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Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila

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  • Tribhuvan University . Institute of Engineering . Pulchowk Campus

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p>Due to rapid urbanization, Metro Manila is facing many environmental challenges with its continuous accelerating urban growth rate. According to 2010 census of population Metro Manila accounts about one-third of the total urban population and about 13% of the total national population of Philippines. The impact of urban growth of the Metro Manila to its urban environment relating on demography, solid wastes problem and problems in water bodies as well as air pollution and greenhouse gas emissionis emphasized here in this study. The flood prone areas within the Metro Manila is about 31%, most of the risk areas located along creeks, river banks or coastal areas. Metro Manila produces total garbage equivalent to 25% of the national waste generation in which about 17% is paper wastes and about 16% are plastics. In terms of water quality classification the upper reaches of the Marikina River is of Class A, but all remaining river systems are of Class C. Accordingly, the classification of Manila Bay is of Class SB. Similarly, the quality of ambient air of the Metro Manila is also poor. Using 2010 as base year, the major contributor to greenhouse gas is from vehicular emissions followed by the stationary sources. An urgent need is felt to incorporate environmental issues into planning its urban area to reduce the risks of further environmental degradation. Journal of Advanced College of Engineering and Management , Vol. 3, 2017, Page: 79-92</p
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79 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
Journal of Advanced College of Engineering and Management, Vol. 3, 2017
URBANIZATION AND RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF METRO
MANILA
Ram Krishna Regmi
Environment and Resource Management Consultant, Kathmandu, Nepal
Email Address: rkregmi@engineer.com
__________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
Due to rapid urbanization, Metro Manila is facing many environmental challenges with its continuous accelerating urban
growth rate. According to 2010 census of population Metro Manila accounts about one-third of the total urban population
and about 13% of the total national population of Philippines.The impact of urban growth of the Metro Manila to its urban
environment relating on demography, solid wastes problem and problems in water bodies as well as air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissionis emphasized here in this study.The flood prone areas within the Metro Manila is about 31%, most
of the risk areas located along creeks, river banks or coastal areas.Metro Manila produces total garbage equivalent to 25% of
the national waste generation in which about 17% is paper wastes and about 16% are plastics. In terms of water quality
classification the upper reaches of the Marikina River is of Class A, but all remaining river systems are of Class C.
Accordingly, the classification of Manila Bay is of Class SB. Similarly, the quality of ambient air of the Metro Manila is also
poor. Using 2010 as base year, the major contributor to greenhouse gas is from vehicular emissions followed by the
stationary sources. An urgent need is felt to incorporate environmental issues into planning its urban area to reduce the risks
of further environmental degradation.
Keywords: Metro Manila; urbanization; environmental issues; solid wastes;water quality; air pollution
_________________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Urbanization is a process by which cities are formed and became larger due to industrialization and
economic development, and that encourages urban specific changes in specialization, labor division
and human behaviors (Uttara et al., 2012). It is one of the most powerful and visible anthropogenic
forces on Earth (Dawson et al., 2009). The rate of urbanization is very fast since the second half of the
twentieth century, particularly in developing countries (Chadchan and Shankar, 2009). Almost all of
the world’s population growth between 2000 and 2030 will be concentrated in urban areas in
developing countries (United Nations, 2005). Worldwide urban populations are expected to grow by
1.4 billion by 2030, with accounting 60% of the total world population in city and town; and expected
to reach 2.6 billion (USAID, 2013).
Urbanization is associated with the development and modernization of underdeveloped and
developing countries. This includes the very rapid growth of many cities without the needed
expansion in infrastructure and services and with a significant proportion of their population living in
informal settlements or ‘slums’ lacking any infrastructure or services (Hardoy et al., 2001). It has long
been common for urbanization to be blamed for a range of environmental problems, and over the last
several decades scientists and policy makers have paid attention to cities and urbanization (Hope,
1986; Zhang and Song, 2003; Siciliano, 2012).
