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JOURNAL OF INTERCULTURAL ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY, 2018
VOL 7, NO. 1
10.5455/jice.20170907104442
eJManager
REVIEW ARTICLE Open Access
Expanding the insights into the usefulness of Brachystegia eurycoma Harms:
A review of its nutrional and medicinal values
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
Introducon
Plants are a cheap and reliable source of food and
medicine. Certain nutrients like proteins and vita-
mins, which are important to make a balanced meal
or diet, are cheaper to get from plants than from
animals [1,2]. In the same way, plants used as med-
icines in folkloric medicine are cheaper than mod-
ern medicines in orthodox medicine. Given that
resources are very scarce in developing countries,
cheaper options of meal and medicines are often
preferred by a majority of the population in those
countries. Hence, it is amazing that plants have
remained an important source of food and medicine
in the developing world. Wild legumes are among
the plants which have been commonly used in the
developing world as a cheap and reliable source of
nutrition and medicine. Notable among these nutri-
tious and medicinal legumes is B. eurycoma [2].
B. eurycoma is an economic tree that belongs to the
family Caesalpiniaceae. It is a dicotyledonous legume
that grows in the swaps or rain forests and well-
drained soil of South-Eastern Nigeria and Western
Cameroun. It is a huge tree which has twisted and
spreading branches with a bark that often exudes a
April and May and the fruits ripen between September
and January. The fruits occur as broad leathery dark
purplish brown pods containing four to six brown
B. eurycoma is called Achi in Igbo, Ekalado or Eku in
Yoruba, Okweri in Edo, Akpakpa or Taura in Hausa,
Apaupan in Ijaw, and Odukpa in Ibibio [8] (Fig. 1).
Contact Ighodaro Igbe Igbe.ighodaro@uniben.edu Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
© EJManager. This is an open access arcle licensed under the terms of the Creave Commons Aribuon Non-Commercial License (hp://
creavecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted, noncommercial use, distribuon and reproducon in any medium, provided
the work is properly cited.
ABSTRACT
Brachystegia eurycoma is a leguminous plant that is popular amongst the people of
the Southern part of Nigeria for its ethnomedicinal and nutrional values. However,
this legume has been grossly underulized despite the promise that it holds for food
and drug development. Hence, this review sheds light on the past and present states
of research as well as the way to go regarding future research on the nutrional and
medicinal values of Brachystegia eurycoma (B. eurycoma) with a view to incing
research interests that may lead to food and drug development from the plant. This
review is based on a literature search of scienc journals and books from the library
and electronic sources, which revealed that the seeds possess most of the nutrional
and medicinal values of the plant. Extracts and purely isolated compounds from the
plant have been reported to have analgesic, an-inammatory, an-microbial, wound
healing, an-oxidant, an-cancer, and blood glucose lowering acvies as well as lipid
prole, liver enzyme, and gastrointesnal molity modulaon acvies. Toxicological
evaluaon of extracts from this plant did not show any signicant acute and sub-acute
toxicies in rodents. Evaluaon of the gums from the seeds of the plant has proven
their applicaon as food and pharmaceucal adjutants. Taken together, the ndings
from this review have unveiled the need for further scienc exploraon of the con-
stuents of B. eurycoma as potenal sources of new food/nutrional adjuvant and
medicines.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received September 07, 2017
Accepted November 22, 2017
Published January 05, 2018
KEYWORDS
Nutrional; chemical
constuents; pharmacology;
Brachystegia eurycoma
2 J Intercult Ethnopharmacol • 2018 • Vol 7 • Issue 1
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
-
agents for soups in Eastern Nigeria [9,10]. The seeds
are used in folkloric medicine to maintain body
temperature, soften stool, and protect against colon
and rectal cancer [11]. A range of proximate, phyto-
chemical, and pharmacological screening has been
carried out in different parts of the plant following
anecdotal account of its nutritious and medicinal
value by local residents and traditional medical
practitioners, respectively, in the localities where
the plant predominately grows. Phytochemical
screening has shown that B. eurycoma contains
phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins, and tan-
nins. Nutritious compounds present in the plant
include carbohydrate, proteins, lipids, and minerals
[12]. Other than its nutritional value, different parts
of the plant have been demonstrated to possess
biologic/pharmacologic activities, namely, analge-
-
ing, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, and blood glucose
enzyme modulation activities.
