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‘Hole-In-The-Wall’ Computer Kiosks Foster Mathematics Achievement - A comparative study
Abstract
Earlier work at unsupervised playground computer kiosks in rural India, popularly called 'hole-in-the-wall', showed that children exposed to these kiosks learn to use computers on their own and that they are able to clear school examinations in computer science, without any classroom teaching for it. Extending this, our recent research work examines the possible impact on attainments in other curricular subjects, arising from self-directed use of these kiosks. This paper investigates the impact of use of the playground computer kiosk, on school examination results, of students in a rural school in India over a 2.5-year period from 2002-2004. A comparative study was conducted, of students from a kiosk school and a non-kiosk school, as well as of frequent and infrequent users of the kiosk. The study covered groups of a total of 161 students who were aged 13-14 in 2004. Students were measured for differences in their intelligence, creativity potential, leadership potential, and frequency of kiosk use. The school results show a significant impact of kiosk usage on Mathematics achievement. (http://www.ifets.info/)
... In particular, technology via interactive multimedia can change teaching and learning styles, including fostering whole class engagement and the creation of assessments (Cooper & Brna, 2002;Eseryel, Guo & Law, 2012;Godwin & Sutherland, 2004;Sadik, 2008;Yang & Tsai, 2010). Previous studies have shown that appropriate use of technology, including interactive multimedia, can not only promote students' mathematics performance (Dick, 2007;Eseryel et al., 2012;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Ruthven, 2007;Shion, 2008;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek, Heid, Blume, & Dick, 2007), but also foster positive attitudes toward mathematics learning (Aliasgari et al, 2010;Chan, Tsai, & Huang, 2006;Eseryel et al., 2012;Lan, Sung, Tan, Lin, & Chang, 2010;Olkun, Altun, & Smith, 2005;Yang & Tsai, 2010). In addition, interactive multimedia can connect and bridge the gap between the concrete and abstract mathematical concepts for all mathematics grade levels (Shion, 2008;Yang & Tsai, 2010;Zbiek et al., 2007). ...
... The results we have described of integrating interactive multimedia into number sense teaching shows that the computer animation panels not only are effective tools to help children make sense of the meanings of fraction and decimal, but also can promote children's use of number sense-based methods efficiently. This supports earlier studies and documents that technology has a positive effect on helping children learn mathematics (Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;NCTM, 2000;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007). In addition, the results also show that children are interested in and feel comfortable using the computer animation panels to help them solve problems in mathematics class: "It is fun. ...
... However, the students interviewed for this study, with the exception of L2, greatly increased their use of number sense-based methods (e.g., understanding the basic meaning of numbers, recognizing the magnitude of numbers, being able to use multiple representations, recognizing the relative effect of an operation on numbers, and judging the reasonableness of computational results) and decreased the use of rule-based methods and inaccuracy after experiences the technology-integrated number sense instruction. This is consistent with earlier studies that found that integrating technology into the mathematics class can help children develop better understanding of mathematical concepts (Bennison & Goos, 2010;Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;NCTM, 2000;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007) and number sense (Yang & Tsai, 2010). In addition, our results also show that students' responses after the experimental instruction tend to be more flexible with respect to thinking about the concepts of fraction and decimal and using benchmarks (e.g., 1 and 1/2) efficiently. ...
This paper describes how number sense was taught with interactive multimedia in a primary classroom in Taiwan and reports the differences of interviewed students' use of number sense strategies before and after the instruction. One sixth grade class which contains 32 students (18 boys and 14 girls) was selected to join the teaching experiment in a technology-based environment. The results show that the teaching of number sense can be implemented through the appropriate use of interactive multimedia into the mathematics class and a well-designed learning environment created by the teacher. The results also show that interactive multimedia can both be an effective tool in helping children develop number sense and promote children's motivation for learning.
... Previous studies and reports have strongly suggested that technology should be integrated into mathematics teaching and learning, since technology is a promising means for providing conceptual understanding (Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;NCTM, 2000;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Yang & Tsai, 2010;Zbiek, Heid, Blume, & Dick, 2007). For example, NCTM (2000) highlights that the integration of technology into mathematics classroom settings can enhance children's mathematics learning and promote conceptual understanding. ...
... 25). It also supports the findings of several earlier studies that technological tools can help to foster children's mathematics learning ( Chan et al., 2006;Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007). Moreover, these findings also suggest that students in the CAEG group were more effective in their uses of number sense-based skills in solving problems than the students in the PAG group. ...
... Second, even though many studies and reports (Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Lin, 2008;NCTM, 2000;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007) have suggested that technology integrated into mathematics teaching and learning has a positive effect on children's mathematics performance, no study has focused on the effect of technology on number sense performance of elementary school children when self-directed learning via computer-based activities. This study initially shows that the appropriate use of technology can be a helpful learning tool for developing children's number sense. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effectiveness of two different learning modes; namely, a computer animation self-directed learning approach and a paper version of the self-directed learning approach, to 5th-graders’ number sense development. Two 5th-grade classes, 30 students each, were selected from a public elementary school in southern Taiwan and randomly assigned to the computer animation experimental group [CAEG] and the paper-version group [PAG]. The major finding indicated that students in the CAEG group had better performance on number sense and showed more frequent uses of number sense than students in the PAG group. Implications for the uses of computer animation self-directed learning activities are discussed.
... However, the evidence suggests the intervention did not improve test scores in Peru (Beuermann et al., 2015) and China (Mo et al., 2013). In another context, Barrera-Osorio and Linden (2009) Mitra, 2005;Inamdar, 2004;Inamdar and Kulkarni, 2007;Arora, 2010;Dangwal and Kapur, 2008;DeBoer, 2009;Mitra and Dangwal, 2021). The idea was to promote self-directed and unsupervised learning among students through the computer installed in their community. ...
... The study found that children who learned at the kiosks could complete the curricular examination without being taught the subject and scored only marginally below their counterparts who learned the subject in school. Inamdar and Kulkarni (2007) examine the effect of having playground computers on different subjects and find that children aged 13-14 years in rural India who spent more time at the kiosks secured a higher achievement in Mathematics. Dangwal and Kapur (2008) describes their judgement and tries to be very objective. ...
