massif). This area of the Iberian Peninsula has been traditionally considered a seismically stable region; however, it presents a moderate intraplate seismicity which indicates the presence of active structures and the occurrence of potentially damaging earthquakes. The scarcity of Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits makes very difficult to track the record of the more recent tectonic activity and the characterization of active tectonic structures within the Iberian Massif. Ne-vertheless the seismic sequences of 1995-1997 in Lugo (5.1 mb; IV) and 2003 in Zamora (4.2 Mw) provided important information about the orientation of the present stress tensor, and the distribution of the hypocenters informed about the rupture geometry of the fault planes. The present work integrates geological, geomorphological, structural, and seismological data in order to define the main potentially active faults in the region. Faults trending NE–SW to N–S are potentially active as strike-slip, in some cases with a reverse component, under a NW-SE to N–S compression. Resumen El Noroeste y Centro Oeste de la Peninsula Ibérica son parte de una región intraplaca alejada de los bordes de placa sísmicamente activos, donde aflora el basamento varisco (Macizo Ibérico). Esta región de la Península Ibérica ha sido tradicionalmente considera-ISSN (print): 1698-6180. ISSN (online): 1886-7995 www.ucm.es /info/estratig/journal.htm
We present source models derived from geodetic data for the four major Canterbury earthquakes of 2010–2011. The September 2010 Darfield earthquake was largely right-lateral, but with several other fault segments active. The February 2011 Christchurch earthquake was mixed right-lateral and reverse with a left-stepping offset interrupting an ENE-striking rupture. The June 2011 earthquake included left-lateral slip on a NNW-striking fault. The December 2011 earthquakes were characterised by offshore reverse slip on an ENE-striking plane. Displacements of GPS sites define small but clearly detectable postseismic deformation east of the September 2010 earthquake, near the February 2011 earthquake and following the June 2011 earthquake. There has been no major moment release in a 15-km-long region between the eastern end of the September 2010 faulting and the western end of the February 2011 faulting. We recommend careful monitoring of this region for the next several years.
Many tens of severe earthquake damage patterns were revealed at the ancient city of Ayla. The seismic deformation patterns
are of various types, including systematic tilting of walls, systematic shifting and rotation of wall fragments and individual
stones, arch deformations and joints crossing two or more stones. Features of later repair, supporting walls and secondary
use of building stones suggest that the damage patterns can be explained by two historical devastating earthquakes: (I) revealed
in the constructions built during the late Rashidun period (644–656A.D.); (II) revealed in the structures restored and/or
built during the Fatimid period (1050–1116A.D.). The maximum observed intensity of both earthquakes at the studied site was
not less than IX (EMS98 scale). The sources of the seismic events were probably the Dead Sea Transform and Wadi Araba Faults
that cross the site obliquely. The last 1995 Nuweiba earthquake with maximum observed intensity VIII has also left its clear
traces in the excavated ancient Ayla buildings. The severity of the destruction was significantly increased because of site
effects.
The present communication addresses the potential use of damage features, observed in the ancient ruins of the Avdat archeological
site (Negev Desert, Israel) as a tool to identify the seismic origin of the destruction there and roughly to determine the
direction of seismic wave propagation.
Archaeoseismic research contributes important data on past earthquakes. A limitation of the usefulness of archaeoseismology is due to the lack of continuous discussion about the methodology. The methodological issues are particularly important because archaeoseismological investigations of past earthquakes make use of a large variety of methods. Typical in situ investigations include: (1) reconstruction of the local archaeological stratigraphy aimed at defining the correct position and chronology of a destruction layer, presumably related to an earthquake; (2) analysis of the deformations potentially due to seismic shaking or secondary earthquake effects, detectable on walls; (3) analysis of the depositional characteristics of the collapsed material; (4) investigations of the local geology and geomorphology to define possible natural cause(s) of the destruction; (5) investigations of the local factors affecting the ground motion amplifications; and (6) estimation of the dynamic excitation, which affected the site under investigation. Subsequently, a ‘territorial’ approach testing evidence of synchronous destruction in a certain region may delineate the extent of the area struck by the earthquake. The most reliable results of an archaeoseismological investigation are obtained by application of modern geoarchaeological practice (archaeological stratigraphy plus geological–geomorphological data), with the addition of a geophysical-engineering quantitative approach and (if available) historical information. This gives a basic dataset necessary to perform quantitative analyses which, in turn, corroborate the archaeoseismic hypothesis. Since archaeoseismological investigations can reveal the possible natural causes of destruction at a site, they contribute to the wider field of environmental archaeology, that seeks to define the history of the relationship between humans and the environment. Finally, through the improvement of the knowledge on the past seismicity, these studies can contribute to the regional estimation of seismic hazard.