Urbanization has created numerous local to the global scale environmental problems (Kim and Baik,
2005; Zhao et al., 2006); such as highly reduction in natural vegetation production and carbon storage
(Fang et al., 2003; Yuan, 2008), climate change and increase in energy demands (Zhou et al., 2004;
Gonzalez et al., 2005), increase in air and water pollution and decrease in water supply (Liu and
Diamond, 2005; Shao et al., 2006), and insufficient housing and sanitation facilities and traffic
80 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
obstruction (Jago-on et al., 2009). Thus, recently many researchers (e.g., Foster, 2001; Chen, 2007; Li
and Yao, 2009; Martinez-Zarzoso and Maruotti, 2011) have been conducted studies with the goal of
better understanding the issues related to urbanization and its impacts on environments as a top
priority. Most of the major environmental problems of the next century probably will result from the
continuation and sharpening of existing problems that currently do not receive enough political
attention (Uttara et al., 2012).
The population of Metro Manila is one of the largest in the Asia Pacific Region and in the world.
Metro Manila is a megacity with the population exceeding 11.8 million people in 2010 spread over 17
local government units (NSO, 2012). According to the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
Study (UN-HABITAT, 2010), Metro Manila is considered one of the rapidly urbanizing megacities,
ranking 14thamong 20 megacities around the world with a population projected to reach 14.8 million
by 2025. As a highly urbanized area, Metro Manila experiences a lot of environmental problems
associated with urbanization such as flooding, solid waste management problems, air and water
pollution and climate change (Raflores and Regmi, 2015). The studies on urbanization of Metro
Manila directly connected to its size, population, solid waste problem, water sector quality and air
pollution and greenhouse gas emission have not been conducted yet. Therefore, this study aims to
highlight the implications of urbanization for Metro Manila urban environment focusing on
demography,solid wastes problem and problems in water sectorsas well asair pollution and
greenhouse gas emission.
2. Location and key characteristics
Metro Manila, also called National Capital Region (NCR) of Philippines, is located at 14°40' N and
121°3 E. It is bounded by the Sierra Madre Mountain Range in the east, the Manila Bay in the west,
the Laguna de Bay in the south-east and the fertile plains of Central Luzon in the north. The region is
bounded by Bulacan province to the north, Rizal province to the east, Laguna province to the south
and Cavite province to the southwest. It is composed of sixteen cities and one municipality (Fig. 1).
Metro Manila has a total land area of 63,600 hectares, approximately 0.21 % of the country’s land
area of 30 million hectares (Ragragio, 2003). It is divided into 1,694 barangays, the smallest
administrative division in the country. Metro Manila is generally flat with the average elevation of
about 10 meters on its western part. Elevation increases towards the eastern portion around the
Marikina Valley. Fig. 2 shows the elevation map of Metro Manila.
Metropolitan Manila was created by virtue of Presidential Decree (PD) No. 824 (1975) issued on
November 7, 1975. It was constituted as a special development and administrative region in 1995
through the passage of Republic Act No. 7924. Its affairs are being administered by the Metropolitan
Manila Development Authority (MMDA) which was created under the same law. MMDA executes
planning, monitoring and coordinative functions, and in the course of action, exercises regulatory and
supervisory authority over the delivery of metro-wide services such as development planning, urban
renewal, flood control and sewerage management, transport and traffic management, solid waste
disposal and management, zoning and land use planning, health and sanitation, urban protection and
pollution control, and public safety. The component cities and municipality retain their basic
autonomy and continue to be primarily responsible for the administration of specific problems and
issues concerning their respective political jurisdictions.
Metro Manila has a tropical wet and dry climate that borders on a tropical monsoon climate. Seasonal
temperature observed at three synoptic stations (Science Garden, NAI and Port Area) in the region
from 1980-2013 ranged from an average of 26.6°C during the cold months of December to February
to a high 28.4°C during the hot months of March to November. Observed seasonal rainfall during the
81 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
same years reached as 297.4 mm during dry months of December to May and 2254.8 mm during rainy
months Jun to November.
Fig 1 Administrative Boundary Map of Metro Manila
(Source: http://www.philgis.org/freegisdata.htm)
Fig 2 Elevation Map of Metro Manila (Source: http://www.philgis.org/freegisdata.htm)
82 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
3. Urbanization and potential implications
3.1. Urban Expansion
The increasing prices of land in the Metro Manila area and the associated environmental problems
resulting from urbanization had directed to the growing movement of development in the surrounding
regions of Metro Manila (Magno-Ballesteros, 2000). According to Singruand Lindfield (2014), the
high level of urbanization of Regions III and IV-A, which is in close proximity to Metro Manila, is an
indication of suburbanization and peri-urban development. A study conducted by World Bank Group
(2015) also supports these findings. It showed that almost all the spatial growth in the Metro Manila
area occurred in the neighbouring provinces of Cavite located south of Manila, Bulacan in the north
and Laguna in the southeast. Fig. 3 shows the direction of the urban expansion from 2000-2010. The
estimated day time population of Metro Manila is 14,500,000 persons or 22.3% higher than the actual
census conducted in 2010 (Tolentino, 2013). This indicates that many people working in Metro
Manila actually live in its neighbouring areas.