Given its nutritional and medicinal value and
the assurance it holds for the development of food/
nutritional products, nutraceuticals, and medicines,
the need to do a comprehensive literature search
on the plant with a view to updating the current
state of knowledge and stimulating research inter-
ests has become imperative, as such an update will
provide a one stop research resource which will
assist researchers to carry out research to further
explore the plant as a potential source of new food/
nutritional adjuvant and medicine. To this end, this
review focuses on the nutritional and medicinal val-
ues of B. eurycoma.
Nutrional Value
The B. eurycoma seeds have been shown to be com-
posed of certain nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and
food-like chemicals which are essential to human
nutrition [13]. Anti-nutrients such as cyanides,
phytate, and tannins may be toxic and result in
poor palatability and bioavailability, and hence,
B. eury-
coma and the levels of these anti-nutrients (Table 1)
detected were below the lethal dosage approved by
regulatory body like National Agency for Food Drug
and Control in Nigeria [14]. Additionally, it has been
proven that different processing methods (Table 2)
the seeds are subjected to in the process of using it
as food or medicine or for analysis could success-
fully reduce, remove, or deactivate these anti-nu-
trients [2]. This evidence indicates that, overall, the
seeds of B. eurycoma are composed of nutrients,
essential minerals, and vitamins and the presence
of anti-nutrients is not an obstacle to its use as food
or medicine.
Table 1. An-nutrient values of Brachystegia eurycoma
harm seeds [14].
An-nutrients Value (%)
Cyanide 0.84
Phytate 0.296
Tanins 0.039
Figure 1. Brachystegia eurycoma: seeds and fruits.
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Expanding the insights into the usefulness of B. eurycoma: a review
Nutrive/proximate composion
The plant, B. eurycoma, is an affordable source of
proteins, carbohydrates, and calories. While these
nutrients are all essential to human nutrition, their
composition in the plant differs [13]. Proximate
proximate analysis of the seeds showed the values
respectively [14]. Yet another report revealed pro-
-
tively [12]. The seeds have also been demonstrated
this oil revealed the presence of fatty acids such
as linoleic, palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids. This
groundnut seed oil, thus indicating the seeds as an
fatty acids such as oleic, linoleic, palmitic, and stea-
ric acids in addition to phospholipids such as phos-
phatidic, phosphatidylinositol, phospatidyserine,
and phosphatidyethanolamine have also been
other hand, Ikegwu et al. [19] reported the crude
-
tively. The differences in these nutrients composi-
tion of the seeds highlighted in these reports may
be several factors such as environmental factors,
the age of the plant, time of collection as well as
differences in the method of processing the seeds
for proximate analysis. This is more so as varia-
tions in proximate and nutritive compositions of
the seeds of B. eurycoma have been demonstrated
to be due to different processing methods [15,18].
Both essential and non-essential amino acids have
also been detected in the raw and processed seeds
(Table 3). The amino acid content of the processed
seeds showed a slight deviation from one another
and from that of the raw seeds which again suggests
that the amino acid content of the seeds is depen-
dent on the processing method the seeds were sub-
jected to [14,15]. Closely related to these nutrients
and equally relevant to human and animal nutrition
are minerals and vitamins which the seeds of the
plant have also been shown to be composed of [2].
Mineral composion
Analysis has revealed the presence of essential min-
erals (macro and microelements) in the seeds of B
eurycoma. The macro and microelements that have
been shown to occur in the B. eurycoma seeds are
sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potas-
sium (K), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), copper (Cu),
and zinc (Zn), respectively. Harmful heavy metals
or microelements such as lead (Pb), cobalt (Co),
chromium, arsenic, and cadmium were not found
following analysis of the seeds [12,15]. The per-
centage occurrence of these minerals was different
in these reports. This was probably due to the dif-
ferent methods used in preparing or processing the
seeds for analysis as shown by Aremu et al. [15].