The investigation of past earthquakes can be approached in many different ways with a large variety of methods and techniques. This is mainly due to the complexity of this natural phenomenon in both its genetic aspects and consequential ones. In the present note, we briefly analyse the peculiarities of Instrumental Seismology, Historical Seismology, Archaeoseismology and Earthquake Geology, but especially we emphasise the major differences among these four distinct approaches. In order to better define and clearly separate these disciplines, in terms of appropriate tools to be applied and possible outcomes to be expected, an alternative point of view is proposed based on the source of information and not on a chronological distribution as commonly accepted in the literature. Although multidisciplinarity is a common approach for investigating past earthquakes, each one of the discussed disciplines has its own peculiarities, advantages and limitations, and researchers should be aware of this.
In light of the accumulated evidence now published, the oft-denigrated suggestion that major earthquakes took place in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean areas during the late 13th and early 12th centuries bc must be reconsidered. A new study of earthquakes occurring in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean region during the 20th century, utilizing data recorded since the invention of seismic tracking devices, shows that this area is criss-crossed with major fault lines and that numerous temblors of magnitude 6·5 (enough to destroy modern buildings, let alone those of antiquity) occur frequently. It can be demonstrated that such major earthquakes often occur in groups, known as “sequences” or “storms”, in which one large quake is followed days, months, or even years later by others elsewhere on the now-weakened fault line. When a map of the areas in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean region affected (i.e. shaken) by 20th centuryad earthquakes of magnitude 6·5 and greater and with an intensity of VII or greater is overlaid on Robert Drews' map of sites destroyed in these same regions during the so-called “Catastrophe” near the end of the Late Bronze Age, it is readily apparent that virtually all of these LBA sites lie within the affected (“high-shaking”) areas. While the evidence is not conclusive, based on these new data we would suggest that an “earthquake storm” may have occurred in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean during the years 1225–1175bc . This “storm” may have interacted with the other forces at work in these areas c. 1200bc and merits consideration by archaeologists and prehistorians.
Review by: John J. Clague
Earthquakes are one of the greatest natural hazards humans face. In the 20th century alone, over two million people have died during strong earthquakes and in the fires, tsunamis, and landslides that accompanied them. It is unlikely that the death toll in this century will be any lower, as evidenced by the tragic toll of the earthquakes in Pakistan in 2005, China in 2008, and Haiti in 2010, as well as the earthquake-triggered tsunamis in the Indian Ocean in 2004 and Japan in 2011. Until better construction practices are adopted and proactive earthquake preparation becomes standard, the death toll will climb, driven by increasing populations in hazardous areas. Furthermore, the 1995 Kobe earthquake taught us that increases in wealth and economic activity in earthquake-prone areas in industrialized countries are transforming what formerly were disasters with price tags of hundreds of millions of dollars of damage into national catastrophes producing hundreds of billions of dollars of damage, with global ripple economic effects.
Scientists are striving to better understand earthquakes, with the ultimate aim of forecasting them. Their research falls into three main categories. First, seismologists monitor earthquakes to understand how strain accumulates and is released in the lithosphere. Most countries have seismic networks, and seismologists use these records to characterize earthquakes in time and space. Their research provides an improved understanding of seismic risk. Second, geodeticists study contemporary surface deformation to provide a window into strain accumulation at depth. …
Severe and repeated earthquakes devastated Cyprus in antiquity, causing in many cases the abandonment of entire settlement sites. Yet, information regarding the level of seismic activity of historical seismicity in Cyprus is very limited and does not provide the evidence to arrive at reliable conclusions relative to hazard damage parameters such as the severity or occurrence frequency of a seismic event. Thereafter, the level of risk in which these monuments are exposed is unclear leading to an increased uncertainty regarding their safeguarding from future events.