Fig 3 Map Showing the Direction of Expansion of Metro Manila (Source: World Bank Group, 2015)
Despite these movements, Metro Manila still experiences the various environmental problems
associated with rapid and unplanned urbanization such as flooding, solid waste problems, a
proliferation of informal settler families (ISFs), deterioration of air quality and increasing greenhouse
gas emissions. With rapid urbanization of Metro Manila has resulted in the unregulated development
of informal settlements usually on dangerous and risky areas such as those near seashore or flood
zone (swampy areas), or on grounds prone to landslides (World Bank, 2010). Houses are also built
near or above esteros and along rivers, which pose a danger to the lives of these ISFs during flooding
events. The presence of informal settlers along the rivers and their tributaries also contributed to the
constriction of the drainage areas of Metro Manila, have caused flooding during heavy rains.
Moreover, these informal settlers add to the deterioration of the water quality of these water bodies
due to indiscriminate disposal of wastes. Records from the concerned LGUs show that there are about
60,130 ISFs as of June 2012 in all the 17 cities and municipality of NCR.
83 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
3.2. Land use change
Based on MMEIRS (2004), residential areas constituted 44.8% of the region’s land area in 2003
(Table 1). About 28% were open spaces and parks, 12.2% commercial, 7.6% industrial and 6.9%
percent institutional. From a primarily agricultural area (55.6%) in 1938, lands in Metro Manila were
converted to residential uses (65%) in the 1990s (Magno-Ballesteros, 2000). The share of residential
areas, however, decreased in 2003 in favor of commercial, industrial and institutional uses as well as
open spaces including parks, roads, and other utilities. The land use trend in Metro Manila was
influenced by the response to socio-economic demands of a growing population and not necessarily
according to a plan (Ali and Porciuncula, 2001). The following trends have been identified to
characterize land use in the region:
Increase density and size of informal settlements in the city centers
Development of medium scale residential subdivisions for upper and upper-middle income
markets up to the peripheries of the inner and intermediate cores while low-cost housing has
moved to the outer core in the neighboring provinces of Rizal. Bulacan, Cavite and Laguna
The growth of big commercial centers along EDSA and other major thoroughfares, and
Infilling of the urban area with high-density housing.
Table 1 Metro Manila’s Land Use, 1938-2003
Classification
As % to total land area
1938* 1980* 1990* 1994* 2003**
Residential 14.2a29.4 65.0 65.0 44.8
Commercial - 3.0 3.4 8.0 12.2
Industrial - 4.7 4.0 3.0 7.6
Institutional - 4.5 5.2 10.6 6.9
Utilities - 1.4 4.0 4.0
Agricultural 55.6b12.5b8.4 4.4
Open Space 5.1 24.3 8.0 4.0 28.4d
Forest
Land/Parks
25.1 20.2 2.0 1.0c
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
aIncludes commercial and industrial
bIncludes fishery (4.4%) and mining and quarrying (0.2%)
cIncludes fishpond area
dIncludes parks and roads
Source: *Magno-Ballesteros, 2000; ** MMEIRS, 2004
84 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
3.3. Demography
Based on 2010 census of population (NSO, 2012), Metro Manila registered a population of
11,855,975. This accounts for about one-third of the total urban population and about 13% of the total
national population of 92,337,852. Its total urban area, composing of the urban cluster which refers to
the continuous urban expansion of Metro Manila into the provinces of Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite and
Laguna has a population of 24,123,000 (Demographia, 2015). It is the most densely populated region
in the Philippines, more than 60 times denser than at the national level, with 186 persons per hectare.
Table 2 shows the trends in population for the component cities and municipalities of Metro Manila
over a period of 1990 to 2010.