Vitamin composion
Nutritionally valuable water soluble vitamins nec-
essary for different processes and functions in the
human body have also been detected in the seeds
of B. eurycoma. These include vitamins C (ascorbic
and thiamine (vitamin B1) [12]. The realization of
the vitamin content, as well as the mineral and nutri-
ents contents, have continued to make the seeds
Table 2. Processing methods for the seeds of Brachystegia
eurycoma harm.
Descripon of processing methods References
The tradional method of processing involves
roasng the seeds for 10–15minutes followed by
soaking in water to expose the cotyledons. The
cotyledons are then soaked in water overnight
aer which the water is drained o and the
cotyledons sun dried and ground into ne powder.
[10]
1 kg of clean and wholesome seeds is soaked in
water for 24 hours to loosen the seed coat or hull.
The loosened hulls are washed o with water and
the de-hulled seeds are then air-dried and milled
mechanically.
[10]
The seeds were dehulled by gentle roasng for
5 minutes and soaking in tap water for 3 hours.
The de-hulled seeds are then boiled in dislled
water for 45 minutes at 100°C. The boiled seeds
are drained using a perforated basket, dried in the
oven at 50°C, and grounded into ne powder with
a food blender.
[15]
The seeds were dehulled by gentle roasng for 5
minutes and soaking in tap water for 3 hours. The
dehulled seeds were then wrapped in blanced
banana leaves and allowed to ferment for 3 days
aer which they were dried in an oven at 50°C and
grounded into ne powder with a food blender.
[15]
The seeds were dehulled by gentle roasng for 5
minutes and soaking in tap water for 3 hours. The
dehulled seeds were then roasted in a hot iron
pan unl the seed turned from green to brown
followed by drying to a constant weight at 50°C.
[15]
4 J Intercult Ethnopharmacol • 2018 • Vol 7 • Issue 1
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
attractive for culinary applications in the prepara-
tion of food, food products, and nutraceuticals.
Culinary Applicaon
B. eurycoma is used in local culi-
nary practices as food additives in soup making in
-
ing agent, and thickening agent in soups [11]. It also
-
tion in soups commonly consumed in south eastern
Nigeria [10,19]. The soups in which it is normally used
as a food additive include egusi (melon), ofe onugbu
(bitter leaf), oha (made from oha leaves), and ofe
nsala. Additionally, it has been used in bakery prod-
ucts and meat-based products as a functional agent
-
vor it imparts in soups, it also imparts a gummy tex-
ture when used in soups and this is a desirable char-
acteristic for the eating fufu, garri, pounded yam, and
other staple food normally eaten with soups [20]. The
observation that hydrocolloids-starch extracted from
-
acteristics and swelling power properties [20–22]
prompted its trial as a stabilizing agent in watermelon
fruit juice, and it was found to favorably compete with
established hydrocolloids or food gums such as gum
Arabic and guar gum [13]. Additionally, its appli-
cation as a stabilizer in yogurt has also been inves-
tigated. The sensory scores of yogurt made with B.
eurycoma seeds were generally accepted by a 20-man
judging panellists and the yogurt contained higher
protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate levels and lower
moisture level versus control. The microbial count
from the yogurt was within acceptable range and no
mould growth was observed. Overall, the evidence
from this investigation showed that stabilizer from B.
eurycoma improved the proximate, organoleptic, and
physicochemical properties of stirred yogurt [23].
This evidence indicates the promise of B. eurycoma
as a potential food gum for routine use in the making
of fruit juice in the fruit juice industry. Besides its use
as food based on its nutritional value, its use as food
based on its medicinal value (nutraceutical value)
has also been explored. The dietary inclusion of the
seeds has been evaluated in the prevention of colon
carcinogenesis in rats [24]. Reports in this regard are
very rare and the only one motioned in this review
is still inconclusive. However, it is worthy of mention
given that with time research may establish its eligi-
bility as a useful neutraceutical. While the evidence
reviewed so far highlights its consumption as food
due to its nutritional and medicinal values, other evi-
dence which is highlighted in next paragraph shows
that it is also consumed solely as medicine because if
its medicinal value.