The use of technology in education has increased considerably in recent years. There is an increase in demand for Educational Technology (EdTech) products from multiple stakeholders like parents, education practitioners, schools and governments. In parallel, there is a steady rise in the supply of EdTech products with a varied range of pricing, sometimes with aggressive marketing strategies but without necessarily adhering to quality standards. The lack of standards to measure quality creates an information asymmetry in the ecosystem, where choosing the appropriate EdTech product and adopting it at scale becomes challenging. This decision becomes crucial in resource-constrained contexts since large-scale adoptions have considerable financial implications. In this paper, we discuss the design of evidence-based standards and how they have been implemented to make large-scale adoption decisions. We elaborate on the EdTech Tulna initiative, which provides a framework to help various stakeholders make informed and evidence-based decisions on the quality of EdTech products for school education. Next, we illustrate an instance of a large-scale EdTech adoption in the context of an Indian state. The discussion bears implications for policy and practice related to EdTech adoption. The insights can guide researchers on ways to implement context-specific and research-based evaluation standards at scale. Additionally, the discussions can support governments to make large-scale adoption of EdTech, while keeping the quality of products at the center.
... 25). It also supports the findings of several earlier studies that technological tools can help to foster children's mathematics learning (Chan et al., 2006;Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007). Moreover, these findings also suggest that students in the CAEG group were more effective in their uses of number sense-based skills in solving problems than the students in the PAG group. ...
... Second, even though many studies and reports (Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Lin, 2008;NCTM, 2000;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007) have suggested that technology integrated into mathematics teaching and learning has a positive effect on children's mathematics performance, no study has focused on the effect of technology on number sense performance of elementary school children when self-directed learning via computer-based activities. This study initially shows that the appropriate use of technology can be a helpful learning tool for developing children's number sense. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effectiveness of two different learning modes; namely, a computer animation self-directed learning approach and a paper version of the self-directed learning approach, to 5th-graders' number sense development. Two 5th-grade classes, 30 students each, were selected from a public elementary school in southern Taiwan and randomly assigned to the computer animation experimental group [CAEG] and the paper-version group [PAG]. The major finding indicated that students in the CAEG group had better performance on number sense and showed more frequent uses of number sense than students in the PAG group. Implications for the uses of computer animation self-directed learning activities are discussed. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
... The advancement of technology has strikingly impacted the present mathematics teaching environment and learning method (NCTM, 2000). Many research studies related to technology investigate mathematics teaching and learning (Dick, 2007;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007) and all claim that the appropriate use of technology provides a promising direction for helping children learn mathematics. As the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics by NCTM (2000) highlights, "Technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students' learning" (p. ...
... First, the major contribution of this study is to support the evidence that the integration of technology into mathematics class can promote students' learning of number sense. Even though many research studies and reports (Dick, 2007;Isikal & Askar, 2005;Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007;Lin, 2008;NCTM, 2000;Olkun et al., 2005;Ruthven, 2007;Vulis & Small, 2007;Zbiek et al., 2007) suggest that technology has a positive effect on mathematics teaching and learning, few practical studies focus on examining the use of technology when teaching number sense to elementary school children. This research study demonstrates that the appropriate use of technology can be a good instructional tool to help children develop number sense. ...
A quasi-experimental design was adopted to investigate the effect of integrating technology into mathematics teaching on students ’ number sense and their learning attitudes. Two sixth-grade classes were selected from an elementary school in Taiwan for participation in this study. The control group with 32 students followed their usual mathematics instruction on number sense without using technology. The experimental group with 32 students learned number sense in a technology-based environment. The ANCOVA results showed a statistically significant difference between the control group and the experimental group on number sense performance. The t- test results showed no significant difference before and after the instruction for the control group. However, there was a statistically significant difference before and after the instruction for the experimental group. Furthermore, data also showed a significant difference in the students ’ learning attitudes between the control group and the experimental group after the teaching. These results indicated that integrating technology into number sense teaching and learning not only promote students ’ number sense, but also has a positive effect on attitudes towards learning number sense.
... The reason why SOLE can be used to overcome English Language Teaching; (1) Students learn to use computers and internet themselves by anyone, anywhere, and in any language (S. D. ; (2) students can individually achieve educational goals related (Inamdar, 2007); (3) improving their pronunciation in English (S. T. Mitra, 2003) ; and (4) improve their school performance. ...
Improving education in the 4.0 era needs to be adjusted to the teaching and learning in higher education. Thus, it is necessary to have a learning strategy that prioritizes student independence in learning by using facilities in the digital era such as the internet. Therefore, SOLE can be one of the strategies that are in accordance with this 4.0 education. The purpose of this study was to find out the effectiveness of SOLE for apprentices in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. In this study, we used quasi-experimental studies conducted through pre-test and post-test on study subjects as primary data for the study. The analysis showed a significant difference between students taught using SOLE and conventional methods in English proficiency. The Wilcoxon test results prove that the two-sided asymptotic significance of the Wilcoxon test is 0.000 for experimental class, and 0.000 for control class which the Asymptotic significance 2-tailed below Alpha (0.05). It means that SOLE can be more effective than lecturing.
... Further, MIE is a learning approach with minimum or no teacher's interventions (Mitra, 2000). Previous research about MIE also stated that applying MIE can foster mathematics achievement (Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007). So, it is a potential strategy to use distance learning with limited communication facilities between students and teachers. ...
Computational thinking, as proposed by Seymour Papert in 1980, is the idea where the interaction between a student and computer can become a mental model, assisting the learning process. This idea becomes well known as constructivism. Thus, Papert believes that the computer presence or even the thinking of computer interaction may help the student think and learn better. It is more general than the present widely accepted perception of computational thinking, where it focuses on the utilization of computers in problem-solving only. This case study aims to describe how students can learn computational thinking through traditional curriculum and unplugged setting in this pandemic situation. Three middle school students participated in a concrete math lesson design in middle school lesson on linear function topic. The result indicates that….