Table 2 Population of Metro Manila by Component City and Municipality, 1990-2010
Province/City/Municipality 1990 2000 2010
City of Malabon 280,027 338,855 353,337
City of Navotas 187,479 230,403 249,131
City of Valenzuela 340,227 485,433 575,356
Caloocan City 763,415 1,177,604 1,489,040
City of Marikina 310,227 391,170 424,150
City of Pasig 397,679 505,058 669,773
Pateros Municipality 51,409 57,407 64,147
Taguig City 266,637 467,375 644,473
Quezon City 1,669,776 2,173,831 2,761,720
City of Makati 453,170 471,379 529,039
City of Mandaluyong 248,143 278,474 328,699
City of San Juan 126,854 117,680 121,430
City of Manila 1,601,234 1,581,082 1,652,171
City of Las Piñas 297,102 472,780 552,573
City of Muntinlupa 278,411 379,310 459,941
City of Paranaque 308,236 449,811 588,126
Pasay City 368,366 354,908 392,869
Metro Manila 7,948,392 9,932,560 11,855,975
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority website (www.psa.gov.ph) retrieved in May 13, 2015
85 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
3.4. Flooding
Extreme flood events in Metro Manila are usually caused by heavy precipitation events lasting over 1
to 3 days generally resulting from typhoons and storm surges. Other causes of flooding are high tide
combined with excess runoff from rivers, heavy rains, and sea level rise (WB, 2010). In addition to
natural causes,WB (2010) said that extreme flood events are also caused by anthropogenic factors
such as: a) reduction in river channel capacity resulting from encroachment of houses, siltation from
deforestation, and garbage, b) disappearance of small river channels (esteros), c) reduced infiltration
due to urbanization, d) loss of natural retention areas, and e) land subsidence resulting from over
extraction of ground water. Drainage canals already clogged with rubbish is a major factor causing
severe flooding in the metropolis (Singru and Lindfield, 2014).
About 31% of Metro Manila’s land area is prone to flooding (Magno-Ballesteros, 2000).Pornasdoro,
et al. (2014) reported that the coastal cities of Valenzuela, Malabon, Caloocan, Navotas, Manila,
Pasay, Parañaque and Las Piñas are considered the most flood prone areas in Metro Manila. Tidal
movements in the Manila Bay and land subsidence particularly in Central Manila cause flooding in
these cities. The extensive rainfall brought by Tropical Storm Ondoy (Ketsana) and Typhoon Pepeng
(Parma) in 2009 had put most of the Metro Manila area under water. Even those areas that are not
considered flood risks areas were severely affected.
The number of lives lost as a percentage of total population based on reports of the National Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) has been steadily increasing from 0.003% in
2010 to 0.021% in 2011. Existing flood control structures in identified high risk areas are not enough
to handle unexpected storm water (Singru and Lindfield, 2014).
Pornasdoro, et al. (2014)carried out a study to assess the flood risk of Metro Manila at the barangay
level.They noted that most of the areas at risks are those located along creeks, river banks or coastal
areas.The maps of the affected barangays under the worst flood risk scenario for 2020 and 2030 based
on the study are shown in Figure 4.
Fig 4 Worst Scenario Flood Risks Maps of Metro Manila Barangaysfor 2020 and 2030
86 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
In order to address flooding issue in the metropolis, the government has initiated the Formulation and
Implementation of a Flood Management Master Plan for Metro Manila. The Master Plan was
formulated based on a Flood Risk Study conducted after Tropical Storm Ondoy and Typhoon Pepeng
that hit Metro Manila. The study covers 435,400 hectares and includes the entire Metro Manila area as
well as the provinces of Rizal, Laguna and parts of Bulacan.The Flood Management Master Plan that
was formulated identified and short listed 11 long-term structural mitigation programs. These are
independent programs but part of the integral measures for mitigating floods in Metro Manila and
surrounding Areas.
3.5. Solid Wastes Problem
Metro Manila resident generates 0.69 kg of solid wastes per day in 2010 which is higher than the
national average of 0.40 kg/capita/day (NSWMC, 2015). Total garbage produced by Metro Manila is
estimated at 8,400 to 8,600 tons each day or equivalent to 25% of the national waste generation.
About 17% of the daily total is paper wastes while 16% are plastics.