Ethnomedicinal Value
The seeds have been used in folkloric medicine to
soften stool, and protect against colon and rectal
cancer [8,11]. The plant has been used for treating
microbial infections such as syphilis, dysentery, and
sore throat [25]. It has also been used as a herbal
remedy to control body temperature because
Furthermore, in traditional medical practice, it is
used for the management of guinea worm infections,
Table 3. Amino acid composion (g/100g) of Brachystegia eurycoma seeds.
Amino acids Raw seeds [15] Boiled seeds [15] Fermented seeds [15] Roasted seeds [15] Processed seeds [10]
Lysine 3.46 3.24 3.40 3.03 2.24
Hisdine 2.27 2.18 2.37 2.02 1.73
Arginine 4.40 4.14 4.57 3.88 5.09
Asparc acid 12.16 11.15 11.91 10.52 3.94
Threonine 3.12 3.39 3.20 2.87 1.66
Serine 2.60 2.31 2.63 2.09 0.91
Glutamic acid 9.70 9.39 10.07 8.33 4.60
Proline 3.46 3.15 3.46 2.65 1.83
Glycine 3.39 3.41 3.39 3.00 1.44
Alanine 4.09 3.99 4.18 3.80 2.43
Cysne 0.86 0.79 0.86 0.66 0.66
Valine 3.42 3.24 3.45 2.75 2.83
Methionine 0.91 0.91 0.89 0.65 0.73
Isoleucine 3.01 2.79 3.52 2.70 2.32
Leucine 8.25 8.00 9.26 7.70 5.16
Tyrosine 3.18 2.86 3.65 2.86 2.05
Phenylalanine 3.80 3.37 4.13 3.03 2.66
Tryptophan ND ND ND ND ND
ND: Not Determined.
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Expanding the insights into the usefulness of B. eurycoma: a review
Figure 2. Structures of compounds isolated from Brachystegia eurycoma [28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
B. eurycoma
in ethno medicinal management of different medical
conditions have prompted several types of research
into the phytochemical screening of extract of differ-
ent parts of the plant as well as the pharmacological
screening of the extracts and phytochemical isolates
from parts of the plant. On the other hand, insights
from the physicochemical properties of the seed
as a pharmaceutical excipient for application in the
manufacture of pharmaceuticals.
Phytochemical Constuents
Phytochemical screening has revealed the pres-
ence of diverse secondary plant metabolites like
and tannins in stem bark, and seeds of the plant.
plant [12]. Steroids, in addition to alkaloids, sapo-
nin, and tannins, have been also detected in the cold
and hot aqueous extract and the ethanol extract
of the stem bark [9]. Ethanol extracts of the seed
of compounds from the plant are scarce. However,
few compounds have been isolated from the plant
(Fig. 2) and the plant parts from which they were
isolated are detailed in Table 4. A new compound
isolated from the seeds by column and thin layer
6 J Intercult Ethnopharmacol • 2018 • Vol 7 • Issue 1
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
chromatographic methods has been characterized
and named 2-(-4-ethyl phenyl)-5-hydroxy-3-meth-
furo-chromen-4-one, isolated by column and thin
layer chromatographic techniques from the seeds
and characterized as 5-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-phe-
reported [29]. Furthermore, another new polyphe-
-
ylenebis (4-tert-butyl-2-methylphenol) has been
isolated from the stem exudates of the plant [30].
-
thoxy-3-methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzoic furan-2-yl
as 4-(4-phenyl-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-1-yl) have
been isolated from the stem exudates and etha-
nol extract of the stem bark, respectively [31,32].
Several compounds have been isolated from the vol-
atile oil extracted from the leaves of the plant. These
compounds include oxygenated monoterpenoids
-
Other compounds that have been isolated include
detection of several bioactive secondary plant
metabolites and compounds in the plant has partly
prompted researchers to screen extracts and iso-
late from parts of the plant for different pharmaco-
logical activities.