... The result of the first research was done by Mitra (2005) himself -and later on experimented by DeBoer (2009) -who found out that children can learn to use computers and the internet independently, regardless of the children's language and origins. Secondly, the results of the research by Inamdar and Kulkarni (2007) proved that children can achieve their educational objectives independently related to standard school examination in computer science and mathematics; improvement in English pronunciations Mitra et al. (2003); and increase in school performance (Dangwal et al., 2014). Third, children are able to show self-organizing behavior as a result of learning in a minimally invasive environment (Dangwal and Kapur, 2008).Finally, children can show understanding related to advanced content of knowledge that is far beyond the expectations for groups of children aged from 8-13 years old (Inamdar, 2004;Mitra, 2012). ...
As the development of the industrial revolution takes place, disruptions are happening constantly in almost every major sector of the current industries. Companies and organizations complained about the competencies of the graduates entering the work force. This matter questions the readiness of the education system in preparing the students for the real world. Problems in education such as the regulations, strict policies and instructions from the government are undermining the role of the teachers to do what they think best for their students. This standardization has harmed the motivation and enthusiasm to learn, especially in English language class. Lack of motivation and English Language competency could harm students’ opportunity in accessing the vast global network of knowledge. Merdeka Belajar and SOLE are the promising alternatives in improving ELT. This article is somewhat a position paper trying to clear one side of a debatable opinion about a hot issue. It aims to persuade the reader that our opinion is valid and defensible. In doing so, we then separate the discussion into several parts regarding the analysis of concepts of Merdeka Belajar and SOLE (Self-Organized Learning Environment) related to ELT and motivation in language learning, as well as innovation in education.
HIGHLIGHTS:
• SOLE (Self-Organized Learning Environment) is a concept developed by Sugata Mitra, and the researchers at the SOLE Centre in Newcastle University.
• SOLE with its highly influenced Constructivism approach lets the learners to take steer of their learning process gives them the ability to make meaning of the subject on their own.
• Merdeka Belajar (Freedom to Learn) is a new concept that needs to be tread carefully to direct the discussion objectively.
... Games require people to actively engage their thinking (cognition), their bodies (physically) and their feelings (about understanding Mathematics) (Corti 2006). Various researchers (Ferguson 2014;Inamdar and Kulkarni 2007;and Mustafa, Khan and Ullah 2011) found in their studies that learners in Mathematics classrooms benefitted (performance and attitude-wise) from playing interactive games. Indigenous games, such as Morabaraba and Ncuva, can be repurposed for achieving a learning goal such as the conceptual understanding of 2D geometrical figures or fractions (Naik 2015). ...
... The initial results were confirmed through empirical research in rural India between 1999 and 2006. Documented experiments showed that the children who used the HITW achieved comparable scores to students who studied school computing curriculum [35]. HITW kiosks showed, in a longitudinal study, a significant impact on mathematics achievement [36]. ...
The growth of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) adop-tion in emerging economies and more broadly Resource-Challenged Com-munities (RCC) motivates the exploration of Blended Learning (BL), a learning mode that mixes face-to-face and technology-mediated instruction. BL has the potential of broadening accessibility to quality learning anytime and anywhere. This article contributes a theoretical perspective for design-ing BL environments in RCC. It synthesizes findings from BL literature and lessons distilled from iconic educational technology projects in RCC to envision a pathway forward that consists of three design heuristics to ad-dress that the contextual challenges in RCC: localizing the problem, em-bracing the complex and nuanced use of technology, and balancing autono-my and scaffolding to support students.
... He and his team made what was famously called a "hole in the wall" in New Delhi. Inamdar and Kulkarni (2007) had this to say: ...
The paper discusses how Information and Communication Technology (ICT) could be integrated in the teaching of English Language in Botswana Junior Secondary Schools. It does so by exploring opportunities and challenges faced by teachers of English Language and the students they teach. Fifty five (55) teachers in eleven (11) Junior Secondary Schools in the Kweneng region, west of the capital city, Gaborone, Botswana, took part in the study by means of responding to a questionnaire. The findings from the study show that the majority of teachers are aware that ICT could be used to enhance English Language teaching and learning and were willing to go for ICT training to improve their teaching methods. Most teachers think ICT is the computer which shows lack of knowledge on various ICT gadgets and tools available which could add variety to classroom contexts. The paper further highlights what needs to be done to help overcome challenges and promote integration of ICT in English Language classrooms. Teachers should embrace the use of technology as times have changed and learners need to be stimulated to be eager and interested in learning using ICT.
... Firstly, children can learn to use computers and the Internet by themselves, irrespective of who or where they are and what language they speak (DeBoer, 2009 ;Mitra et al., 2005 ). Secondly, children can achieve educational objectives by themselves, related to: standard school examinations in computer science and mathematics (Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007 ); improvement in their English pronunciation (Mitra, Tooley, Inamdar, & Dixon, 2003 ); and improve their school achievement (Dangwal, Sharma, & Hazarika, 2014 ;Dangwal & Th ounaojam, 2011 ). Th irdly, children showed self-organising behaviour that resulted in learning in "minimally invasive" environments (Dangwal & Kapur, 2008, 2009a, 2009b, and fi nally, children appeared to understand content that was years ahead of that expected for their age group (Inamdar, 2004 ;Mitra, 2012 ). ...
Education and educational goals have changed over time in response to different political ideologies, the changing needs of society and the availability of new resources and technology. Yet this response, particularly in the past few decades, has lagged far behind the possibilities afforded by technology and is out of sync with the world beyond traditional school walls. The need to develop new and more responsive models of education is now urgent.
... Among them were studies that showed that children were able to complete standard school examinations in Computer Science and mathematics (Inamdar and Kulkarni 2007), they were able to improve their English pronunciation by themselves (Mitra et. al. 2003) and showed improvements in their school achievement (Dangwal and Thounoujam, 2011, , Dangwal et. ...
Effectiveness of Self-Organised Learning by Children: Gateshead Experiments
Sugata Mitra, Emma Crawley
Abstract
Children, working in groups and using the Internet, seem capable of learning content traditionally considered to be ahead of their time and comprehension levels. In this paper we describe four experiments to measure children’s achievements in learning in Self Organised Learning Environments (SOLEs). We report the results that seem to suggest that, in Self Organised Learning Environments, children can learn ahead of their time, retain the learning over time and enjoy the process enough to explore further on their own. The results also suggest that children in groups can read and comprehend at higher levels than the comprehension levels of each individual in the group.
Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jehd.v3n3a6
... This pedagogy was born out of Mitra's 'hole in the wall' experiment, which revealed how children living in two separate Indian slums were able to learn to use a computer with no organized support and minimal invasion. His research in this area substantiates the speculation that technological development may occur when users have unrestricted access and adequate time to 'play' (Mitra et al. 2005;Inamdar and Kulkarni 2007). This type of self-directed learning process allows for knowledge and skills to be acquired serendipitously, intuitively and perhaps creatively, but it also encourages learners to explore, problem solve and become critical thinkers (Inamda 2004). ...
This faculty development case study focuses on a team of 16 General Education faculty at an urban women’s college during the initial 6 months of the college’s comprehensive implementation of an iPad teaching and learning environment. This article traces the effectiveness of an iPad professional development program through analyses of critical feedback, and makes recommendations for learner-centered faculty development for iPads in Higher Education. We present our conceptual framework, guiding principles and iPad professional development program. The effects of the program were measured using thematic and content analysis of post-session interviews, participant observation, one-to-one interviews and an online discussion forum. The predominant themes were anxiety, having individual needs considered, time considerations, and fundamental questions about expectations in the mobile learning environment. The key recommendation are to attend to collaborative planning, intervention, facilitating authentic professional learning communities and timing of faculty development that is intended to result in integration of new learning tools and environments.
... As the project has developed, emphasis has been given to children having a computer experience through informal means, based upon the 'Hole in the Wall' principles of informal learning developed by Mitra though his initiatives in India (Mitra, Dangwal et al. 2005;Inamdar and Kulkarni 2007). ...
This paper describes a consultation with the Meraka Institute (African Advanced Institute for Information and Communications Technology, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) South Africa. The purpose of the consultation was to develop an evaluation plan for the Digital Doorway project. The Digital Doorway is a major project of the South African government to promote digital inclusion in remote townships in that country that can be compared to the One Lap Top Per Child (OLPC) initiative of western techno-philanthropists. An evaluation plan for the Digital Doorway project has been developed, as the first step in a proposed research partnership between Meraka and Monash University.
... To reiterate, what is groundbreaking here is the ability of this project to disrupt conventional notions among policy makers, researchers and practitioners, of 'Third World' technology users being somehow different and unique from those in the West. Following up on a decade of intensive research by this organization through the setting up of 300 computer kiosks across India, as well as international outreach in Botswana, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Swaziland, Uganda, and Zambia, it is revealed that children across the board engage in creative, playful and leisureoriented pursuits regardless of their socio-economic backgrounds (Dangwal, Jha and Kapur 2006;Mitra 2003;Inamdar and Kulkarni 2007). Of particular interest to this organization is that when engaged in such activities, children learn a tremendous amount about the technological medium itself as well as a range of knowledge essential to getting ahead in this information society. ...
As billions of dollars are invested in mitigating the digital divide, stakes are raised to gain validity for these cost-intensive endeavors, focusing more on online activities that have clear socio-economic outcomes. Hence, farmers in rural India are watched closely to see how they access crop prices online, while their Orkuting gets sidelined as anecdotal. This paper argues that this is a fundamental problem as it treats users in emerging markets as somehow inherently different from those in the West. After all, it is now commonly accepted that much of what users do online in developed nations is leisure-oriented. This perspective does not crossover as easily into the Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D) world, where the utilitarian angle reigns. This paper argues that much insight can be gained in bridging worlds of ICT4D and New Media studies. By negating online leisure in 'Third World' settings, our understandings on this new user market can be critically flawed.
... HiWEL uses computer literacy, English language and other academic achievements as yardsticks for its learning (Inamdar & Kulkarni, 2007), similar to education institutional benchmarks. Thus while pedagogical expectations are said to be 'invasive' on childcentered growth, HiWEL strives to match and even exceed such curricula goals. ...
Hole-in-the-Wall as a concept has attracted worldwide attention. It involves providing unconditional access to computer-equipped kiosks in playgrounds and out-of-school settings, children taking ownership of their learning and learning driven by the children's natural curiosity. It is posited that this approach, which is being used in India, Cambodia and several countries in Africa, can pave the way for a new education paradigm and be the key to providing literacy and basic education and bridging the digital divide in remote and disadvantaged regions. This paper seeks to establish why two such open access, self-directed and collaborative learning systems failed to take root in the Central Himalaya communities of Almora and Hawalbagh. The purpose of this study is not to deny the achievements and potential of such an approach in other settings, but to examine the tenets and sustainability of such initiatives. It is argued that there is a need to distinguish between Hole-in-the-Wall as an idea and as an institution and to reflect on the key suppositions on how unsupervised access, informal, public, self-guided and collaborative work can help in children's learning.
... Mitra, like Narayanan does not engage in any instruction of technology, preferring to observe children playing, experimenting and teaching themselves about the electronic environments that they are beginning to experience. In a significant body of work Mitra and colleagues2728293031 present a Minimally Invasive Education (MIE) model in which the principles of play and experimentation underpin a learning environment that is non instructional and which encourages peer support. This model is applied across the curriculum and places the learning and the technology in the hands of the learner. ...
The use of computers in music education is investigated from a historical perspective that draws parallels to the use of computers
in education generally. Drawing upon a study into the musical compositions of primary school children working in electronic
environments this paper presents approaches to the use of ICT in music education that appear at odds with approaches in other
education areas. The paper provides reasons for this and offers ways in which ICT can be used differently in music education
research.