Deformed arches are often key elements of archaeoseismic studies; arches have been in use for more than three millennia and damage, particularly moved keystones, are clear indications of a seismogenic cause. We introduce a damage evaluation scheme that allows a straightforward determination of the degree of damage to an arch based on laser scan models and digital images. The scheme is applied to 90 arches of the Nimrod Castle, which is neighboring the Dead Sea fault and which was heavily damaged during the 1759 Lebanon earthquake. The analysis shows that the a priori assumption of a correlation between arch orientation and damage degree does not hold for the entire building. An exception is a large tower including a secret passage in which voussoirs have dropped along a more than 20 m long section.
Over 250 detailed observations of severe earthquake damage patterns were decoded at the complex of Nabatean-Roman-Byzantine buildings at the ancient desert settlement Mamshit. T h e seismic deformation patterns are of various types, including systematic tilting of walls, systematic rotation o f stones, slipped key stones of arches, walls pushed by displaced perpendicular walls, cracking of doorsteps and lintels, joints crossing two or more stones, bulging of central segments of walls. The joint occurrence of systematic tilting and systematic rotations serves as an internal check that the former were caused by earthquakes. Each of t h e specific deformation patterns defines boundary conditions that together disclose the anatomy of two devastating earthquakes: 1. at the end of the 3rd or beginning of the 4th cent, (revealed by the lower parts of buildings, built at the Roman period), with a paleoepicenter north of Mamshit, an seismic intensity probably of IX in EMS-98 Scale, the activated fault being situated at t h e Judean Desert; 2. at the 7th cent, (revealed by the upper parts of buildings restored and built at the Byzantine period), with an epicenter at SW, an intensity of IX EMS-98 scale, the probable reactivated fault being one of the several E -W fault lines that cross the Negev. Regarding.the anatomy of the earthquakes, the results indicate that in each earthquake event there was a dominant damage-causing factor - as is reflected in the directional damage patterns.
Damages from two major earthquakes are identified in medieval Al-Marqab citadel (Latin: Margat) in coastal Syria. Built by the Order of St. John (Hospitallers) in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, the hilltop fortification has masonry walls made with and without mortar, using the opus caementum technology (Roman concrete). V-shaped and U-shaped failures, single-corner and symmetrical corner collapses, and in-plane shifts of ashlar masonry walls are identified and dated by historical and archaeological methods. The azimuth of displacement is NE-SW for the older damages of the Crusader period (A.D. 1170-1285), possibly related to the A.D. 1202 earthquake. A later, NW-SE displacement occurred during the Muslim period (post-1285). The 1202 earthquake produced at least VIII intensity on the MSK scale at Al-Marqab, which is higher than previously considered.
The 2011 rupture of previously undetected blind faults beneath Christchurch, New Zealand, in moment magnitude (Mw) 6.2 and 6.0 earthquakes triggered major rockfalls that caused fatalities and infrastructure damage. Here we use field, geospatial, seismologic, numerical modeling, and cosmogenic 3He data to provide first evidence for prehistoric rockfall ca. 8-6 ka, and a possible preceding event ca. 14-13 ka, at a site where extensive rockfall occurred in the Christchurch earthquakes. The long (~7 ± 1 k.y.) time intervals between successive rockfall events and the high peak ground velocity thresholds required for rockfall initiation at this site (~20-30 cm/s) preclude earthquakes from major identified seismic sources, including the plate boundary Alpine fault, as likely rockfall triggering sources. Rockfalls were probably triggered by strong paleoearthquakes sourced from active faults proximal (i.e., <10-20 km) to Christchurch, including the sources of the 2011 Christchurch earthquakes and/or other currently unidentified faults. Given the inherent incompleteness of seismic source catalogues and challenges in obtaining earthquake chronologies for blind faults, high scientific priority should be given to the search for, and analysis of, geologic records of strong earthquake shaking near populated areas.