Ethno-Pharmacology
The need to validate the claim of its therapeutic
value in folkloric medicine and develop therapeu-
tic agents from bioactive phytochemical isolates
detected in the plant have led scientists to screen the
plant especially the seeds and stem bark for various
biologic/pharmacological activities. Several studies
have shown that this plant exhibited various biolog-
antimicrobial, wound healing, antioxidant, blood
enzyme modulation activities as well as growth
inhibitory and cytotoxic activities. Additionally, the
need to address safety concerns has also led to the
toxicological screening of the plant.
Analgesic acvity
The methanol extract of the stem bark following
pp
reduced acetic acid-induced writhes in Swiss albino
mice at the doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) tested.
On the other hand, the methanol extract only at a
p
reaction latency in the hot plate test in Swiss albino
mice compared to control [35].
An- inammatory acvity
Again, the methanol extract at a dose of 100 mg/
kg following oral administration, exhibited a signif-
icant (p
paw edema within the second and fourth hour of
the experiment in Wistar rats as well as dextran-in-
the experiment in Wistar rats [35]. In another report,
(p
at a dose of 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg, respectively,
administered orally. Also, the ethanol extract of the
p
mg/kg, respectively. On the other hand, the methanol
inhibition of carrageenan-induced paw edema at a
dose of 50 and100 mg/kg, respectively, as well as
-
ethanol extracts of the seeds and stem bark, the
aqueous extract of the leaves at the doses tested
edema at a dose of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg as well
p -
duced paw edema and xylene-induced ear edema
Table 4. Compounds isolates of Brachystegia eurycoma harm.
Compound Type Plant part References
2-(-4-ethylphenyl)-5-hydroxy-3-methyl-6,7-dihydrofuro-chromen-4-one Furo-chrome-4-one Seeds [28]
5-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-phenyl-6,7-dihydrofuro-chrome-4-one Furo-chrome-4-one Seeds [29]
bis-6,6-methylenebis (4-tert-butyl-2-methylphenol) Polyphenol terary butyl Stem exudates [30]
3-hydroxy-2,2-bis(6-methoxy-3-methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzoic furan-2-yl Propanal Stem exudates [31]
4-(4-phenyl-1,4-dihydronaphthalen-1-yl) Naphthalene pentenoic acid Stem bark [32]
www.jicep.com 7
Expanding the insights into the usefulness of B. eurycoma: a review
that the extracts of B. eurycoma possess considerable
An- microbial and wound healing acvity
activity of extracts and pure compounds isolated
from B. eurycoma are abound (Table 5). Using the
agar diffusion and broth dilution methods, cold
and hot aqueous and ethanol extracts of the stem
bark of B. eurycoma were screened for anti-bac-
terial activity against four pathogenic bacteria
strains—Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus vulgaris.
Only the cold aqueous extract showed a mild zone
of inhibition (3 mm) against E. coli with a minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 12 mg/ml and
minimum bactericidal concentration of 25 mg/ml
[9]. Similarly, the aqueous extract of the wood sam-
ple has been demonstrated to inhibit the growth
and cellulolytic activity of Bacillus subtilis
Propanal isolated from the stem exudates have been
demonstrated to have marked antibacterial activ-
ity against P. aeruginosa, Streptococcus faecalis, and
Bacillus cereus
respectively [31]. A new naphthalene petenoic acid
isolated from the ethanol extract of the stem bark
has also been shown to have anti-bacterial activity
against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa and S. faecalis
order of antibacterial activity of the naphthalene
petenoic acid was E. ColiP. aeruginosaS. faecalis
S. aureus [32]. Other report shows the anti-fungal
activity of the plant. Ethanol and water extracts of
the stem bark at a concentration of 2 mg/ml inhib-
Aspergillus
fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans,
Epidermophyton floccosium, Fuscarium solani, Mucor
mucedo, Microsporum audonii, and Tricophyton ver-
rucasum following 43 hours of incubation [38].