KeywordsMusic-children’s compositions-ICT-literature
The COVID-19 induced lockdowns forced people to shift several activities, including education, online. However, in the context of online schooling, the Digital Divides have magnified and perpetuated existing inequities in the education system and in society. Through a qualitative study with 48 participants across four stakeholder groups we find that students in under-funded government schools in India largely have not been able to access online classes because of a lack of devices, poor quality of Internet access, unreliable data networks and expensive data plans. We also document attempts by teachers and non-profit workers to use mass media broadcast technologies to work around the issue of digital access, highlighting the importance of a human infrastructure to build resilience during a disruptive event. Socioeconomic factors have also forced several students to drop out of schools and into taking up jobs to support their families. We document the importance of enabling environments and economic safety nets at home for online education to succeed. We present some focus points for researchers and policy makers working in the space of digital divide and education to build more resilient systems through Digital Welfarism.
Jako autorzy tej publikacji mamy nadzieję, że będzie ona także „cegiełką”
w budowaniu tej nowej pedagogiki edukacji zdalnej i hybrydowej. Inicjatorem
jej powstania jest Koło Naukowe Studentów Pedagogiki Specjalnej
Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II, a autorkami tekstów –
doktorantki i studentki z czterech uczelni. Osoby te utworzyły pod kierunkiem
dr hab. prof. KUL Ewy Domagały-Zyśk zespół badawczy, spotykający
się (online) w ciągu ubiegłego roku na cotygodniowych debatach, w czasie
których podejmowano dyskusję nad kolejnymi projektami: ich celami,
problemami badawczymi i metodami. Każdy z teksów był także czytany
i analizowany przez wszystkie autorki. Oznacza to, że niniejsza publikacja
nie jest zbiorem przypadkowych artykułów, ale przemyślanym projektem
zespołowym, który pozwolił na zbadanie ważnych obszarów edukacji zdalnej
i wzmocnienie kompetencji badawczych młodych naukowców. Ich postawa
10 l Ewa Domagała-Zyśk
pokazuje, że etap edukacji zdalnej na uczelni nie musiał być „czasem straconym”,
ale mógł stać się okresem dynamicznej pracy naukowej.
Niniejsza publikacja składa się z dwóch części. Pierwsza z nich przedstawia
badania wykonane w przedszkolach i szkołach zarówno wśród uczniów, jak
i ich nauczycieli oraz rodziców. Dwa teksty – pierwszy autorstwa Agnieszki
Amilkiewicz-Marek, dotyczący miejsca i roli rodziców w nauczaniu zdalnym,
oraz drugi napisany przez Katarzynę Śliż, przedstawiający doświadczenia
nauczycieli – są artykułami kontynuującymi zeszłoroczne badania. Pokazano
w nich i przeanalizowano nie tylko aktualne doświadczenia respondentów,
ale wskazano na dynamikę zmian, które dokonały się w okresie ostatniego
roku. Kolejne dwa rozdziały tej części dotyczą doświadczeń edukacji przedszkolnej:
Katarzyna Szolginia przedstawia dobre praktyki zdalnej edukacji
przedszkolnej w kontekście animowania gier i zabaw z dziećmi trzy- i czteroletnimi,
z kolei Urszula Kmita dzieli się doświadczeniem pracy online
z dziećmi z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną i możliwościami kontynuowania
tej formy edukacji także w okresie postpandemicznym. Agnieszka
Siedliska ukazuje po raz kolejny doświadczenia zdalnej pracy logopedycznej,
także w kontekście wykorzystania tej specyficznej formy „teleporady” w regularnej
praktyce logopedycznej. Julia Zyśk kontynuuje zaś analizę metody
harcerskiej, wskazując na jej walory w pracy wychowawczej w okresie pandemii
i nie tylko.
Druga część monografii obejmuje doświadczenia edukacji zdalnej na
uczelni. Pierwsze trzy teksty dotyczą samopoczucia studentów w sferze
psychologicznej, fizycznej i duchowej. Studentka psychologii, Weronika
Grygierzec, analizuje zjawisko nowej formy lęku społecznego – lęku
w sytuacjach związanych z edukacją zdalną; Emilia Dyczkowska – studentka
pedagogiki – pisze o zmianach w zakresie aktywności fizycznej
studentów w czasie lockdownu; z kolei Marcelina Koncewicz – studentka
prawa – skupia się na doświadczeniach religijnych studentów pozbawionych
w okresie pandemii możliwości korzystania z tradycyjnego duszpasterstwa
akademickiego. Kolejne cztery rozdziały w tej części dotyczą studentów
z niepełnosprawnościami. Paulina Korach kontynuuje analizę doświadczeń
studentów z niepełnosprawnością ruchu, a Beata Gulati, Maria Skoczyńska
i Paulina Lewandowska przedstawiają ogólnopolskie i międzynarodowe
doświadczenia studentów niesłyszących i słabosłyszących w kontekście
Wstęp l 11
uczenia się języka obcego w formie online, skuteczności nauczania wspomaganego
technologicznie oraz zoom fatigue – zmęczenia edukacją zdalną.
The “hole-in-the-wall” experiments of 1999, as named by the popular media, started with an Internet-connected computer being embedded in a wall facing a slum in Kalkaji, New Delhi, India. Several studies showed that groups of children, when given access to the Internet, can learn by themselves. Children’s academic marks improved, and their interest in learning new things increased, resulting in a significant decrease in school dropouts and increase in school attendance. Soft skills, such as confidence, communication, and self-regulation improved. This article traces the history of this experiment, the formation of “hole-in-the-wall education” (HiWEL) as an organization, technological and pedagogical advances, and how this simple idea is touching the lives of millions of children.
The COVID-19 pandemic has influenced all aspects of our lives. It has disrupted education across the globe. Schools, colleges and universities have shut their campuses down physically and are conducting online classes. This has impacted all stakeholders—students, teachers, administrators, other staff in their professional capacities. Apart from the much discussed economic impact of the pandemic, this crisis situation calls for a sociological analysis. When seen through the lens of sociology, the situation in India is seen to be quite complex. The sections of the population that were marginalized have been negatively impacted, and their marginalization has increased further. This paper seeks to study how girls, women, underprivileged, rural and disabled people suffer as they are denied online education due to largely social causes. The response of the state, the measures taken and the New Education Policy introduced are all subjected to sociological study.