Sāfītā, a crusader fortification in Tartūs Governorate, coastal Syria, bears major damages of earthquake origin. The tower suffered heavy vibration, which produced fractures across the thick walls, widening the central portion of the building, and causing arch keystones to slide downwards. Apparently a ~north-south strong motion was responsible for the damages. Further north, at Khirbat al-Qurshiyya, an abandoned village from Late Antiquity, a quarry abounds with fallen blocks. These display displacement predominantly in a northerly direction, suggesting a north-south strong motion. 'Ayn-Qadīb, a small village in the Jabal Ansāriyya ranges, was damaged by a northward-directed rockfall. A contemporary letter testifies to the fact that Sāfītā donjon was heavily damaged by the AD 1202 earthquake. The Yammouneh Fault, which probably caused the damage, is only 50. km away further south.
The nearly perfectly aligned toppled columns of the "Cathedral" at Sussita (Hippos) on the east bank of the Sea of Galilee, suggest an earthquake as the causative event. In this study I explore the proposed correlation of the column orientation and the ground motion direction. I consider the dynamic behavior of three-part columns-pedestal, shaft, and capital, based on those of the Cathedral in shape and size-in response to 3-dimensional earthquake ground motions, and investigate the influence of small changes in ground motions on the toppling behavior of individual freestanding columns and a system of three columns connected by rectangular architrave blocks. Alterations of ground motions are introduced by superimposing band-limited random noise of different amplitudes to measured earthquake strong ground motions. Even at noise levels scaled to 0.1% of the maximum ground displacement, significant differences in the toppling process are observed. The toppling motions reveal characteristics of a chaotic process. A change in the shape of the base of the pedestal also influences the dynamic response of the column system. The collapse of three columns connected by two architrave blocks is determined more by the orientation of the structure than by the polarization of the ground motion.
Online Material: Assessment of earthquakes before the year 1000 on the Iberian Peninsula, with historical documents in English, Spanish, Portuguese, or French.
Early lists or catalogs of earthquakes constitute what can be called, in some sense, the first type of seismological works. They give the date, time, place, and size of each earthquake in chronological order, providing the first organized knowledge of seismic activity beyond the description of individual occurrence of earthquakes and their damage. In early earthquakes lists or catalogs (before the twentieth century), all source parameters such as date, time, location, and size are rather approximate estimates. Date may be reduced to the year, place to the region, city, or town that suffered the greatest damage, and size to an adjective such as “terrific,” “large,” or “light.” One must not confuse these estimates with the much more precise date, origin time, epicenter location, and magnitude of modern catalogs based on instrumental observations. However, some modern catalogs give also very precise values of these parameters for historical earthquakes with insufficient evidences for the parameter assignments. For example, assigning very precise magnitude values to historical earthquakes is a very common but misleading practice in many modern catalogs, with its potentially detrimental consequences in seismic risk studies.
Two main problems must be considered when considering earthquake catalogs: the inclusion of each particular earthquake and the historical evidence on which it is based. The study of historical earthquakes is based on written sources or archeological evidence. The most reliable historical sources are naturally those of contemporary authors or of authors who quote contemporary sources that are not preserved. In the absence of contemporary accounts of the events, we may find reliable information preserved by later historians who may have had access to sources nearer in time to the events, although they may …
Archaeological evidence from a 2400 years old harbour, currently about 3 m above sea-level, sheds light on an enigmatic sequence of coastal uplift and subsidence along the coasts of Rhodes Island, close to a > 4 km deep trough marking the east edge of the Aegean Arc. The tectonics of this area are not clear, because of the absence of major earthquakes in the last 80 years, but are likely to be controlled by a combination of shear and compression producing strong earthquakes, some associated with tsunamis and some with thrust-uplifted notches. The latter, up to 6000 years old, also show evidence of phases of subsidence.
Our study focuses on remains of shipsheds, in particular a ramp used to pull warships out of the water and keep them protected under cover during winter. This ramp was constructed between approximately 250–225 BC and some decades later it was repaved, after a major earthquake destroyed the town of Rhodes and most probably the harbour and sheltered ships, as historical evidence reveals. 300 years later the harbour was to a great part abandoned because of a coastal uplift. The only reasonable explanation for the ramp reconstruction was to counteract a 1 m seismic subsidence at around 220 BC or earlier. Several possible explanations can be proposed for the earthquake which produced seismic subsidence alternating with uplift in Rhodes, in a pattern of vertical motions different from that observed in Crete, or other convergent boundaries.