-
ro-chrome-4-one has been reported to possess in
vitro antifungal activity. Using the disc diffusion
method, the new furo-chromen-4-one was shown to
inhibit the growth of three fungal species—A. niger,
Penicillium notatum, and Fusarium oxysporium with
gel made from B. eurycoma gum has been demon-
strated to heal wound made by excision model in
rats faster than mucin alone. It was also observed
that B. eurycoma gel alone promoted wound healing
faster when used alone. This is not surprising given
the anti-microbial properties of B. eurycoma which
tackles microbial contamination of wounds, a phe-
nomenon that often prolongs the healing time of
wounds [39].
An-oxidant acvity
In vitro antioxidant activity of B. eurycoma has been
investigated using the ferric thiocyanate method.
A new compound named 2-(-4-ethylphenyl)-5-
one isolated from the seeds of the plant has been
demonstrated to have free radical scavenging activ-
-
mum concentration of 100 and 500 µg/ml, respec-
tively [28]. The ethanol extract of the seeds had
been demonstrated to possess free radical scav-
enging activity against 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydra-
zyl (DPPH) [40]. Similarly, the methanol extract of
-
ical scavenging against DPPH and reducing power
against Fecl3 solution [41].
An-ulcer acvity
The B. eurycoma p
0.05) anti-ulcerogenic activity and inhibited etha-
respectively. The extract also decreased ulcer index
in a dose-dependent manner with the highest dose
Table 5. Anmicrobial acvity of extracts and pure compound isolates from B. eurycoma.
Type of extract or pure isolate Anmicrobial acvity Acvity spectrum References
Cold aqueous extract of the stem bark Bacteriostac and
bactericidal
E. coli [9]
Aqueous extract of wood samples Bacteristac B. sublis [37]
Propanal from stem exudates Bacteristac P. aeruginosa, S. faecalis, and B. cereus [31]
Naphtalene petenoic acid from stem bark Bacteristac S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. faecalis [32]
Ethanol and water extract from stem bark Fungistac A. avors, A. fumigatus, A. niger, Candida
albicans, E. occosium, F. solani, M. mucedo,
M. audonii, and T. verrucasum
[38]
Furo-chromen-4-one from the seeds Fungistac A. niger, P. notatum, and F. oxysporium [29]
8 J Intercult Ethnopharmacol • 2018 • Vol 7 • Issue 1
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
protection index [42].
Eect on blood glucose, lipid prole, and liver
enzyme
Treatment with aqueous extract of the seeds of B.
eurycoma alone or in combination with aqueous
extracts of Detarium microcarpu and Mucuna pru-
riens
p
blood glucose levels compared to vehicle treated
female Wistar rats [43]. Similarly, the methanol
extract of the seed powder has been demonstrated to
-
the pathology and complications of type 2 diabetes
[41]. Aqueous extract of the seeds at a dose of 200
(p
low-density lipoproteins, high-density lipoproteins
and triglycerides in female Wistar rats. Similarly, the
aqueous extract of the seeds at a single dose of 200
p
in the levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine
aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase liver
enzymes. Its combination of the aqueous extracts of
D. microcarpu and M. pruriens-
cant change in the levels of these enzymes [43].
Growth inhibitory and cytotoxic acvity
The methanol extract and aqueous fractions at a
concentration of 20 mg/ml were demonstrated to
completely inhibit the germination of guinea corn
seeds in 24 hours. The methanol extract and aque-
p-
bition of the length of radicles with an IC50 of 5 mg/
the cytotoxic activity revealed that the methanol
with an LC50-
50
other reports show that the ethanol extract of the
seeds is devoid of any anti-cancer activity against
the tested cell lines [40].
Eect on gastrointesnal molity
Normal intestinal transit, castor oil induced diar-
rodents and spontaneous, acetylcholine, and high
KCl induced intestinal contractions have been used
to investigate the in vivo and in vitro acitivities,
respectively, of the methanol extract of B. eurycoma
stem bark on gastrointestinal motility. On the other
hand, the crude methanol extract of B. eurycoma
in normal intestinal transit time, it caused a sig-
p -
ment in castor oil induced diarrhea versus control.