This chapter focuses on aspects related to economics, culture, geography, and the role of learning organizations and purposeful initiatives as they apply to equity and access. It addresses access to information and communication technology (ICT), but also access to information particularly as it relates to traditional learning organizations. Examples of strategies and initiatives from a wide range of projects are presented and discussed with the goal of bridging the gaps between historical antecedents, current practice, and future directions. The phrase equity of access is used to describe the reciprocal relationship between the issues of equity and access. When addressing the issues of equity of access in learning technologies, the concept of the digital divide is a logical place to begin. Learning organizations can help to provide access to devices and the Internet through access initiatives, such as one-to-one computing at the primary and secondary levels.
It is generally assumed that educational planning should be done while keeping in mind the ‘formal system’. While there is no universal definition of what a formal system of education is, there are sets of requirements that are considered necessary for any educational process. Among these are:1.
There must be an ‘educational institution’.
2.
There must be teachers and/or learning materials.
Education for All (EFA) has been a top priority for governments and intergovernmental development agencies for the last twenty years. So far the global EFA movement has placed its principal focus on providing quality universal primary education (UPE) for all children by 2015. The latest addition to The Open and Flexible Learning series, this bookaddresses the new challenges created by both the successes and the failures of the UPE campaign. This book advocates new approaches for providing access to secondary education for today's rapidly growing population of children and young adults and examines: the creation and expansion of Mega-Schools, which combine distance learning and community support and have a proven track record of increasing access at scale, how to prepare the ten-million new teachers that are required to achieve Education for All by 2015 by focusing on classroom-based in-service training, strategies for using technology to scale up distance education cost-effectively, the creation of a twenty-first century educational ecosystem that integrates open schooling and teacher education with communities and their school systems, successful examples of open schools and teacher education programmes operating at scale around the world. Readers will be delighted to find that Sir John Daniel, bestselling Routledge author of Mega Universities and Knowledge Media, delivers another insightful and practical book on educational technology. Mega-Schools, Technology and Teachers will be of interest to all who are concerned by the central educational challenge of our times: providing secondary education to tens of millions of young people around the world.
Creating safe schools from the inside outThis book details a comprehensive process for empowering students and teachers as school improvement leaders and “experts.” Bill Preble and Rick Gordon explain how schools can use the SafeMeasures™ collaborative action research process to: Collect and analyze school climate data; Develop improvement goals; Create exciting and inspiring action plans to dramatically improve their school's climate and student engagementEach chapter features success stories from real schools, strategies and implementation activities, and book study questions that help all stakeholders transform both their school climate and student learning.
Game-based learning is usually assumed to be digital (or computer-mediated). However, there are many educational games available which do not require a computer host. Non-digital game-based learning has many advantages over digital game-based learning, including: cost effectiveness, low administrative overhead, it demands few prerequisite skills, and provides opportunities for enhanced social interaction. Consequently, it places much lighter burdens on teachers and learners in terms of resourcing, skills development and the like. However, non-digital games are unfashionable: they often considered inappropriate for higher educational teaching aids for adults, and they are perceived to be relatively unsophisticated. I started teaching mathematics to first year computer science undergraduate students three years ago at Aberystwyth University, in the UK. Because the cohort students lacked experience of formal instruction in mathematics at intermediate or higher levels, I investigated the possibility of employing non-digital game-based learning in higher education in order to instruct them. To this end, I adapted a small number of popular games to the teaching of selected mathematical principles. I devised six new games in all: arithmetic-fractions rummy, a decimal crossword puzzle, a logarithmic and exponential jigsaw, an algebraic equations bingo, a binary-to-decimal conversion magic box, and a decimalto- binary conversion magic box. The results suggested that non-digital game-based learning is both motivational and has a positive impact on learning outcomes. Furthermore, it is possible that the pedagogical usefulness of these games is not limited to mathematics; they might readily be adapted for the teaching of other subjects. Currently I am planning to enhance and expand this approach for further experimentation and use across the university and in other disciplines, however in this paper I will introduce non-digital game-based learning for mathematics teaching in higher education, and argue for its pedagogical effectiveness with evidence of improved learning outcomes and enhanced learner experience.
This paper describes the effect that assistive technologies, such as paper, printing, protractors, logarithm tables, computers, and the Internet, have on pedagogy. It reports the results of experiments with self-organising systems in primary education and develops the concept of a self-organised learning environment (SOLE). It then describes how SOLEs operate, and their possible effects on primary education in remote areas, and discusses the implications of the physics of complex systems and their possible connection with self-organised learning amongst children. Finally, it proposes a change in the examination system that would incorporate the Internet and concepts of self-organisation into schooling.
Innovation in learning and teaching is an everyday requirement in contemporary higher education (HE), especially in challenging subjects such as mathematics. Teaching mathematics to students with limited experience of formal mathematical instruction is a good example of a demanding pedagogical undertaking where innovatory practice can help HE teachers rise to the challenge. This paper presents an innovative game-based learning approach to the teaching of basic mathematics in HE through the example of a first-year mathematics module of the BSc Computer Science course offered by the Aberystwyth University (UK). Excellent examination results and positive student feedback concerning the learning experience point to the value-addedness of this approach in HE and it is, therefore, offered here as an example of good teaching practice to be disseminated more widely in the sector. © Crown Copyright 2015. Reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office and Ministry of Defence
Mathematics is a core subject that students need to learn since they first entered school life and until higher level institution, the mathematics learning still continues. For each programme offered in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), it is compulsory for all students to take the mathematics subject at least once, along their study depending on their study plan. Therefore, this research was carried out to identify the main factors that affect students' achievement in learning mathematics. Students of July 2007 and December 2007 intake were the respondents involved in this study. From the distributed questionnaires, statistical analysis such as descriptive analysis and factor analysis were used in this study. The results revealed that there was not conspicuous difference between both session of students' intake. From the six factors studied, the two main factors that had been determined to overcome are mathematics self-concept and students' attitude towards mathematics. The results also showed that the effective students' learning techniques in mathematics were to spend three to five hours on mathematics per day, always have group discussion, do a lot of mathematical problems and always consult the lecturer about the solved mathematical problems. This study can be a big contribution to academicians especially in determining the factors influence the students' achievement in order to increase mathematics performance.