We present a method that uses macroseismic intensity data to assess the location, physical dimensions, and orientation of the source of large historical earthquakes. Intensity data contain a great deal of information that can be used to constrain the essential characteristics of the seismic source. In particular, both the seismological theory and its practice suggest that the orientation of the source of significant earthquakes is reflected in the elongation of the associated damage pattern. A plausible and easily manageable way of describing a seismic source is by representing it as an oriented rectangle, the length and width of which are obtained from moment magnitude through empirical relationships. This rectangle is meant to represent either the actual surface projection of the seismogenic fault or, at least, the projection of the portion of the Earth crust where a given seismic source is likely to be located. The systematic application of this method to all the M > 5.5 earthquakes that occurred in the central and southern Apennines (Italy) in the past four centuries returned encouraging results that compare well with existing instrumental, direct geological, and geodynamic evidence. The method is quite stable for different choices of the algorithm parameters and provides elongation directions that in most cases can be shown to be statistically significant. In particular, the resulting pattern of source orientations is rather homogeneous, showing a consistent Apennines-parallel trend that agrees well with the NE-SW extension style of deformation active in the central and southern portions of the Italian peninsula.
Within the multidisciplinary field of archaeoseismology, quantitative methods have begun to be utilized more prevalently. This paper proposes a scheme of applying quantitative models to test the seismogenic hypothesis of observed damage and gives examples from field cases. The combination of 3D structural models of buildings or their remains based in part on phase shift laserscanner measurements combined with high-resolution digital images allows the construction of a damage and/or deformation inventory and assists archaeological work during an excavation. 3D surface meshes derived from the same scan data are the basis for Finite or Discrete Element models of the structures. The effect of site-specific earthquake-related ground motions, other natural causes, and anthropogenic influences are simulated and ultimately compared with the damage inventory. However, due to the high level of complexity of the problems, definite answers cannot always be achieved.
Historical records of earthquakes can contribute significantly to understanding active faulting and seismic hazards. However, pre twentieth century historians were unaware of the association of earthquakes and fault ruptures. Consequently, historical texts usually report the time and damage caused by earthquakes, but not the associated faults. Conversely, observed fault ruptures are often difficult to date. In order to overcome these difficulties, we have analyzed archaeological and sedimentological observations in recent excavations in the ancient city of Tiberias and have combined them with interpretation of historical accounts. Tiberias was founded in A.D. 19 by King Herod on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Kinneret). Herod's stadium, exposed in these excavations for the first time, was damaged by boulder-bearing flash floods and by an earthquake. Later buildings, dated as late as the early eighth century, are all covered by alluvium and lake deposits. They are also damaged and offset by normal faults, whereas buildings from the late eighth century are intact. We therefore attribute the damage to the earthquake of 18 January 749. The paleoseismic observations are in good agreement with the distribution of damage on the basis of historical records. Both data sets indicate a 100-km-long rupture segment between the Kinneret and the Dead Sea pull-apart basins, demonstrating that it is capable of generating M > 7 earthquakes.
On May 11th 2011, a Mw 5.2 earthquake stroke the city of Lorca in the SE Spain. This event caused 9 fatalities, 300 injuries and serious damage on the city and the surrounding areas. The Lorca earthquake occurred in the vicinity of a region bounding two well-known segments of a large active fault, the Alhama de Murcia fault (AMF). The Lorca earthquake offers a unique opportunity to study how strain is accommodated in an intersegment region of a large strike slip fault. We map recent tectonic structures in the epicentral region and we use radar interferometry to analyze the coseismic deformation. Combining these data with seismological observations of Lorca seismic sequence we first model the source of the earthquake. Then we analyze the influence of our preferred model in the adjacent segments by Coulomb failure stress modeling. The proposed earthquake source model suggests that this event ruptured an area of ~ 4 × 3 km within the complex structure that limits the Goñar–Lorca and Lorca–Totana segments of the AMF. The induced static stress change on the adjacent segments of the fault represents a seismic cycle advance equivalent to 200 to 1000 years of tectonic loading.