Additionally, the methanol extract caused a dose
well as a reduction in diarrhea score, number, and
weight of wet stools. The extract (300 mg/kg) also
lower than that produced by 5 mg/kg loperamide
in vitro analysis
showed that the crude methanol extract, aqueous,
and chloroform fractions caused an attenuation of
spontaneous, acetylcholine, and KCl induced con-
tractions of isolated duodenum in a concentra-
tion-dependent fashion [8].
Toxicity
Acute toxicity evaluation of the methanol extract
of the stem bark revealed neither mortality nor
signs of toxicity in male Swiss albino mice [35]. In
vivo sub-acute toxicity study of the aqueous stem
bark extract at doses 100–800 mg/kg administered
-
ence in the pattern of weight gain in both sexes of
Wistar rats used when compared to control rats.
Similarly, sub-acute treatment with the same dose
range of the methanol extract did not cause any sig-
heart, kidney, liver, and spleen. However, sub-acute
p
0.05) increase in the weight of the lungs compared
to control. On the other hand, while sub-acute treat-
serum concentration of biochemical parameters
such as alanine transaminase, aspartate transami-
nase, alkaline phosphatise, total bilirubin, and con-
jugated bilirubin versus control, it caused an ele-
vation in haematological parameters such as white
blood cells and lymphocytes, although there was no
-
eters evaluated. Additionally, the sub-acute treat-
ment caused vascular congestion, mild periportal
-
fer cell activation in the liver [45]. These pharmaco-
logical and toxicological evaluations are important
aspects of the process of drug development. Equally
important to the process of drug development is the
evaluation of pharmaceutical excipients necessary
for pharmaceutical dosage forms formulation.
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Expanding the insights into the usefulness of B. eurycoma: a review
Pharmaceucal Applicaon
B. eurycoma seeds have been severally evaluated
as an excipient for application in food and pharma-
ceutical formulations due to the reported relevance
of some of its technological properties such as
physicochemical, functional, rheological, and past-
Also, some of its physical and mechanical proper-
ties relevant to the design and building of process-
ing equipment for B. eurycoma seeds have been
the potential of paving the way for the production
of a processing equipment that will optimize the
the phytochemical content, physical and rheologi-
well as optimize post-harvest handling procedures
for B. eurycoma. A report of the preliminary evalua-
tion of its seed mucilage as a pharmaceutical binder
revealed that tablets formulated with B. eurycoma
seeds mucilage were softer than those formulated
with gelatin and had good uniformity of weight as
well as rapid dissolution rate and good disintegra-
applicability of B. eurycoma mucilage as a binder in
situations where the fast release of a drug is desired
[51]. On the other hand, the mixture of B. eurycoma
gum and egg albumin were investigated and found
to be useful in producing metronidazole tablets
with slow release properties [52]. The results from
these investigations indicate that B. eurycoma has
the potential for producing tablets with either fast
as a binder in tablets, B. eurycoma gum have also
been evaluated as a stabilizer in drugs and foods
such as ice creams. In ice creams, the gum was com-
parable to established stabilizers such as sodium
carboxylmethylcellulose and sodium alginate [53].
The evaluation of the suspending properties of B.
eurycoma seed gum in sulphamethoxazole suspen-
sion revealed it had better suspending properties
than standard suspending agents like acacia and
tragacanth gums. The gum extract displayed high
viscosity at high concentrations which make it a
desirable candidate as a stabilizer and thickener
where high viscosity is desired [54]. Similarly, the
evaluation of the suspending properties of B. eury-
coma seed gum extract in metronidazole suspen-
sion had also been reported. The metronidazole
suspension formulated with B. eurycoma at a con-
high sedimentation rate compared to compound
tragacanth at the same concentration. However,
B. eurycoma gum formed a suspension with bet-
ter esthetic than the suspension formulated with
tragacanth gum [55]. Additionally, evidence from
as a stabilizing or emulsifying agent in formula-
B. eurycoma gum as
a binder in the production of metronidazole tablets
with low brittle fracture tendency had also been
reported. In this report, the brittle fracture index
(BFI) of tablets formulated with B. eurycoma gum
was not statistically different from BFI of tablets
Signicance of Current Research and Strategy
for Future Research on B. eurycoma
The research reports highlighted in this review
show that the seeds of B. eurycoma possess most
of the nutritional and medicinal value of the plant.