‘A towering piece of research and writing, imbued with theoretical and methodological vigor, and sensitively
illuminating the intersections of digital media and human ingenuity in the Central Himalayas. A must read.’
– Arvind Singhal, University of Texas at El Paso, USA, and Clinton School of Public Service, USA
’In every age, innovative technology has been met with an awkward mixture of enthusiasm, indifference,
scepticism and hostility. The advent in our time of cheap, mobile computing and cellular telephones has
drawn a similar response, especially in the international development community. In Dot Com Mantra,
Payal Arora goes beyond the familiar juxtapositions to show how poor individuals and communities actively
negotiate their engagement with twenty-first century technology, documenting the conditions under which
they use, abuse and reject it in their everyday lives. The result is a book that is fascinating in its own right, but also highly instructive to a new generation of development policymakers, in rich and poor countries alike, caught between an imperative for easy answers and the reality of messy complexity.’
– Michael Woolcock, World Bank
This paper gathers and analyzes self-reported user behavior data for public computers installed in varied neighborhoods in India to explore the relationship between environmental factors such as urbanicity and reported usage behaviors. There is evidence of large differences in usage behavior between urban and non-urban sites. Children at urban sites fit a profile of dedicated and independent kiosk-goers, while rural children are more likely to use the computers in groups. Total overall computer usage, however, appears similar in both environments. The sites used for the study have other important characteristics, such as proximity to a school complex, which could have large mitigating effects on the measured behaviors. Further study could yield other interesting and more generalizable results. This study provides insight into children's behavior patterns at free-access ‘Hole-in-the-Wall’ computers as well as offers exploratory findings for the designers of free-access computers in developing nations where alternative educational development via technology could be implemented.
Despite the ever-increasing practice of using e-learning in the workplace, most of the applications perform poorly in motivating employees to learn. Most workplace e-learning applications fail to meet the needs of learners and ultimately fail to serve the organization's quest for success. To solve this problem, we need to examine what workplace e-learning requires and how workplace e-learning systems should be developed in line with those requirements. We investigated the problem by identifying the fundamental elements of the workplace learning environment including the learner, organization, learning content and social context, and their relationships. We found that workplace e-learning should align individual and organizational learning needs, connect learning and work performance, and support social interaction among individuals. To achieve this, a performance-oriented approach is proposed in this study. Key performance indicators are utilized to clarify organizational goals, make sense of work context and requests on work performance, and accordingly help employees set up rational learning objectives and enhance their learning process. Using this approach, a prototype system has been developed and a set of experiments have been conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
The objective of this article is to evaluate the effectiveness of a collaborative and online brainstorming game, Idea Storming Cube (ISC), which provides users with a competitive game-based environment and a peer-like intelligent agent. The program seeks to promote students ’ divergent thinking to aid in the process of problem solving. The participants consisted of 72 11 th grade high school students who were assigned to one of three conditions: 1) information-based (ISC info), 2) game-based (ISC game) and 3) game-based with peer-like intelligent agent (ISCgame-agent) conditions. The results revealed that the ISC game and the ISC game-agent facilitated diversified ideas in problem solving and were considered beneficial for brainstorming. Although the divergent thinking process may not transfer to problem solving results immediately, it is our hope that the empirical result can shed some lights on the development of game-based systems for collaborative learning and problem solving support.
In this paper, we present a design research study in Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) that emphasizes learner created content and contextualized meaning making. In learning Chinese idioms, students proactively used smartphones on a 1:1 basis to capture photos of the real-life contexts pertaining to the idioms, and to construct sentences with them. Subsequently, in-class or online sharing and discussions on the contexts took place, which would enhance the students' understanding of the proper usage of the idioms. The learning design is grounded in seamless learning that encompasses in-class formal learning and out-of-class informal settings, and personal and social learning spaces. Our analysis of the student artifacts in both product-and process-oriented aspects reveal the students' cognitive process and learning strategies during the course of content creation. The students' ongoing, open-ended, personal-to-social meaning making process and artifacts have shown some indicators of seamless language learning that has the potential of transforming language learning into an authentic learning experience. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
There is growing evidence to suggest that bullying results in deep emotional damage. Borderless cyberspace transforms the nature of bullying and serves as a risky territory where more and more bullies are at large, which in turn, increases the extent of victimization in cyber-space. The current study investigated the cyberbullying victimization among Turkish members of an online social utility. The analysis sample consisted of 1470 participants who were recruited with a 28-item web-based survey. The survey had a high internal consistency coefficient and explained more than half of the total variance with a single-factor structure. Findings revealed that several background variables influenced cyberbullying victimization, including: gender; marital and socioeconomic status; purpose; frequency; location; time and nature of Internet use and language proficiency. Observed gender differences varied according to Internet connection locations. In addition, socioeconomic differences varied according to surfing patterns. Forum and blog use predicted victimization significantly. On the other hand, some critical variables did not have an influence on the extent of victimization such as age, education level and Internet proficiency. The source of victimization was predominantly international websites rather than Turkish websites. Findings were discussed followed by implications and suggestions for further research. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
This article describes a teaching experience in which information and communication technologies were applied in five industrial engineering courses at the Universidad de Tarapaca in Chile. The paper compares the performance and course pass rates of the e-learning platform and portable pocket PC platform with those of the same courses teaching in traditional classroom methods. Two of the courses involving 62 students used an e-learning platform and its associated pedagogical model, while the other three, covering 110 students, employed a portable Pocket PC platform and a collaborative pedagogical model. The results show that there is no statistical evidence that technology rise the students marks, but did reveal significant improvements in course pass rates.
The Aplusix system has been designed for helping students to learn algebra. Its capacity to tell the students whether their calculations are correct or not, to provide families of exercises of a chosen level, and to give scores after tests allows this system to be used in the regular functioning of the class. Its capacity to record the students' actions and to replay the students' work is a valuable feature for the researcher in mathematics education. In this paper, we describe four experiments conducted in four different countries with different goals: remediation piloted by researchers in Italy; remediation integrated in the regular functioning of classes in Brazil, collaborative learning in India, and learning and use during the entire school year in France. (Contains 4 tables and 5 figures.)