Wastes collected from NCR are disposed in the three disposal facilities, namely: the Rizal Provincial
Sanitary Landfill (SLF) located in Rodriguez, Rizal; the Payatas SLF in Quezon City and the Tanza
SLF in Navotas. These facilities service the 17 local government units of Metro Manila. They also
serve as disposal sites for the garbage collected by MMDA from the different esteros and pumping
stations in the region. The MMDA (2014) reported that more than 9.9 million cubic meters of
garbage/wastes were disposed in these in 2014. This is 1.7 percent increase over 2013.It was
estimated that only 70 % of the total garbage generated in Metro Manila are collected. The
uncollected garbage goes into the river systems and esteros resulting in the clogging of waterways.
This aggravates flooding in the metropolis.
3.6. Water Quality Problem
Water bodies in the Philippines, both inland surface waters and coastal and marine waters are
classified according to their current most beneficial use or, in special cases, according to their
intended or future beneficial use (DENR, 1990). Water classifications have been described according
to the degree of protection required, with AA and SA classifications for inland surface waters and
coastal and marine waters, respectively, corresponding to the most stringent levels of water quality
(Table 3).
Five river systems traverse Metro Manila: the Marikina River, San Juan River, Parañaque River, Pasig
River and Navotas-Malabon-Tullahan-Tenejeros River. Both the Marikina and San Juan rivers are
major tributaries of the Pasig River. Except for the upper reaches of the Marikina River, which are
classified as Class A, all five river systems were classified as Class C water bodies.Manila Bay was
classified as Class SB, which means that the area is to be used for contact recreation such as bathing,
swimming, skin diving, and similar activities and as spawning areas for milkfish and other similar
species.
3.7. Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emission
The increasing population in the metropolis and the rapid development in the area caused the poor
quality of ambient air in the region. In 2013, total suspended particulates (TSP) or the amount of dust
in the air in Metro Manila (132 Pg/Ncm) exceeded the standard level of90 Pg/Ncm by 47% (EMB,
2014). The amount of particulate matters PM10 was recorded as 74 Pg/Ncm during the same year,
exceeding the standard of 60 Pg/Ncm by 23%. The high TSP and PM10 levels were due mainly from
vehicular emissions (80%) while stationary sources contributed only 20%.
87 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
Table 3 Classification of Water Bodies in the Philippines
Class Beneficial Use
Fresh Surface Water (Rivers, Lakes, Reservoirs, etc.)
AA
Public Water Supply Class I. For waters having watershed which are
uninhabited and otherwise protected and which require only approved
disinfection in order to meet the National Standards for Drinking Water
(NSDW) of the Philippines
A
Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of water supply that will
require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and
disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW
B
Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact recreation such as
bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those intended for
tourism purposes).
C
1. Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources
2. Recreational Water Class II (e. g., boating, etc.)
3. Industrial Water Supply Class I (for manufacturing processes after
treatment)
D
1. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering, etc.
2. Industrial Water Supply Class II (e. g., cooling, etc.)
3. Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this classification.
Coastal and Marine Waters
SA
1. Waters suitable for propagation, survival and harvesting of shellfish
for commercial purposes
2. Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves established
under Proclamation 1801; existing laws and/or declared as such by the
appropriate government agency
3. Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned
authorities
SB
1. Recreational Water Class I (areas regularly used by the public for
bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)
2. Fishery Water Class I (spawning areas for “Bangus” and other similar
species).
SC
1. Recreational Water Class II (e. g., boating, etc.)
2. Fishery Water Class II (commercial and sustenance fishing)
3. Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife
sanctuaries
SD
1. Industrial Water Supply II (e. g., cooling, etc.)
2. Other coastal and marine waters, by their quality, belong to this
classification.
Source: DENR (1990)
88 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
Fig 5 Total Suspended Particulates (TS) and PM 10 Level for Metro Manila, 2010-2013 (Source:
EMB, 2014)
Aside from air pollution, a growing concern is on the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted in
the atmosphere resulting from rapid urbanization. Greenhouse gases contribute to global warming,
which in turn, causes climate change. Using 2010 as base year, DENR (2013) showed that net
emissions for Metro Manila amounted to 23,521.66 Gg of carbon dioxide equivalent. The energy
sector accounted for 89.27% (21,025.97 Gg) of the total emissions while the waste sector contributed
10.60% (2,495.69 Gg). The contribution of the industrial, agricultural and land use sectors are
insignificant.CO2accounted for almost all (99.10%) of emissions from the energy sector, while CH4
and N2O represent less than 1% of emissions (0.28% and 0.62%, respectively).