Little wonders the seeds have been used as food
additives and medicines in ethnomedical practice
as well as received more attention for exploration
as a potential source of modern medicines, food,
and pharmaceutical adjuvant. However, the leaves
and stem bark are other parts of the plant that have
also been explored as a potential source of modern
medicines. Consequently, extracts have been iso-
lated from the seeds, stem bark, and leaves as well
as very few bioactive compounds from majorly the
seeds. The extracts and isolated compounds from
the seeds, stem bark and leaves have been screened
pharmacologically and have been shown to possess
-
matory, antimicrobial, wound healing, antioxidant,
antiulcer, blood glucose lowering, liver enzyme,
well as growth inhibitory and cytotoxic activities.
The results from the antimicrobial screening of the
plant so far are promising, given that the plant has
demonstrated the broad antimicrobial spectrum of
activity in being inhibitory to the growth of both
bacteria and fungi. Hence, the plant should be given
more attention as a potential source of broad spec-
trum antimicrobial agents. The antimicrobial poten-
observed at a time when there is the urgent need
to look at medicinal plants as a potential source of
antimicrobial agents. This urgent need is in the light
of a major threat facing mankind in the form of anti-
10 J Intercult Ethnopharmacol • 2018 • Vol 7 • Issue 1
Ighodaro Igbe, Agbonlahor Okhuarobo
pharmacological activities exhibited by parts of the
plant is a further testimony, set apart from the eth-
nomedicinal claims, that the plant parts contain bio-
active compounds capable of modulating biologic
activities. However, given that most of the phar-
macological studies were investigated with crude
extracts of the plant, it has become imperative for
the medicinal properties of the plant to be properly
harnessed by isolating more pure compounds from
the bioactive parts of the plant and screening such
compounds for biologic/pharmacologic activities.
The apparent safety of the plant in an ethnomedici-
-
safety of the plant in animals. Nevertheless, it will
be useful to do an extensive chronic toxicological
screening of the crude extracts and pure isolates
from the plant to obtain a better toxicological pro-
so as the preliminary pharmacological screening
reviewed showed that the plant has the potential
for the development of medicines for chronic con-
Additionally, the quest to source modern food and
medicines from the plant has also led to the isola-
tion of gum from the seeds which had shown great
potential for application as suspending agents,
-
are less expensive, non-toxic, ecofriendly, and bio-
synthetic gums which make natural gums superior
development of quality food and active pharmaceu-
tical ingredients (API) adjuvants should motivate
intensive research efforts geared toward the pro-
duction of safe and affordable API adjuvants for rou-
tine manufacturing processes in food and pharma-
ceutical industries. Thus, if achieved will go a long
way to reducing the cost of local production of food
and medicines. Given that, cost is a major obstacle
limiting access to quality medicines in developing
-
cines on account of the use of locally sourced APIs
and pharmaceutical adjuvants will expand access to
the nutritional and medicinal usefulness or impor-
tance of B. eurycoma underscores the need not only
for its usefulness to be optimally harnessed through
further research but also for its usefulness to be
properly preserved. Preservation of the usefulness,
in turn, depends on the conservation of the rain for-
ests or vegetation harboring the plant. Hence, it has
become urgent to put adequate measures in place
to conserve this plant through prevention of defor-
estation of the natural habitat of the plant more so
as there are alarming reports of forest resources
depletion in South Eastern Nigeria which harbors
Conclusion
-
sented in this review has provided an expansion of
the insights into the usefulness and potential of B.
eurycoma as nutrition and medicine. These insights
have in turn shed lights on the need for the pres-
ervation of the plant through prevention of the
deforestation of the natural habitat of the plant.
Furthermore, these insights have also revealed the
need for further research on the plant with a view
to discovering lead compounds that may give rise to
new therapeutic agents, food, and pharmaceutical
adjuvants. Thus, this review will serve as a useful
resource in the quest for the development of food
and medicines from B. eurycoma.
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