Since the early days of modern seismology, toppled artifacts such as tombstones and single columns have been used in the aftermath of earthquakes to deduce parameters of site-specific ground motions. The artifacts were generally treated as rigid bodies. Later, the theory of rigid block movements was also applied to precariously balanced rocks toppled by earthquakes. While the movements of a single rocking block can be described analytically, slide-rocking movements, bouncing, and multiple block systems require a numerical approach. We use multiple rigid block models with viscoelastic coupling forces in combination with full 3D ground motions (measured and synthetic) to analyze the dynamic response of building elements, relevant for archaeoseismological studies. First, the numeric modeling results are verified by comparison with analytically determined rocking motions of a single rectangular block. Stiffness and damping parameters of the coupling forces are adjusted to results from analog experiments with a rocking marble block. A model of a monolithic column and one consisting of seven drums is used to test the influence of the geometry and friction on the toppling behavior. The main question addressed in this study is whether toppled columns give a clear indication of the back azimuth toward the earthquake source. Input motion from 29 strong-motion records indicates little correlation between downfall directions and back azimuth. Clearly directed horizontal ground movements tend to topple the columns in the transverse direction. More complex ground motions result in quasi-random downfall directions. The friction coefficients have a minor influence on the downfall directions. Synthetic ground motions for two earthquakes with different source mechanism show toppling directions toward and away from the source as well as in the transverse bearing. However, it is not straightforward to deduce a reliable source location from the inversion of the toppling directions.
This paper forms the Introduction to this Special Issue of Tectonophysics, devoted to selected scientific research presented during events sponsored by the INQUA Subcommission on Paleoseismicity in the past few years. In this note, we summarize the contents of the contributed papers and use the issues they raise to review the state-of-the-art in paleoseismology from a Quaternary geology perspective. In our opinion, the evolution of paleoseismological studies in the past decade clearly demonstrates that in order to properly understand the seismic potential of a region, and to assess the associated hazards, broad-based/multidisciplinary studies are necessary to take full advantage from the geological evidence of past earthquakes. A major challenge in future paleoseismic research is to build detailed empirical relations between various categories of coseismic effects in the natural environment and earthquake magnitude/intensity. These relations should be compiled in a way that is fully representative of the wide variety of natural environments on Earth, in terms of climatic settings, Quaternary tectonic evolution, rheological parameters of the seismogenic crust, and stress environment. For instance, available data indicate that between earthquake magnitude and surface faulting parameters different scaling laws exist, and they are a function of the local geodynamic setting (including style of faulting, typical focal depths, heat flow). In this regard, we discuss in some detail the concept of seismic landscape, which provides the necessary background for developing paleoseismological research strategies. The large amount of paleoseismological data collected in recent years shows that each earthquake source creates a signature on the geology and the geomorphology of an area that is unequivocally related with the order of magnitude of its earthquake potential. This signature is defined as the seismic landscape of the area (e.g., Serva, L., Vittori, E., Ferreli, L., Michetti, A.M., 1997. Geology and seismic hazard. In: Grellet, B., Mohammadioun, B., Hays, W. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second France–United States Workshop on Earthquake Hazard Assessment in Intraplate Regions: Central and Eastern United States and Western Europe, October 16, 1995, Nice, France, 20–24, Ouest Editions, Nantes, France; Michetti, A.M., Hancock, P.L., 1997. Paleoseismology: understanding past earthquakes using quaternary geology. Journal of Geodynamics 24 (1–4), 3–10). We then illustrate how this relatively new framework is helpful in understanding the seismic behavior of faults capable of producing surface faulting and provides a comprehensive approach for the use of paleoseismicity data in earthquake hazard characterization.
The St. Simeon Fault is 80 km long and stretches from the eastern side of the Al Ghab Depression to the north–east; it links the structures of the Levant and East-Anatolian active zones. Left-lateral strike-slip displacements and deformations of landforms cut by the fault have been recorded. The Sim'an Ridge is located between two branches of the fault and displaced by 1.2 km, overlapping a young depression. As the terminations of these branches at the site of their overlapping converge northerly, the mechanism of structural scissors considerably enhances the lateral extrusion of the Sim'an Ridge. The St. Simeon Monastery, built by the Byzantine in the 5th century AD, is situated on the top of the Sim'an Ridge.The main church of the St. Simeon Monastery has a cruciform shape, and its eastern wing is deflected by 3–9° to the north. The existing architectural explanation of this phenomenon assumes initial designing of this bend by the builders and contains many contradictions. Upon our study of active faults, specific features and traces of seismic impacts on the monastery structures, we suggest an alternative, seismic explanation. Our scenario interprets the curvatures of the monastery structures as a consequence of distributed co-seismic or post-seismic deformations in the intra-fault block delimited by the branches of the St. Simeon Fault.