Emissions from the waste sector are segregated into three: solid waste disposal, biological treatment
and wastewater treatment and discharge. The major contributor is wastewater treatment and discharge
(67.20%), followed by solid waste disposal (30.73%). In terms of GHGs, CH4 was the predominant
gas at 98.89%, with the balance coming from N2O.
Table 4 GHG Emissions by Sector by Gas
Sector and Source
Gg CO2e %of Sector
Emissions
CO2CH4N2OTotal
Energy Sector
Stationary and Mobile Sources 20,836.73 58.03 131.21 21,025.97 100.0%
Waste Sector
Solid Waste Disposal - 767.05 1 767.05 30.73%
Biological Treatment of Waste - 24.50 27.13 51.63 2.07%
Wastewater treatment &
discharge -1,501.02 175.88 1,677.00 67.20%
Total - 2,292.67 203.01 2,495.69 100.0%
Source: DENR (2013)
89 | jacem, Vol. 3, 2017 Urbanization and Related Environmental Issues of Metro Manila
4. Conclusion
Metro Manila is one of the rapidly urbanizing megacities in the word with a population projected to
reach 14.8 million by 2025. Like other mega cities of the developing countries, it has also experienced
alot of environmental problems related to urbanization such as flooding, solid waste problems, a
proliferation of informal settler families, deterioration of water quality, deterioration of air quality and
increasing greenhouse gas emissions.
The land use trend in Metro Manila was the impact of socio-economic demands of theincrease in
population.The informal settlers along the riversystemshave been partly responsible for the
constriction of the drainage areas causing floods during heavy rains, and deterioration of the water
quality of thewater bodies as well.Themost of the flood risk areas located along creeks, river banks or
coastal areas those covering about 31% of the Metro Manila. At present the government has initiated
the formulation and implementation of a Flood Management Master Plan for Metro Manilaand its
surroundings that covers 435,400 hectares area.
Total garbage generated by Metro Manila is about 25% of the national waste generation in which only
about 70% of the total generated garbage are collected and disposed in the disposal facilities. The
uncollected garbage goes into the river systems and esteros thereby clogsthe entire
waterways.Looking for the water quality of the water bodies of the Metro Manila, the upper reaches
of the Marikina River is of Class A quality, and the remaining river systems are of Class C. The
Manila Bay exhibits the water quality classification of Class SB.
The major contribution of deterioration of ambient air of the Metro Manila is from vehicular
emissions and the stationary sources are the minor contributor. In terms of greenhouse gas emission
the major contributor is the energy sector accounted for about 89.27% of the total emissions while the
waste sector contributed about 10.60% as a minor contributor. The industrial, agricultural and land
use sectors contribution to greenhouse gas emissionis insignificant.
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Thesis
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Thesis
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The People's Republic of China and its 1.3 billion people have experienced a rapid economic growth in the past two decades. China's urbanisation ratio rose from around 20% in the early 1980s to 45% in 2007 [China Urban Research Committee. Green building. Beijing: Chinese Construction Industrial Publish House; 2008. ISBN 978-7-112-09925-2.]. The large volume and rapid speed of building construction rarely have been seen in global development and cause substantial pressure on resources and the environment. Government policy makers and building professionals, including architects, building engineers, project managers and property developers, should play an important role in enhancing the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of the building energy efficiency process in forming the sustainable urban development. This paper addresses the emerging issues relating to building energy consumption and building energy efficiency due to the fast urbanisation development in China.
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Groundwater is of major importance in providing municipal water-supply and for private domestic and industrial use in many urban centres. The subsurface has also come to serve as the receptor for much urban and industrial wastewater and for solid waste disposal, especially in the developing world. In result, there are rather widespread indications of degradation of the groundwater resource-base caused by excessive exploitation and/or inadequate pollution control. This paper is based primarily on the detailed investigation of six cities in Latin America and Asia. Fuller details are to be found in a related World Bank publication entitled `Groundwater in Urban Development' (Foster, Lawrence, & Morris, 1998). The objective of the present paper is to raise awareness of the interdependence of groundwater and urbanisation among urban policy-makers and to provide a framework for systematic consideration of groundwater in urban management.