The averaged judgment of knowledgeable others provides the best available point of reference both for the definition of personality structure in general and for assessing someone's personality in particular. Self-judgments, as in personality questionnaires, are intrinsically deficient because judgment errors cannot be averaged out. The recommended procedure for assessing someone's personality is to give a personality questionnaire, phrased in the third person singular, to those who know the target best. This set may or may not include the target person as a judge.
Two data sources--self-reports and peer ratings--and two instruments--adjective factors and questionnaire scales--were used to assess the five-factor model of personality. As in a previous study of self-reports (McCrae & Costa, 1985b), adjective factors of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness-antagonism, and conscientiousness-undirectedness were identified in an analysis of 738 peer ratings of 275 adult subjects. Intraclass correlations among raters, ranging from .30 to .65, and correlations between mean peer ratings and self-reports, from .25 to .62, showed substantial cross-observer agreement on all five adjective factors. Similar results were seen in analyses of scales from the NEO Personality Inventory. Items from the adjective factors were used as guides in a discussion of the nature of the five factors. These data reinforce recent appeals for the adoption of the five-factor model in personality research and assessment.
This research offers a blueprint for how a cross-species comparative approach can be realized empirically. In a single design, parallel procedures and instruments were used in 2 species, dogs (Canis familiaris) and humans (Homo sapiens), to test whether personality differences exist and can be judged in dogs as accurately as in humans. Personality judgments of humans and dogs were compared on 3 accuracy criteria: internal consistency, consensus, and correspondence. Results showed that, on all 3 criteria, judgments of dogs were as accurate as judgments of humans. These findings are consistent with the evolutionary continuity hypothesis and suggest an important conclusion not widely considered by either personality or animal researchers: Personality differences do exist and can be measured in animals other than humans.
span>Earlier work often referred to as the "hole in the wall" experiments has shown that groups of children can learn to use public computers on their own. This paper presents the method and results of an experiment conducted to investigate whether such unsupervised group learning in shared public spaces can improve children's performance in school examinations. The experiment was conducted with "hole in the wall" (minimally invasive education, or MIE) kiosks in the rural Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra State, India. 103 children of the Grade 8 level, across 3 villages, were administered the curricular examination for 'Computer Science' for that grade.
The results show that children who had learned at MIE kiosks were able to complete this curricular examination without being taught the subject. They scored only marginally lower than children who had been taught the 'Computers' curriculum in school throughout the school year. The results of this study throw new light on pedagogy for bridging the digital divide. It poses the question that similar learning may well be observed in whole or part in other subjects of the school curriculum.</p
Self-reports from 281 21–89 yr olds were correlated with their spouses' ratings of them on a set of 18 traits in the domains of neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. Correlations ranged from .30 to .58 for the individual scales and from .51 to .60 for the 3 global domain scores. A multitrait, multimethod analysis, including the Eysenck Personality Inventory as a 2nd self-report instrument, showed evidence of convergent and divergent validity in both men and women. The use of a personality inventory format for ratings and the choice of spouse as rater contributed to the relatively high agreement, and agreement was probably moderated by the observability of the trait as well as S's gender. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Experiments first conducted in 1999 revealed that children are able to learn to use computers and the Internet on their own, irrespective of their social, cultural or economic backgrounds. These experiments were labelled by the press as "hole-in-the-wall" because the experimental arrangement consisted of computers built into openings in brick walls in public spaces. This paper describes the work done subsequent to these initial experiments, the results obtained and some, possible, conclusions.
Urban children all over the world seem to acquire computing skills without adult intervention. Indeed this form of self-instruction has produced hackers?children who can penetrate high tech security systems. Is this kind of learning dependent only on the availability of technology? We provided slum children in New Delhi with Internet access in their settlement. The paper describes the results obtained in the first month of unsupervised and unguided access. It is observed that children seem to understand and use the technology fluently. Language and formal education do not seem to make any significant difference.
Personality judgments of 184 targets were provided by the self, college acquaintances, hometown acquaintances, parents, and strangers. Study 1 found that knowing the target in the same context enhanced but was not necessary for interjudge agreement and that acquaintances who had never met agreed with each other as well as those who had met. Study 2 found that personality judgements by acquaintances manifested much better interjudge and self-other agreement than did judgments by strangers. Acquaintances were not more similar to their targets than were strangers, and their accuracy derived more from their distinctive judgment of the target than from assumed similarity. These results rule out overlap, communication, and assumed similarity as necessary bases of interjudge agreement and thereby support the simpler hypothesis that interjudge agreement stems from mutual accuracy.
The hole in the wall machine
- P Padmakar
- H Porter
Padmakar, P. and Porter, H. (2001). The hole in the wall machine. Time Magazine, Asian Edition, September 3, 16
A Lesson in Computer Literacy from India's Poorest Kids
- T Peterson
Peterson, T. (2000). A Lesson in Computer Literacy from India's Poorest Kids, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/mar2000/nf00302b.htm.
The Future of School
- S Papert
- P Freire
Papert, S. & Freire, P. (1980s). The Future of School, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://www.papert.org/articles/freire/freirePart1.html.
Kids-eye view: Looking through the hole in the wall
- Frontline World
Frontline World (2002). Kids-eye view: Looking through the hole in the wall, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/india/kids.html.
Das loch in der wand
- W Wullenweber
Wullenweber, W. (2001). Das loch in der wand. Stern Magazine, 42, October 11, 97-102.
School's Out? A Conversation With Seymour Papert
- D S Bennahum
Bennahum, D.S. School's Out? A Conversation With Seymour Papert, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://memex.org/meme2-13.html.
Village kinds (kids) find computers a useful, simple toy from http://www.apnic.net/mailing-lists/s-asia-it/archive
- F Noronha
Noronha, F. (2002). Village kinds (kids) find computers a useful, simple toy, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://www.apnic.net/mailing-lists/s-asia-it/archive/2002/07/msg00000.html.
Slum children get free Internet access
- D Cohen
Cohen, D. (2000). Slum children get free Internet access, Retrieved May 9, 2007 from
http://education.guardian.co.uk/itforschools/story/0,5500,383459,00.html.