This article examines the use of archaeological evidence for the assessment of historical earthquakes in the Eastern Mediterranean region and Middle East, long before the advent of modern seismology. We ask the questions when and where have large earthquakes happened in the past? How can this evidence contribute to our scientific understanding of earthquake activity? Is it possible on literary and archaeological grounds to distinguish between earthquake damage and damage from other causes? It is found that archaeological evidence for an earthquake is not always clear or unambiguous and that there is a need for collaboration between archaeologists, historians, geologists, engineering seismologists and workers in other disciplines, to evaluate the traces of earthquakes in excavations, both for understanding their effects at the site and for the information they can provide about the nature of the earthquake implicated.
Archaeological structures that exhibit seismogenic damage expand our knowledge of temporal and spatial distribution of earthquakes, afford independent examination of historical accounts, provide information on local earthquake intensities and enable the delineation of macroseismic zones. They also illustrate what might happen in future earthquakes. In order to recover this information, we should be able to distinguish earthquake damage from anthropogenic damage and from other natural processes of wear and tear. The present paper reviews several types of damage that can be attributed with high certainty to earthquakes and discusses associated caveats. In the rare cases, where faults intersect with archaeological sites, offset structures enable precise determination of sense and size of slip, and constrain its time. Among the characteristic off-fault damage types, I consider horizontal shifting of large building blocks, downward sliding of one or several blocks from masonry arches, collapse of heavy, stably-built walls, chipping of corners of building blocks, and aligned falling of walls and columns. Other damage features are less conclusive and require additional evidence, e.g., fractures that cut across several structures, leaning walls and columns, warps and bulges in walls. Circumstantial evidence for catastrophic earthquake-related destruction includes contemporaneous damage in many sites in the same area, absence of weapons or other anthropogenic damage, stratigraphic data on collapse of walls and ceilings onto floors and other living horizons and burial of valuable artifacts, as well as associated geological palaeoseismic phenomena such as liquefaction, land- and rock-slides, and fault ruptures. Additional support may be found in reliable historical accounts. Special care must be taken in order to avoid circular reasoning by maintaining the independence of data acquisition methods.
The long historical record of earthquakes, the physical effects on ancient building structures and the palaeoseismology provide a unique opportunity for an interdisciplinary tectonic analysis along a major plate boundary and a realistic evaluation of the seismic hazard assessment in the Middle East. We demonstrate with micro-topographic surveys and trenching that the Dead Sea fault (DSF) offsets left-laterally by 13.6±0.2 m a repeatedly fractured ancient Roman aqueduct (older than AD 70 and younger than AD 30). Carbon-14 dating of faulted young alluvial deposits documents the occurrence of three large earthquakes in the past 2000 years between AD 100 and 750, between AD 700 and 1030 and between AD 990 and 1210. Our study provides the timing of late Holocene earthquakes and constrains the 6.9±0.1 mm/yr slip rate of the Dead Sea transform fault in northwestern Syria along the Missyaf segment. The antepenultimate and most recent faulting events may be correlated with the AD 115 and AD 1170 large earthquakes for which we estimate Mw=7.3–7.5. The ∼830 yr of seismic quiescence along the Missyaf fault segment implies that a large earthquake is overdue and may result in a major catastrophe to the population centres of Syria and Lebanon.
Examination of 20th century data from the U.K. shows a good correlation between felt area and instrumental magnitude, producing good magnitude values for historical earthquakes where felt area is known; this is a more reliable method than using I0. The equations: ML = 1.03 log A3:; -0.19; ML = 0.92 log A4 + 0.71 give magnitude from areas within isoseismals 3 and 4 MSK. Dcpths for historical earthquakes have also been obtained using a modification of the well-known Sponheuer method, using the program MACDEP; the regional value for (á is 0.003 and depths for events with magnitude above 4 ML range from 3 to 25 km.
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